R/C Slabs: Design and Verification

by the Yield-Lines Method

Basis of Yield Line Theory

This method of limit analysis for R/C slabs was formulated at the
beginning of the century
The Yield Line Method is an upper bound approach, since:
the ultimate load is evaluated by formulating a suitable collapse
mechanism (compatible with the boundary conditions)
equilibrium is enforced via the Principle of Virtual Works, by
equating the work done by the external loads to the work (=
energy) dissipated along certain particular lines, called yield lines
Being an upper bound approach, this method gives ultimate loads that
are either correct or too high (i.e. not on the safe side)
For a given mechanism, the bending moments at some points of the
slab are not below the resisting moment of the slab section (= mRd)

Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

What is a yield line?

Consider a reinforced concrete slab that is progressively loaded to

failure:
prior to cracking, the distribution of bending moments follows the
linear elastic theory;
after cracking,
cracking the distribution of the bending moments changes
due to the decrease in flexural rigidity of the cracked portions
with further loading, yielding of the reinforcing steel occurs, and
the slab undergoes a redistribution of the bending moments (with
the moments at the yield locations remaining practically constant)

Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

What is a yield line?

As the load on the slab is further increased, the lines where cracking
concentrates (across which the steel has yielded) will propagate until
a collapse mechanism is formed. These lines are referred to as yield
lines
The yield line distribution at collapse is called a yield line pattern

(T h i l U
(Technical
University
i
it off B
Berlin)
li )
Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

General considerations

The first yielding of the tension steel generally occurs at the location
of the maximum bending moment; however, the final yield line pattern
depends on a variety of factors (reinforcement arrangement, boundary
conditions, type of loading)
A yield line is an idealized representation of a band of intense
cracking across which the tension steel has yielded; for the purpose of
analysis, the band is represented by a single line
It iis clear
l
th
that,
t ffor th
the collapse
ll
load
l d tto b
be reached,
h d th
the yield
i ld liline mustt
have a sufficient plastic rotation capacity (= ductility).

Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

General rules to formulate

a yield line pattern

Once the collapse mechanism has developed, the deformations along

the yield lines (= plastic deformations) are much larger than the elastic
deformations of the slab between the yield lines
Hence, it is reasonable to assume that, once a mechanism has
formed, the slab portions between the yield lines remain plane; thus,
all additional deformations (= rotations) take place at the yield lines
This gives some basic rules for the formulation of a yield line pattern:
1. yield lines must be straight, acting as axes of rotation for the rigid
slab segments in between
2. the supported (or clamped) edges will act as axes of rotation
3. axes of rotation pass through point supports
4. for compatibility of deformations, a yield line must pass through the
intersection of the axes of rotation of adjacent segments

Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

Examples of yield line patterns

Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

Multiple yield line patterns

one-way
collapse

two-way
collapse

local
collapse

If multiple yield line patterns are possible, the most likely to occur is the one
corresponding to the lowest ultimate load
Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

Plastic moment at yield line

For a yield line that runs at right angles to the reinforcement, the ideal
ultimate of resistance per unit width can be calculated as
mu = Asfy (d 0.6As fy/fc)
where As is the total area of tension reinforcement, fy the yield strength of
the steel, d the effective depth,
p and fc the compressive
p
cylinder
y
strength
g
of concrete

Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

10

Generally, slabs are reinforced by multi-directional reinforcing bars

(typically in the x and y directions)

Moreover, as in the previous examples, a yield line is not always normal

to the reinforcement direction

Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

Calculation of resisting moments

11

The reinforcing bars are assumed to act as wires:

their bending stiffness is neglected
they can develop only normal stresses
only bending moments are developed (no twisting moments)
Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

Calculation of the ultimate moment

mnu = mxucos2() + myusin2()

Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

12

Johansens yield criterion

for calculating the ultimate moment

13

This criterion is based on the following assumptions:

