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Enhancedoilrecovery
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Thisarticleisaboutstimulatingproductionfromconventionaloilfields.Foroilsandinformation,
seeoilsands.
EnhancedOilRecovery(abbreviatedEOR)isagenerictermfortechniques
forincreasingtheamountofcrudeoilthatcanbeextractedfromanoilfield.
Enhancedoilrecoveryisalsocalledimprovedoilrecoveryortertiary
recovery(asopposedtoprimaryandsecondaryrecovery).Sometimestheterm
quaternaryrecoveryisusedtorefertomoreadvanced,speculative,EOR
techniques.[1][2][3][4]UsingEOR,30to60percentormoreofthereservoir's
originaloilcanbeextracted,[5]comparedwith20to40percentusingprimary
andsecondaryrecovery.[6][7]
Therecurrentlyareseveraldifferentmethodsofenhancedoilrecovery
includingsteamfloodandwaterfloodinjectionandhydraulic
fracturing.[8][9][10]

Contents
1Gasinjection
2Misciblesolvents
2.1Polymerflooding
2.2Microbialinjection
2.3Liquidcarbondioxidesuperfluids
2.4Hydrocarbondisplacement
3Thermalmethods
3.1Steamflooding
3.2Fireflooding
4Economiccostsandbenefits
5ACanadianproject:CO2EORcombinedwithCO2storage
6PotentialforCO2EORintheUnitedStates
6.1KemperCountyenergyfacility
7Environmentalimpacts

Injectionwellusedfor
enhancedoilrecovery

8Seealso
9References
10Externallinks
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Gasinjection
Gasinjectionormisciblefloodingispresentlythemostcommonlyusedapproachinenhancedoilrecovery.
Misciblefloodingisageneraltermforinjectionprocessesthatintroducemisciblegasesintothereservoir.
Amiscibledisplacementprocessmaintainsreservoirpressureandimprovesoildisplacementbecausethe
interfacialtensionbetweenoilandwaterisreduced.Thisreferstoremovingtheinterfacebetweenthetwo
interactingfluids.Thisallowsfortotaldisplacementefficiency.[11]GasesusedincludeCO2,naturalgasor
nitrogen.Thefluidmostcommonlyusedformiscibledisplacementiscarbondioxidebecauseitreducesthe
oilviscosityandislessexpensivethanliquefiedpetroleumgas.[11]Oildisplacementbycarbondioxide
injectionreliesonthephasebehaviorofthemixturesofthatgasandthecrude,whicharestrongly
dependentonreservoirtemperature,pressureandcrudeoilcomposition.Gasinjuctionisoneofthe
expensivewaystogetmoreoil.

Misciblesolvents
Theinjectionofvariouschemicals,usuallyasdilutesolutions,havebeenusedtoaidmobilityandthe
reductioninsurfacetension.Injectionofalkalineorcausticsolutionsintoreservoirswithoilthathas
organicacidsnaturallyoccurringintheoilwillresultintheproductionofsoapthatmaylowerthe
interfacialtensionenoughtoincreaseproduction.Injectionofadilutesolutionofawatersolublepolymer
toincreasetheviscosityoftheinjectedwatercanincreasetheamountofoilrecoveredinsomeformations.
Dilutesolutionsofsurfactantssuchaspetroleumsulfonatesorbiosurfactantssuchasrhamnolipidsmaybe
injectedtolowertheinterfacialtensionorcapillarypressurethatimpedesoildropletsfrommovingthrough
areservoir.Specialformulationsofoil,waterandsurfactant,microemulsions,canbeparticularlyeffective
inthis.Applicationofthesemethodsisusuallylimitedbythecostofthechemicalsandtheiradsorptionand
lossontotherockoftheoilcontainingformation.Inallofthesemethodsthechemicalsareinjectedinto
severalwellsandtheproductionoccursinothernearbywells.

