Endocrine System

Discription/Definition and Functions

The endocrine system is the collection of glands, each of which secretes different types of
hormones that regulate metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function,
reproduction, sleep and mood, among other things.
The word endocrine derives from the Greek words "endo," meaning within, and "crinis,"
meaning secrete.
The endocrine system is made of eight major glands, which are groups of cells that
produce and secrete chemicals. A gland selects and removes materials from the blood, processes
them, and secretes the finished chemical product for use somewhere in the body. Almost every
organ and cell in the body is affected by the endocrine system.
A group of glands that signal each other in sequence are usually referred to as an axis.
One example is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, which coordinates interactions among
the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland and the adrenal, also called "suprarenal" glands, which are
small, conical organs on top of the kidneys.
The endocrine system sends signals throughout the body, much like the nervous system,
but unlike the immediate responses triggered by the nervous system, the effects can take a few
hours or weeks.
Hormones released from endocrine tissue into the bloodstream where they travel to target
tissue to elicit a response.
Endocrine glands are vascular and generally do not have ducts, using intracellular
vacuoles, or granules, to store hormones. They differ from, exocrine glands salivary glands,
sweat glands and glands within the gastrointestinal tract which have ducts or a hollow lumen.
The endocrine system gets some help from organs such as the kidney, liver, heart and
gonads, which have secondary endocrine functions. The kidney, for example, secretes hormones
such as erythropoietin and renin.

Parts/Organs and its functions and Picture/Illustrations

 Diseases of Endocrine System

Hormone levels that are too high or too low are an indication of a problem with the
endocrine system. Hormone diseases also occur if your body does not respond to hormones in
the appropriate ways. Stress, infection and changes the blood's fluid and electrolyte balance can
also influence hormone levels.
The most common endocrine disease in the United States is diabetes, a condition in
which the body does not properly process glucose. This is due to the lack of insulin or, if the
body is producing insulin, it is not working effectively.
Hormone imbalances can have a significant impact on the reproductive systems,
particularly in women. Endocrinologists treat patients with fertility issues and also assess and
treat patients with health concerns surrounding menstruation and menopause.
Hypothyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid
hormone to meet the bodys needs. Insufficient thyroid hormone can cause many of the bodys
functions to slow or shut down completely.
Thyroid cancer begins in the thyroid gland and starts when the cells in the thyroid begin
to change, grow uncontrollably and eventually form a tumor.
Hypoglycemia, also called low blood glucose or low blood sugar, occurs when blood
glucose drops below normal levels. This typically happens as a result of treatment for diabetes
when too much insulin is taken. While it can occur in people not undergoing treatment for
diabetes, it is fairly rare.
A metabolic disorder occurs when there is an imbalance of substances needed to keep the
body functioning hormone levels may be too high or low. Metabolic disorder when some
organs, such as your liver or pancreas, become diseased or do not function normally. Diabetes is
an example.
The bones can be impacted by hormones. Osteoporosis and osteomalacia (rickets), which
causes bones to soften, come under the guise of endocrinologists.

Reproductive System
Discription/Definition and Functions
The reproductive system is a collection of organs that work together for the purpose of
producing a new life. Scientists argue that the reproductive system is among the most important
systems in the entire body. Without the ability to reproduce, a species dies.
The major organs of the reproductive system include the external genitalia and internal
organs, including gonads that produce gamete, which is a cell that fuses with another cell during