1. the actual y
yield line can be replaced
p
by
y a stepped
pp
yield line,,
y
consisting of small steps in the x- and y-directions
2. the twisting moments acting in the x- and y-direction are 0
3
3.
th strength
the
t
th off the
th section
ti
i nott influenced
is
i fl
d by
b kinking
ki ki off the
th
rebars crossing a yield line

Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

Woods assumption for determining

the resisting moment along yield lines

Woods assumption:
kinking of rebars

Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

14

Johansens assumption:
rebars remain straight

Comparison between the two yield criteria

and experimental results by Thomas (1974)

Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

15

General observations

16

The slab can develop a torsional moment across the yield line,
although the two reinforcement cannot.
Consider the following case:
mxu = myu
2()
mnu = mxu [cos
[
( ) + sin
i 2()]
( )] = mxu = myu
mntu = (mxu myu) sin()cos() = 0
Such a slab is said to be isotropic, or isotropically reinforced.

When mxu myu the slab is said to be orthotropic, or orthotropically

reinforced; in this case, the ultimate bending moment depends on the
orientation of the yield line

Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

Determination of the Ultimate Load

Virtual Work Equation External Loads

17

To analyze a slab by the Virtual Work Principle

ay
yield line p
pattern is p
postulated
a convenient point within the slab is chosen, and given a small
displacement in the direction of the load
the
th resulting
lti displacements
di l
t att allll points
i t off the
th slab
l b (x,y),
( ) as wellll
as the rotations of the slab segments about the yield lines may be
found as a function of
the work done by a generic load w(x,y) can be calculated by the
following equation:

External work = w(x,y)(x,y)dxdy

Note that the support reactions do not contribute, because the

supports do not undergo displacements

Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

Determination of the Ultimate Load

Virtual Work Equation Internal Work

18

The work done by the internal actions at the yield lines will be due
only to the bending moments, because the work done by the torsional
moments and the shear forces is zero, when summed over the whole
slab:
this is due to the fact that these actions are equal and opposite, on
the faces of the same yield line
moreover, for any displacement of the yield line, there is no
relative
l ti displacement
di l
t between
b t
th slab
the
l b segments
t adjacent
dj
t to
t the
th
yield line (other than a rotation normal to the yield line)

Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

Determination of the Ultimate Load

Virtual Work Equation Internal Work

19

Therefore, the internal work is due only to the bending moments:

Internal work = imnulini

By equating the external work to the internal work, the virtual work
equation may be written as

w(x,y)(x,y)dxdy = imnulini

When applied to a given slab, the displacement term cancels from the
equation and the ultimate load is given in terms of the slab
dimensions and the ultimate moments per unit width

Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

Worked-out example
Simply-supported square slab

Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

20

Components of internal work

21

Most slabs are reinforced in the x- and y-direction, and the ultimate
resisting moments mxu and myyu are known
Therefore, it is easier to deal separately with the x- and y-components
of the internal work done:
imnulini = i (mxucos2 + myusin2)nili =
= i (mxunii cos y0i + myunii sin x0i) =
= i mxu xi y0i + i myu yi x0i

where xi and yi are the components of ni in the x- and y-direction

respectively, and x0i and y0i are the projected lengths of the yield line
Hence, it is not necessary to find the ultimate resisting moments
normal to the yield line

Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

Components of internal work (2)

22

imnulini = i (mxucos2 + myusin2)nili =

= i (mxuni cos y0i + myuni sin x0i) =
= i mxu xi y0i + i myu yi x0i

Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

Worked-out examples
Isotropic square slab (SS and CL edges)

Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

23

Minimum-Load Principle

24

In most cases, a yield line pattern cannot be drawn without unknown

dimensions locating the yield line positions
In these cases, the unknown dimensions will be included in the Virtual
Work Equation, which will be expressed in the form
Wu = f(L1, L2, L3)

Since an upper bound approach is used, the values of the unknowns

are those that minimize Wu:
Wu/L1 = 0;

Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

Wu/L2 = 0;

Wu/L3 = 0

Examples of yield line patterns with

unknown parameters

Advanced Structural Design A.Y. 2012/2013

25