Polymerflooding
Polymerfloodingconsistsinmixinglongchainpolymermoleculeswiththeinjectedwaterinorderto
increasethewaterviscosity.Thismethodimprovestheverticalandarealsweepefficiencyasaconsequence
ofimprovingthewater/oilMobilityratio.Inaddition,thepolymerreducesthecontrastsinpermeabilityby
preferentiallypluggingthehighpermeabilityzonesfloodedbypolymers.Thisforcesthewatertofloodthe
lowerpermeabilityzonesandincreasesthesweepefficiency.
SurfactantsmaybeusedinconjonctionwithpolymersTheydecreasethesurfacetensionbetweentheoil
andwater.Thisreducestheresidualoilsaturationandimprovesthemicroscopicefficiencyoftheprocess.
Primarysurfactantsusuallyhavecosurfactants,activityboosters,andcosolventsaddedtothemtoimprove
stabilityoftheformulation.
Causticfloodingistheadditionofsodiumhydroxidetoinjectionwater.Itdoesthisbyloweringthesurface
tension,reversingtherockwettability,emulsificationoftheoil,mobilizationoftheoilandhelpsindrawing
theoiloutoftherock.
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Microbialinjection
Microbialinjectionispartofmicrobialenhancedoilrecoveryandisrarelyusedbecauseofitshighercost
andbecausethedevelopmentsisnotwidelyaccepted.Thesemicrobesfunctioneitherbypartiallydigesting
longhydrocarbonmolecules,bygeneratingbiosurfactants,orbyemittingcarbondioxide(whichthen
functionsasdescribedinGasinjectionabove).[12]
Threeapproacheshavebeenusedtoachievemicrobialinjection.Inthefirstapproach,bacterialcultures
mixedwithafoodsource(acarbohydratesuchasmolassesiscommonlyused)areinjectedintotheoil
field.Inthesecondapproach,usedsince1985,[13]nutrientsareinjectedintothegroundtonurtureexisting
microbialbodiesthesenutrientscausethebacteriatoincreaseproductionofthenaturalsurfactantsthey
normallyusetometabolizecrudeoilunderground.[14]Aftertheinjectednutrientsareconsumed,the
microbesgointonearshutdownmode,theirexteriorsbecomehydrophilic,andtheymigratetotheoilwater
interfacearea,wheretheycauseoildropletstoformfromthelargeroilmass,makingthedropletsmore
likelytomigratetothewellhead.ThisapproachhasbeenusedinoilfieldsneartheFourCornersandinthe
BeverlyHillsOilFieldinBeverlyHills,California.
Thethirdapproachisusedtoaddresstheproblemofparaffinwaxcomponentsofthecrudeoil,whichtend
toprecipitateasthecrudeflowstothesurface,sincetheEarth'ssurfaceisconsiderablycoolerthanthe
petroleumdeposits(atemperaturedropof91014Cperthousandfeetofdepthisusual).

Liquidcarbondioxidesuperfluids
Carbondioxideisparticularlyeffectiveinreservoirsdeeperthan2,000ft.,whereCO2willbeina
supercriticalstate.Inhighpressureapplicationswithlighteroils,CO2ismisciblewiththeoil,withresultant
swellingoftheoil,andreductioninviscosity,andpossiblyalsowithareductioninthesurfacetensionwith
thereservoirrock.Inthecaseoflowpressurereservoirsorheavyoils,CO2willformanimmisciblefluid,
orwillonlypartiallymixwiththeoil.Someoilswellingmayoccur,andoilviscositycanstillbe
significantlyreduced.[15]
Intheseapplications,betweenonehalfandtwothirdsoftheinjectedCO2returnswiththeproducedoiland
isusuallyreinjectedintothereservoirtominimizeoperatingcosts.Theremainderistrappedintheoil
reservoirbyvariousmeans.CarbonDioxideasasolventhasthebenefitofbeingmoreeconomicalthan
othersimilarlymisciblefluidssuchaspropaneandbutane.[16]

Hydrocarbondisplacement
Hydrocarbondisplacementiswhereaslugofhydrocarbongasispushedintothereservoirinordertoform
amisciblephaseathighpressure.Thishoweversuffersfrompoormobilityratio,andthesolventsabilityto
dissolvetheoilisreducedasitgoesthrough.Aswithallmethods,thisisonlyattemptedwhenitisdeemed
economical.[8]

Thermalmethods
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Inthisapproach,variousmethodsareusedtoheatthecrudeoilintheformationtoreduceitsviscosity
and/orvaporizepartoftheoilandthusdecreasethemobilityratio.
Theincreasedheatreducesthesurfacetensionandincreasesthe
permeabilityoftheoil.Theheatedoilmayalsovaporizeandthen
condenseformingimprovedoil.Methodsincludecyclicsteam
injection,steamfloodingandcombustion.Thesemethodsimprove
thesweepefficiencyandthedisplacementefficiency.Steam
injectionhasbeenusedcommerciallysincethe1960sinCalifornia
fields.[9]In2011solarthermalenhancedoilrecoveryprojectswere
startedinCaliforniaandOman,thismethodissimilartothermal
EORbutusesasolararraytoproducethesteam.

