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Brahmagupta holds a unique position in the history of Ancient Indian Mathematics. He contributed such elegant results to Geometry and
Number Theory that today's mathematicians still
marvel at their originality. His theorems leading
to the calculation of the circumradius of a triangle and the lengths of the diagonals of a cyclic
quadrilateral, construction of a rational cyclic
quadrilateral and integer solutions to a single second degree equation are certainly the hallmarks
of a genius.
C R Pranesachar is
involved in training Indian
teams for the International
Mathematical Olympiads.
He also takes interest in
solving problems for the
After the Greeks' ascendancy to supremacy in mathematics (especially geometry) during the period 7th century BC to 2nd century AD, there was a sudden lull in
mathematical and scientic activity for the next millennium until the Renaissance in Europe. But mathematics
and astronomy ourished in the Asian continent particularly in India and the Arab world. There was a continuous exchange of information between the two regions
and later between Europe and the Arab world. The decimal representation of positive integers along with zero,
a unique contribution of the Indian mind, travelled eventually to the West, although there was some resistance
and reluctance to accept it at the beginning.
Brahmagupta, a most accomplished mathematician, lived during this medieval period and was responsible for
creating good mathematics in the form of geometrical
theorems and number-theoretic results. This is besides
his contribution to astronomy.
American Mathematical
Monthly and Crux
Mathematicorum.
Keywords
Brahmasphutasiddhanta, zero
as a digit, Pythagorean triples,
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GENERAL ARTICLE
in the year 628 AD. He wrote a second book Khandakhadyaka later. The rst book contains 1008 slokas
(verses) in 25 chapters and deals with arithmetic, algebra, geometry and number theory. (See Box 1 for some
slokas.) He was the rst to introduce zero as a digit.
This was translated into Arabic with the title Sindhind.
The second book has 194 slokas and deals with astronomical calculations in 9 chapters.
He was certainly a mathematician of preeminence for his
times, but he also had the habit of criticising his predecessors sharply for some of their faults and omissions.
There is a sequel to his second book which deals with
some corrections of his earlier work. He was the head of
Ujjain observatory. He passed away in the year 668 AD.
Brahmagupta's Works
1. Brahmagupta gave a general formula for the socalled Pythagorean triples, namely, (2mn; m2
n2 ; m2 + n2 ). This was known to others also.
2. (a) Given a side a of a right-angled triangle other
than the hypotenuse, a formula was given for the
sides of the triangle:
2
1 a2
1 a
a;
m ;
+m :
2 m
2 m
(b) Given the hypotenuse c, of a right-angled tri(m2 n2 )c
angle, the sides are given by c; m2mnc
.
2 +n2 ;
m 2 +n2
These result in rational right triangles.
3. Given a rational altitudex of a triangle, if the
2
2
sides are given by a = 12 xp + xq p q ; b =
1 x2
1 x2
+
p
;
c
=
+
q
, then we have a sca2
p
2
q
lene triangle with rational sides, rational area and
rational altitudes (and rational circumradius).
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GENERAL ARTICLE
(BrSpSi XII.38) This sloka describes the method of obtaining a rational cyclic
quadrilateral using two nonsimilar rational right triangles. (This seems to be
slightly dierent from the method described below.)
(BrSpSi XVIII.67) This sloka describes the method of transforming the equa 2
2
2
2
tion N 2 + 4 = 2 into N
+
1
=
+
N
.
2
4
4
2
+
N
.
4
4
2
2
+1 =
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GENERAL ARTICLE
Brahmagupta gave
a simple method to
construct cyclic
quadrilaterals with
integer sides,
integer diagonals
and integer area.
6. The diagonals
with sides
q of a cyclic quadrilateral
q
and (ad+bc)(ac+bd)
.
a; b; c; d are (ab+cd)(ac+bd)
ad+bc
ab+cd
Figure 1.
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GENERAL ARTICLE
This single marvellous result needs a little elaboration. The integer quadrilateral constructed by
Brahmagupta has perpendicular diagonals. Do
there exist integer cyclic quadrilaterals with nonorthogonal diagonals? In the 19th century AD,
Kummer, a German mathematician found all rational cyclic quadrilaterals. For this one needs to
start with two nonsimilar triangles, the sines and
cosines of whose angles are all rational (with one
angle of one triangle supplementary to one angle
of the other). Further the circumradius of such
quadrilaterals also turns out to be rational!
8. Brahmagupta gave a beautiful method to generate
innitely many integer solutions of the single equation Nx2 +1 = y2 , where N is a non-square integer,
starting with one trial solution. In fact, if (x; y) =
(x1; y1 ) and (x; y) = (x0 ; y0 ) are two solutions one
can easily see that (x; y) = (x1y 0 + x0y1 ; Nx1x01 +
y1y 0 ) is another solution. Hence if we have found
one solution of Nx2 + 1 = y2 , say (x; y) = (a; b),
then taking (x1; y1 ) = (a; b); (x0; y 0) = (a; b), one
gets a second solution (x2 ; y2) = (2ab; N a2 + b2).
Again by taking (x1 ; y1 ) = (a; b); (x0 ; y 0) = (x2 ; y2),
we get a third solution and so on. Thus the nth
solution (xn ; yn ) is generated by taking (x1 ; y1) =
(a; b) and (x0 ; y 0 ) = (xn1 ; yn1 ). It is believed that
Brahmagupta did not mention how the rst trial
solution can be found. For small values of N this
is easily guessed. For example, if N = 2, then
we may take (a; b) = (2; 3) as the rst solution of
2x2 + 1 = y2 and generate the solutions successively: (12; 17); (77; 90); (408; 577); ::: . If N = 3,
then we may take (a; b) = (1; 2) as a rst solution of 3x2 + 1 = y2 and get the other solutions:
(4; 7); (15; 26); (56; 97); :::.
Finding the rst solution is not easy in all cases;
for example, if N = 61, then x and y are really
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252
Suggested Reading
[1]
[2]
www.wikipedia.org
[3]