conception in organisms that reproduce sexually. Substances such as fluids, hormones, and
pheromones are also important to the effective functioning of the reproductive system.
The male reproductive system consists of two major parts: the testes, where sperm are
produced, and the penis. In humans, both of these organs are outside the abdominal cavity.
Having the testes outside the abdomen facilitates temperature regulation of the sperm, which
require specific temperatures to survive. If the testicles remain too close to the body, the higher
temperature will likely harm the spermatozoa, making conception more difficult or impossible.
The testes are carried in an external pouch known as the scrotum, where they normally remain
slightly cooler than body temperature to facilitate sperm production.
Parts/Organs and its functions and Picture/Illustrations
The two major parts of the female reproductive system are the vagina and uterus which
act as the receptacle for semen and the ovaries, which produce the female's ova. The
vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the Fallopian tubes connect the
uterus to the ovaries. In response to hormonal changes, one ovum, or egg or more in the
case of multiple births is released and sent down the Fallopian tube during ovulation. If
not fertilized, this egg is eliminated as a result of menstruation.
The fertilization of the ovum with the sperm occurs only at the ampullary-isthimic
junction, which is why intercourse does not always result in pregnancy.
At the time of conception, the ovum meets with spermatozoon, where a sperm may
penetrate and merge with the egg, resulting in fertilization. While the fertilization usually
occurs in the oviducts, it can also happen in the uterus itself. The egg then becomes
implanted in the lining of the uterus, where it begins the processes of embryogenesis and
morphogenesis. When the fetus is mature enough to survive outside of the womb, the cervix
dilates and contractions of the uterus propel it through the birth canal.

 Diseases of the reproductive system

There are many parts of the male and female reproductive systems that can be affected by
cancer. In females, cancer can attack the uterus, ovaries, breast and cervix, among other
organs. Males can develop prostate, testicular and penile cancer.
Both genders can develop sexually transmitted diseases, including genital herpes,
gonorrhea and syphilis. HIV/AIDS, a disease of theimmune system, is not exclusively
transmitted through sexual contact; sexual activity is one of the ways that the HIV virus is
spread.
While genital human papillomavirus (HPV) is commonly associated with females, it is
the mostly commonly sexually transmitted infection and most sexually active people in the
United States, male and female, will have HPV at some time in their lives. In most people it
causes no problems, but in women it can result in cervical cancer and genital warts and in
men it can cause penile and anal cancer and genital warts.
For females, one of the more common disorders of the reproductive system is a vaginal
yeast infection, which is caused by a yeast fungus in the vagina.
Endometriosis is a condition involving colonization of the abdominal/pelvic cavity with
islands of endometrial tissue. If endometrial tissue flushes up the uterine tube during
menstruation and spills into the abdomen, the clots of endometrial tissue can attach to
abdominal organs such as the bladder, rectum, intestinal loops and then cycle along with the
uterus in response to monthly changes in ovarian hormones.

Pelvic inflammatory disease is a condition where bacteria can make their way up the
vagina, through the uterus, and traverse the uterine tubes which open into the abdominal
cavity.
In women with a prolapsed uterus, the ligaments that hold the uterus in proper position so
that it does not prolapse, or herniate, into the vagina, have failed.
Infertility is defined as a couple's inability to conceive after one year of regular
intercourse.
In males, infertility is a condition in they produce no sperm cells (azoospermia), too few
sperm cells (oligospermia), or if their sperm cells are abnormal or die before they can reach
the egg. Chronic problems with ejaculation (sperm released at orgasm) also contribute to
male infertility. In rare cases, infertility in men is caused by an inherited condition, such as
cystic fibrosis or chromosomal abnormalities.
Men can also experience epididymitis, which is an inflammation of the epididymis, the
tube that lies on and around each testicle and plays a role in the transportation, storage, and
maturation of sperm cells.
Another condition of the male reproductive system is hypogonadism, which occurs when
the testicles do not produce enough testosterone.
In women, infertility is defined as a disorder of the reproductive system that hinders the
body's ability to ovulate, conceive, or carry an infant to term.
Reproductive conditions are treated by a variety of specialists. In women, many issues
are treated by obstetricians/gynecologists and for males urologists handle many disorders of
their reproductive systems. There are also infertility experts that treat couples who are unable
to conceive and endocrinologists who treat hormonal disorders.