Steamflooding
Steamflooding(seesketch)isonemeansofintroducingheattothe
reservoirbypumpingsteamintothewellwithapatternsimilarto
thatofwaterinjection.Eventuallythesteamcondensestohotwater,
inthesteamzonetheoilevaporatesandinthehotwaterzonetheoil
expands.Asaresulttheoilexpandstheviscositydropsandthe
permeabilityincreases.Toensuresuccesstheprocesshastobe
cyclical.Thisistheprincipalenhancedoilrecoveryprograminuse
today.

Thesteamfloodingtechnique

SolarEORisaformofsteamfloodingthatusessolararraystoconcentratethesunsenergytoheat
waterandgeneratesteam.SolarEORisprovingtobeaviablealternativetogasfiredsteam
productionfortheoilindustry.

Fireflooding
Firefloodingworksbestwhentheoilsaturationandporosityare
high.Combustiongeneratestheheatwithinthereservoiritself.
Continuousinjectionofairorothergasmixturewithhighoxygen
contentwillmaintaintheflamefront.Asthefireburns,itmoves
throughthereservoirtowardproductionwells.Heatfromthefire
reducesoilviscosityandhelpsvaporizereservoirwatertosteam.
Thesteam,hotwater,combustiongasandabankofdistilledsolvent
allacttodriveoilinfrontofthefiretowardproductionwells.[17]

Solarenhancedoilrecoverysite

Therearethreemethodsofcombustion:Dryforward,reverseandwetcombustion.Dryforwardusesan
ignitertosetfiretotheoil.Asthefireprogressestheoilispushedawayfromthefiretowardtheproducing
well.Inreversetheairinjectionandtheignitionoccurfromoppositedirections.Inwetcombustionwateris
injectedjustbehindthefrontandturnedintosteambythehotrockthisquenchesthefireandspreadsthe
heatmoreevenly.

Economiccostsandbenefits
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AddingoilrecoverymethodsaddstothecostofoilinthecaseofCO2typicallybetween0.58.0US$per
tonneofCO2.Theincreasedextractionofoilontheotherhand,isaneconomicbenefitwiththerevenue
dependingonprevailingoilprices.[18]OnshoreEORhaspaidintherangeofanet1016US$pertonneof
CO2injectedforoilpricesof1520US$/barrel.Prevailingpricesdependonmanyfactorsbutcan
determinetheeconomicsuitabilityofanyprocedure,withmoreproceduresandmoreexpensiveprocedures
beingeconomicallyviableathigherprices.Example:Withoilpricesataround90US$/barrel,theeconomic
benefitisabout70US$pertonneCO2.

ACanadianproject:CO2EORcombinedwithCO2storage
InCanada,aCO2EORprojecthasbeenestablishedbyCenovusEnergyattheWeyburnOilFieldin
southernSaskatchewansince2000.Theprojectisexpectedtoinjectanet18milliontonCO2andrecover
anadditional130millionbarrels(21,000,000m3)ofoil,extendingthelifeoftheoilfieldby25years.
(Brown2001)[19]Thereisaprojected26+milliontonnes(netofproduction)ofCO2tobestoredin
Weyburn,plusanother8.5milliontonnes(netofproduction)storedattheWeyburnMidaleCarbon
DioxideProject,resultinginanetreductioninatmosphericCO2byCO2storageintheoilfield.That'sthe
equivalentoftakingnearly7millioncarsofftheroadforayear.[20]SinceCO2injectionbeganinlate2000,
theEORprojecthasperformedlargelyaspredicted.Currently,some1600m3(10,063barrels)perdayof
incrementaloilisbeingproducedfromthefield.

PotentialforCO2EORintheUnitedStates
TheUnitedStateshasbeenusingCO2EORforseveraldecades.Forover30years,oilfieldsinthePermian
BasinhaveimplementedCO2EORusingnaturallysourcedCO2fromNewMexicoandColorado.[21]The
DepartmentofEnergy(DOE)hasestimatedthatfulluseof'nextgeneration'CO2EORinUnitedStates
couldgenerateanadditional240billionbarrels(38km3)ofrecoverableoilresources.Developingthis
potentialwoulddependontheavailabilityofcommercialCO2inlargevolumes,whichcouldbemade
possiblebywidespreaduseofcarboncaptureandstorage.Forcomparison,thetotalundevelopedUS
domesticoilresourcesstillinthegroundtotalmorethan1trillionbarrels(160km3),mostofitremaining
unrecoverable.TheDOEestimatesthatiftheEORpotentialweretobefullyrealized,stateandlocal
treasurieswouldgain$280billioninrevenuesfromfutureroyalties,severancetaxes,andstateincometaxes
onoilproduction,asidefromothereconomicbenefits.

KemperCountyenergyfacility
TheKemperCountyenergyfacility,orKemperProject,isexpectedtobeonlinein2015,andonce
operational,willutilizecapturedcarbondioxideforenhancedoilrecovery.[22]Theuniquelocationofthe
KemperProject,anditsproximitytooilreserves,makesitanidealcandidateforenhancedoilrecovery.

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Enhancedoilrecoverywellstypicallypumplargequantitiesofbrinetothesurface.Thebrinemaycontain
toxicheavymetalsandradioactivesubstances,aswellasbeingverysalty.Thiscanbeverydamagingto
drinkingwatersourcesandtheenvironmentgenerallyifnotproperlycontrolled.[23][24]
IntheUnitedStates,injectionwellactivityisregulatedbytheUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtection
Agency(EPA)andstategovernmentsundertheSafeDrinkingWaterAct.[25]EPAhasissuedUnderground
InjectionControl(UIC)regulationsinordertoprotectdrinkingwatersources.[26]Enhancedoilrecovery
wellsareregulatedasClassIIwellsbytheEPA.Theregulationsrequirewelloperatorstoreinjectthebrine
usedforrecoverydeepundergroundinClassIIDisposalWells.[23]

Seealso
Wikiversity:Enhancedoilrecovery
Carboncaptureandstorage
Gasreinjection
Injectionwell
Steamassistedgravitydrainage
Steaminjection(oilindustry)
Waterinjection(oilproduction)

References
1. ^Hobson,GeorgeDouglasEricNeshanTiratsoo(1975).Introductiontopetroleumgeology.ScientificPress.
ISBN9780901360076.
2. ^Walsh,MarkLarryW.Lake(2003).Ageneralizedapproachtoprimaryhydrocarbonrecovery.Elsevier.
3. ^OrganisationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment.21stcenturytechnologies.1998.OECD
Publishing.p.39.ISBN9789264160521.
4. ^Smith,Charles(1966).Mechanicsofsecondaryoilrecovery.ReinholdPub.Corp.
5. ^UnitedStatesDepartmentofEnergy,Washington,DC(2011)."EnhancedOilRecovery/CO2Injection."
(http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/oilgas/eor/index.html)
6. ^ElectricPowerResearchInstitute,PaloAlto,CA(1999)."EnhancedOilRecoveryScopingStudy."
(http://www.energy.ca.gov/process/pubs/electrotech_opps_tr113836.pdf)FinalReport,No.TR113836.
7. ^CleanAirTaskForce(2009)."AboutEOR"
(http://www.coaltransition.org/pages/_enhanced_oil_recovery__eor__/154.php)
8. ^abKennethS.Deffeyes(17November2011).Hubbert'sPeak:TheImpendingWorldOilShortage(New
Edition)(http://books.google.com/books?id=5kP287d90sC&pg=PA107).PrincetonUniversityPress.pp.107.
ISBN9780691141190.Retrieved30November2012.
9. ^abCarcoana,Aurel(1992).AppliedEnhancedOilRecovery.PrenticeHall.ISBN0130442720.
10. ^Baviere,M.(2007).BasicConceptsinEnhancedOilRecoveryProcesses.London:ElsevierAppliedScience.
ISBN1851666176.
11. ^abhttp://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Display.cfm?Term=miscible%20displacement
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12. ^"TinyProspectors",Chemical&EngineeringNews,87,6,p.20
13. ^Nelson,S.J.,Launt,P.D.,(March18,1991)"StripperWellProductionIncreasedwithMEORTreatment",Oil
&GasJournal,vol89,issue11,pgs115118
14. ^TitanOilRecovery,Inc.,BeverlyHills,CA."BringingNewLifetoOilFields."
(http://www.titanoilrecovery.com)Accessed20121015.
15. ^"CO2foruseinenhancedoilrecovery(EOR)"(http://www.globalccsinstitute.com/publications/accelerating
uptakeccsindustrialusecapturedcarbondioxide/online/28496).GlobalCCSInstitute.Retrieved20120225.
16. ^http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oilgas/publications/EP/small_CO2_eor_primer.pdf
17. ^http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Display.cfm?Term=fire%20flooding
18. ^Austell,JMichael(2005)."CO2forEnhancedOilRecoveryNeedsEnhancedFiscalIncentives"
(http://www.touchoilandgas.com/enhancedrecoveryneedsenhanceda4231.html).Exploration&Production:
theOil&GasReview.Retrieved20070928.
19. ^Brown,KenJazrawi,WaleedMoberg,R.Wilson,M.(147May2001)(PDF).
RoleofEnhancedOil
RecoveryinCarbonSequestration.TheWeyburnMonitoringProject,acasestudy
(http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/01/carbon_seq/2a1.pdf)(Report).
http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/01/carbon_seq/2a1.pdf.
20. ^http://www.ptrc.ca/weyburn_statistics.php
21. ^Logan,JeffreyandVenezia,John(2007)."CO2EnhancedOilRecovery."
(http://www.wri.org/publication/content/8355)ExcerptfromaWRIPolicyNote,"WeighingU.S.Energy
Options:TheWRIBubbleChart."WorldResourcesInstitute,Washington,DC.
22. ^"CO2CaptureattheKemperCountyIGCCProject"
(http://www.netl.doe.gov/File%20Library/Events/2011/co2capture/25Aug11NelsonKemperCaptureat
KemperIGCC.pdf).www.netl.doe.gov.DOE'sNationalEnergyTechnologyLaboratory.
23. ^abU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).Washington,DC."OilandGasRelatedInjectionWells
(ClassII)."(http://www.epa.gov/safewater/uic/wells_class2.html#how_do)Updated20100122.
24. ^Gleason,RobertA.Tangen,BrianA.(2014).BrineContaminationtoAquaticResourcesfromOilandGas
DevelopmentintheWillistonBasin,UnitedStates(http://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo49778).Reston,VA:United
StatesGeologicalSurvey.Retrieved15June2014.
25. ^EPA."BasicInformationaboutInjectionWells."(http://www.epa.gov/safewater/uic/basicinformation.html)
Updated20100122.
26. ^EPA."UndergroundInjectionControlProgram:Regulations."
(http://www.epa.gov/safewater/uic/regulations.html)Updated20100122.
IPCCSpecialReportonCarbondioxideCaptureandStorage(http://www.ipcc.ch/activity/srccs/index.htm).
Chapter5,Undergroundgeologicalstorage.IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC),2005.
USDepartmentofEnergyanalysisofEORpotential
(http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/oilgas/eor/Undeveloped_Domestic_Oil_Resources_Provi.html)Game
ChangerImprovementsCouldDramaticallyIncreaseDomesticOilResourceRecovery.AnanalysisbyAdvanced
ResourcesInternational,Arlington,VA,fortheU.S.DepartmentofEnergysOfficeofFossilEnergy.Advanced
ResourcesInternational,February2006.Seealsopressrelease
(http://www.fossil.energy.gov/news/techlines/2006/06015Oil_Recovery_Assessments_Released.html)
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Externallinks
EnhancedOilRecoveryInstitute(http://www.uwyo.edu/eori/)UniversityofWyoming
LicensableTechnology:ParticleStabilizedEmulsionsofCarbonDioxide&WaterforEnhancedOil
Recovery&ExtractionProcesses(http://www.masstechportal.com/IP1493.aspx)Massachusetts
TechnologyPortal
OilfieldGlossary:EnhancedOilRecovery(http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Display.cfm?
Term=enhanced%20oil%20recovery)Schlumberger,Ltd.
CenterforPetroleumandGeosystemsEngineering(http://www.cpge.utexas.edu/)Universityof
TexasatAustin
Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Enhanced_oil_recovery&oldid=637541530"
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