Respiratory System
Description/Definition And Functions

The human respiratory system is a series of organs responsible for taking in oxygen and
expelling carbon dioxide. The primary organs of the respiratory system are lungs, which
carry out this exchange of gases as we breathe.
Red blood cells collect the oxygen from the lungs and carry it to the parts of the body
where it is needed, according to theAmerican Lung Association. During the process, the red
blood cells collect the carbon dioxide and transport it back to the lungs, where it leaves the
body when we exhale.
The human body needs oxygen to sustain itself. A decrease in oxygen is known as
hypoxia and a complete lack of oxygen is known as anoxia and, according to MedLine Plus.
These conditions can be fatal; after about four minutes without oxygen, brain cells begin
dying, according to NYU Langone Medical Center, which can lead to brain damage and
ultimately death.
In humans, the average rate of breathing is dependent upon age. A newborn's normal
breathing rate is about 40 times each minute and may slow to 20 to 40 times per minute when the
baby is sleeping, according to the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia.
For adults, the average resting respiratory rate for adults is 12 to 16 breaths per minute,
according to Johns Hopkins Medicine. Physical exertion also has an effect on respiratory rate,
and healthy adults can average 45 breaths per minute during strenuous exercise.
Parts/Organs and its functions and Pictures/Illustration
As we breathe, oxygen enters the nose or mouth and passes thesinuses, which are hollow
spaces in the skull. Sinuses help regulate the temperature and humidity of the air we breathe.
The trachea, also called the windpipe, filters the air that is inhaled, according to the
American Lung Association. It branches into the bronchi, which are two tubes that carry air
into each lung. The bronchial tubes are lined with tiny hairs called cilia. Cilia move back and
forth, carrying mucus up and out. Mucus, a sticky fluid, collects dust, germs and other matter
that has invaded the lungs. We expel mucus when we sneeze, cough, spit or swallow.

The bronchial tubes lead to the lobes of the lungs. The right lung has three lobes; the left
lung has two, according to the American Lung Association. The left lung is smaller to allow
room for the heart, according to the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute (NHLBI).
Lobes are filled with small, spongy sacs called alveoli, and this is where the exchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs.
The alveolar walls are extremely thin (about 0.2 micrometers). These walls are composed
of a single layer of tissues called epithelial cells and tiny blood vessels called pulmonary
capillaries.
Blood passes through the capillaries. The pulmonary artery carries blood containing
carbon dioxide to the air sacs, where the gas moves from the blood to the air, according to the
NHLBI. Oxygenated blood goes to the heart through the pulmonary vein, and the heart
pumps it throughout the body.
The diaphragm, a dome-shaped muscle at the bottom of the lungs, controls breathing and
separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity, the American Lung Association noted.
When a breath it taken, it flattens out and pulls forward, making more space for the lungs.
During exhalation, the diaphragm expands and forces air out.

 Diseases of Respiratory System

Diseases and conditions of the respiratory system fall into two categories: Viruses such
as influenza, bacterial pneumonia and the new enterovirus respiratory virus that has been
diagnosed in children; and chronic diseases, such as asthma and chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD). According to Dr. Neal Chaisson, who practices pulmonary
medicine at the Cleveland Clinic, there is not much that can be done for viral infections but
to let them run their course. "Antibiotics are not effective in treating viruses and the best
thing to do is just rest," he said.
COPD is the intersection of three related conditions chronic bronchitis, chronic
asthma and emphysema, Chaisson told Live Science. It is a progressive disease that makes it
increasingly difficult for sufferers to breath.
Asthma is a chronic inflammation of the lung airways that causes coughing, wheezing,
chest tightness or shortness of breath, according to Tonya Winders, president of the Allergy
& Asthma Network. These signs and symptoms may be worse when a person is exposed to
their triggers, which can include air pollution, tobacco smoke, factory fumes, cleaning
solvents, infections, pollens, foods, cold air, exercise, chemicals and medications.
Lung cancer is often associated with smoking, but the disease can affect non-smokers as
well. Every year, about 16,000 to 24,000 Americans die of lung cancer, even though they
have never smoked, according to the American Cancer Society. Like all cancers, lung cancer
is caused by the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells.