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Production of Materials

1. Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as ethylene, for the
production of other substances
Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some of the fractions from the
refining of petroleum
Ethylene is the most versatile and widely used raw material in the petrochemical industry.
However, because very little ethylene is found in natural gas or crude oil, it must be produced from
other hydrocarbons by a process known as cracking. Cracking is the process of breaking
hydrocarbons of high molecular mass into ones of lower molecular mass. Cracking can occur
through catalytic cracking (used for C15 to C25) or steam cracking (used for natural gas).
Catalytic cracking occurs in a cat cracker at a temperature of approximately 500C and at pressures
somewhat above atmospheric. Catalytic cracking involves the use of crystalline aluminosilicates or
zeolites as catalysts for the process. Catalytic cracking alone is often insufficient to meet current
needs of these industrially important compounds and hence some fractions of crude oil are often
decomposed completely to produce ethylene in a process called steam cracking. Steam cracking
involves a much higher temperature of approximately 900C. In this process the hydrocarbons are
mixed as a gas with CO2 present as an inert diluent that allows the process to operate at just above
atmospheric pressure. The mixture is then passed over a series of hot metal coils. The steam
removes carbon deposits from the coils while the heat from the coils causes the hydrocarbons to
crack into smaller molecules.
Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond, is readily transformed into
many useful products
Ethylene is readily transformed into many useful products such as the polymers LDPE and HDPE
as well as ethanol. This is due to the high electron density associated with the double bond. This
higher electron density at the double bond functional group of ethylene can induce numerous
reactions to occur (temporary dipole production and therefore readily reacts with diatomic halide
molecules such as Cl2).
Identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to compare the reactivities of appropriate
alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in bromine water.
Aim: To compare the reactivity of cyclohexene with the corresponding alkane cyclohexane in
bromine water.
Equipment: cyclohexene, cyclohexane, bromine water, 2 test tubes, fume cupboard, darkened room
Risk Assessment: The bromine water used in the experiment is corrosive and harmful so caution
must be taken to clean up spills immediately and avoid skin contact. Also, the chemicals used in
the experiment release harmful fumes so caution must be taken around them and a fume cupboard
should be used. Cyclohexene and cyclohexane are also highly flammable and care must be taken to
keep all naked flames away from these liquids. Keeping a working fire extinguisher close by also
minimizes this hazard.

Richard Shaw

Method:
1) Take two test tubes and fill one with 2mL of cyclohexane and the other with 2mL of
cyclohexene inside a fume cupboard. Ensure that the experiment is conducted in subdued
lighting.
2) Add 4 drops of bromine water to each test tube
3) Gently shake both test tubes to an equal degree
4) Record changes observed in reagents test tubes before and after shaking
Results: When the substances were mixed, two immiscible layers formed: a lower aqueous layer
and a hydrocarbon layer on top. Upon mixing, the cyclohexene decolourises bromine water from
reddish-orange to colourless. Meanwhile, the cyclohexane did not react as reailty and diluted the
bromine water.
Discussion: Bromine water exists as an equilibrium system,
The reaction of bromine water with cyclohexene is then,

This is an addition reaction which occurs readily due to the reactive double bond of the
cyclohexene. Meanwhile, the bromine water was only diluted in the cyclohexane as no reaction
occurred. Some bromine molecules actually dissolved in the cyclohexene layer; causing the lower
layer to slightly decolourise and the upper layer to take on the reddish colour of the bromine. It is
important that this experiment be conducted in subdued lighting as cyclohexane will eventually
react with bromine water in the presence of UV light via a substitution reaction.

Cyclohexene and cyclohexane were chosen as they are both colourless liquids at room
temperature, stable and corresponding alkenes and alkanes. They are also easily stored.
Conclusion: We were successfully able to compare the reactivity of cyclohexene with its
corresponding alkane cyclohexane in bromine water. We found that testing with bromine water

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was able to show that cyclohexene is more reactive than cyclohexane due to the presence of the
reactive double bond that caused cyclohexene to decolourise the bromine water.
Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made
Polymerisation is a chemical reaction in which many identical small molecules combine together
to form one large molecule. The small molecules are called monomers, and the large molecule is
called a polymer. Ethylene serves as a monomer and forms the polymer polyethylene.

Analyse information from secondary sources such as computer simulations, molecular model kits,
or multimedia resources to model the polymerisation process

Process did not show the random nature of the propagation and termination stages
Did not provide a true indication of the number of monomers in the polymer chains
Did not demonstrate the bonding between polymer chains
Did not demonstrate the role of the catalyst/initiator.

Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this term
Polyethylene is an addition polymer, meaning that it is formed from monomers without the loss of
a small molecule. This achieved by the opening out of the ethylene double bond. The opening of
the double bond allows free electrons to covalently bond to neighboring monomer unit. Addition
polymerisation can only occur if the monomer has a double or triple bond.
Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a commercially and
industrially important polymer
Both LDPE and HDPE are widely used commercially for items such as milk bottles, cling wrap,
kitchen utensils and garbage bins. Its inert nature and relatively cheap production costs has seen
polyethylene become an extensively used commercially and industrially important polymer.
Ethylene is the monomer used to produce polyethylene. The polymerization of ethylene can occur
in one of two ways, resulting in variations in the resultant polymer.
The gas phase process involves high pressure (1000 to 3000 atmospheric), high temperature (300C)
and an organic peroxide (or oxygen) initiator. The product has significant chain branching as some
hydrogen atoms are replaces by alkyl groups. Consequently, low density polyethylene is produced.
The newer Ziegler-Natta process uses pressures of only a few atmospheres and a temperature of
about 60C. Catalyzed by a mixture of titanium(III) chloride and triethyaluminium, this process
produces unbranched polyethylene molecules which are able to pack closely together and form
high density polyethylene.
In both cases, the polymerization process begins with initiation whereby the initiator or catalyst is
broken into free radicals which then attack the double bond of an ethylene molecule to form an
activated monomer species. Another ethylene molecule then attaches itself to this activated
monomer, acting as the new activated species. This propagation continues and the polymer chain
continues to grow in a random fashion. Finally, termination occurs when two activated chains
collide and join to form a stable polymer or exchange a hydrogen atom to form two stable
molecules.

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Initiation:
Propagation:
Termination:

Identify the following as commercially significant monomers by both their systematic and
common names:
Vinyl chloride (Chloroethene) and Styrene (Phenylethene)
Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in terms of their properties
Polymer
Properties
Uses
HDPE
Rigid and strong due to crystalline structure
Kitchen utensils and
achieved by linear chains and minimal chain
containers; non-toxic, inert
branching (more intermolecular forces)
and has a high melting point
Hardness is limited by absence of chain
Plastic buckets; strong and
stiffening, cross-linking
rigid
HDPE is much harder, stronger and has a
Rubbish bins; strong and rigid
higher melting point and greater tensile
Tougher carry bags; high
strength than LDPE
tensile strength
Non-toxic, inert C-H bonds, waterproof
LDPE
Extensive chain branching, lack of stiffening
Plastic bags; inert and flexible
side groups and lack of cross-linkages gives
Clingwrap; flexible, CO2, O2
permeable
amorphous structure
Milk bottles; flexible and inert
Soft and flexible, low tensile strength
Non-toxic, inert C-H bonds, unreactive and
waterproof
PVC
Rigid due to Cl chain stiffening
Underground pipes; light,
C-Cl is susceptible to U.V and must be
tough and rigid
combined with an inhibitor (TiO2) before
Electrical wires; insulator,
outdoor use
flame retardant, high melting
Electronegative Cl causes dipole forces and
point
Garden hoses, raincoats,
also ties up electrons, meaning it has a high
shower curtains; flexible
melting point and is an electrical insulator
Floor and carpet backing; soft,
and flame retardant
insulator, fire and water
Plasticisers (dialkyl phthalates) make PVC
soft and flexible
resistant
Polystyrene
Phenyl group provides chain stiffening,
Tool handles, CD cases, car
making polymer rigid, hard and strong
battery cases, modern
Very stable to heat and UV
furniture, rigid cups; rigid,
Good thermal insulator
tough, transparent
Crystalline, quite transparent
Foam cups; light foam and
Can form light-weight sponge when gas is
thermal insulator

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bubbled through polymerisation

Packaging; gas compressibility

2. Some scientists research the extraction of materials from biomass to reduce our
dependence on fossil fuels
Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently obtained from the
petrochemical industry
Petrochemicals have become a pivotal part of everyday life and their use has become a
necessity for the function of society. Yet currently, Australias petrochemical industry has
its chemicals derived from fossil fuels such as crude oil and natural gas.
It is estimated that Australia has petrol reserves to last 10 more years and natural gas
reserves to last 100 years.
95% of these resources are burned as fuel and cannot be retained. The other 5% is used by
the petrochemical industry and an even smaller fraction of this 5% is recycled.
A large number of jobs, directly and indirectly depend on the petrochemical industry and
continual production of compounds.
As crude oil supplies decrease, prices will increase and there is now pressure to reduce costs
through viable alternative methods.
Current processes are environmentally detrimental and cause large greenhouse gas
emissions, there is also pressure to reduce environmental impact through alternatives
Unfortunately, it appears that methods of extracting important compounds from other
sources would be more expensive than extracting them from crude oil, making many
reluctant to shift away from current fossil fuel sources.
It is clear that with diminishing fossil fuels and relatively low recycling rates that an
alternative source will be required for the petrochemical industry.
Note: The keyword is DISCUSS and so it is important to give at least one point AGAINST the use of
alternative compounds.
Use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary sources and analyse progress in
the recent development and use of a named biopolymer. This analysis should name the specific
enzyme(s) used or organism used to synthesize the material and an evaluation of the use or
potential use of the polymer produced related to its properties.
Biopolymers are polymers that are made in large part by living organisms. Biopol is the commercial
name of one such biopolymer formed from the monomers 3-hydroxybutyrate and 3hydroxyvalerate.

Richard Shaw

By fostering the growth of the bacteria cupriavidus metallidurans (alcaligenes eutrophus) in a high
glucose, high valeric acid environment and then creating a nitrogen deficiency, the bacteria begin
to store carbon in the desired 3-HB/3-HV co-polymer form. The polymer can then be isolated and
extracted through the use of hot trichloromethane. This process is quite expensive and so, more
recent developments in genetic engineering has provided alternate pathways for the synthesis of
Biopol. The production of Biopol by genetically engineered E.coli has seen benefits over the
previous process such as better and faster growth, higher yields, less waste and faster bacterial
recovery. Also cheaper substrates can be used to grow the bacteria such as whey or molasses.
Despite this improvement, Biopol is still considerably more expensive than similar conventional
polymers such as polypropylene and also produces pungent waste that is difficult to dispose.
Nevertheless, Biopol does have ideal properties that have seen its application in areas where there
is often no commercial alternative. Biopol is insoluble in water, has high tensile strength, UV
resistant and is biodegradable, biocompatible and is produced from a renewable resource. These
properties have seen Biopol applied in medicine as well as nappy linings where biodegradability is
important. Surgical pins and sutures are often made from Biopol as it isnt rejected by the body
(being biocompatible) and is safely broken down in the body (being biodegradable). The stiff and
brittle nature of Biopol has been applied in bottles, laminated foils, fishnets and textile fibres.
Overall, it is clear that Biopol has both benefits and disadvantages over conventional polymers, but
with ever depleting fossil fuel reserves the demand for alternatives such as Biopol can only
increase. Since 2001, bio-technology development corporation Metabolix has been producing
Biopol by microbial conversion of natural sugars and is developing ways to produce Biopol in
transgenic plants. Despite its current cost of production and impracticality, further developments
such as those being made by Metabolix may see biopolymers such as Biopol become as extensively
used as current petroleum based polymers.
Another biopolymer Medicoat is a slippery product used to coat catheters so that bacteria cannot
get a hold and reproduce to cause infection. The polymer Elastin is being developed at USYD as an
artificial human skin useful in replacing skin for burns patients. Cyclodextrin is a toroid
(hydrophilic outside and hydrophobic inside) biopolymer formed from -amylase. It has
pharmaceutical applications in medicine absorption, fragrances, food products and environmental
protection.
Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer
Condensation polymers are polymers formed by the elimination of a small molecule when pairs of
monomers join together. In order for condensation polymerisation to occur, the monomer(s) must
contain a functional group at either end. Cellulose, starch, glycogen are all condensation polymers.

Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed

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Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a condensation polymer found
as a major component of biomass
Cellulose is formed through the condensation polymerisation of -glucose molecules which link
together via -1,4-glycosidic bonds with an alternating CH2OH group. Due to the alternating
glycosidic bond angles, and the geometry of the glucose rings, cellulose has a very linear and rigid
structure. Furthermore, the hydroxyl groups on neighbouring chains hydrogen bond with each
other forming very strong cellulose fibres and contributing to the linear structure.

Identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon-chain structures needed to build petrochemicals
and discuss its potential as a raw material
Advantages
Cellulose contains the basic C-C chains required to manufacture petrochemicals
Unlike fossil fuels, cellulose is a readily available raw material and the major constituent of
biomass (material made entirely or in large part by living organisms), making it a renewable
resource.
Cellulose can be broken down to glucose by acid digestion or through cellulase enzymes,
Once broken, glucose can be fermented to form ethanol, which is an industrially important
solvent, as well as being a useful fuel extender in vehicles.
Cellulose is biodegradable and can be used to develop biopolymers such as rayon,
cellophane and cellulose acetate.
Ethanol can be further reacted in a dehydration reaction to form ethylene, which is an
industrially significant monomer used to manufacture many petrochemicals.
Ethylene can then be used to form polyethylene or other important monomers such as vinyl
chloride and styrene.
It is this formation of ethanol and ethylene from cellulose that gives it the potential as a raw
material in the production of petrochemicals.
Disadvantages
Breaking cellulose by acid digestion or through cellulose enzymes are both time consuming
and expensive as the strong -1,4-glycosidic bonds of cellulose are difficult to break.
This process also requires a lot of energy most likely provided by fossil fuels, meaning that
this process could in fact require more non-renewable resources than before.
Cellulose based biopolymers are relatively costly and are not widely applied.
Loss of arable land: If large areas of land were devoted to the growth of biomass for
petrochemicals this would also cause environmental problems such as erosion and
deforestation.

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Although food crops are readily available, their use would be unethical as there are many
people without access to sufficient food reserves.
Biomass is difficult to transport and has its own storage problems.
In the future it is hoped that waste such as crop waste, saw dust, wood chips and sewerage can be
used rather than crops. Cellulose has enormous potential as a raw material for the production of
petrochemicals but is currently still unfeasible as it is too expensive and time consuming. However
with diminishing fossil fuel reserves, cellulose may become a commercially significant raw material
of the future.

3. Other resources such as ethanol, are readily available from renewable resources such
as plants
Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a catalyst in this process
and the catalyst used
Dehydration is a chemical reaction in which water is removed from a compound. Ethanol is
dehydrated by heating with concentrated sulfuric acid as a catalyst. This process requires a
concentrated sulfuric acid catalyst to lower the activation energy of the reaction by providing an
alternate pathway (that also increases the rate of reaction), and hence speeds it up to a sufficient
and sustainable rate.

Process information from secondary sources such as molecular model kits, digital technologies or
computer simulations to model:
The addition of water to ethylene and the dehydration of ethanol
Aim: To model the hydration of ethylene and the dehydration of ethanol using molecular model
kits.
Equipment: Molecular model kits
Method:
Hydration
1) Using your molecular model kit, create a model of ethylene. It should contain two black
balls (carbon) double bonded together and two white balls (hydrogen) attached to each
black ball.
2) Create a model of water, using a red ball to represent oxygen
3) Remove one of the bonds connecting the two carbon atoms.
4) Detach a hydrogen atom from the water molecule and connect it to the former double
bond.
5) Attach the OH group to the other carbon atom
Dehydration:
1) Remove the OH group from the carbon atom, and the bond that holds them together.
2) Remove a single hydrogen atom (leaving the bond behind from the other carbon atom.
3) Join the OH and H together to form water.
4) Re-attach the two carbon atoms to form the double bond.

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Discussion:
Advantages:
They model allowed us to represent the process of bond breakage and formation that occurs
in these two reactions
They provided a visual representation of the reactions, rather than the linear chemical
equations that are usually written
Shows the shape of the reactants and products.

Disadvantages:
Model cannot perfectly re-create the shape of a molecule
Ball and stick models could not represent polarity
This model did not show the role of the sulfuric acid catalyst in the reaction
Conclusion: We were able to model the hydration of ethylene and the dehydration of ethanol
using molecular model kits.
Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of ethanol and identify the
need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used
Hydration is a chemical reaction in which water is added from a compound. Ethylene is hydrated
by heating with dilute sulfuric acid as a catalyst. This process requires a dilute sulfuric acid catalyst
to lower the activation energy of the reaction by providing an alternate pathway (that also
increases the rate of reaction), and hence speeds it up to a sufficient and sustainable rate.
Process information from secondary sources to summarise the processes involved in the industrial
production of ethanol from sugar cane
1) Sugar cane is ground and crushed before undergoing acid digestion for two hours at 100C.
This created a sugar and acid solution which is neutralized using calcium hydroxide.
2) The sugar is fermented with yeast to produce a dilute ethanol solution of (ideally) 15%.
3) Distillation is used to produce greater concentrations. For an even higher concentration of
ethanol, a dehydration or absorption process is used.
However, this process is expensive, time consuming and not economically viable. A more effective
method of obtaining glucose for fermentation is the use of molasses. Molasses is syrup left over
when sugar cane is milled and is very high in sucrose content. Sucrose can be broken down to
glucose by the action of the enzyme invertase which can then be fermented. Glucose can also be
obtained from unfermented xylose by the action of E.coli bacteria.
Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for polar and non-polar substances
Ethanol is an important solvent due to its ability to dissolve both polar and non-polar substances.
This is a consequence of its structure. The hydroxyl group is polar in nature (due to the high
electro-negativity of the oxygen-carbon bond) so there it can dissolve polar substances through

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dipole-dipole interactions of hydrogen bonding. The alkyl group is non-polar so it is able to


dissolve non-polar substances through dispersion forces along the alkyl tail.

Due to its ability to dissolve both polar and non-polar substances, ethanol has a wide range of uses
as a solvent including:
Cosmetics (perfumes, deodorant, aftershave etc)
Food colouring and preservatives
Medical preparations (antiseptics)
Cleaning agents
Pharmaceutical products
Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a renewable resource
Ethanol combusts with oxygen in an exothermic reaction that releases large amounts of heat:
Ethanol has been used as a fuel extender in cars, planes and trucks
Ethanol has also been commonly found in camping stove fuels
Ethanol can be produced by the fermentation of the naturally occurring sugar glucose. Glucose is
part of cellulose, which is the major constituent of biomass and a renewable resource. Since
ethanol can be produced from a renewable resource, it too is a renewable fuel source.
Process information from secondary sources to summarise the use of ethanol as an alternative car
fuel, evaluating the success of current usage
Ethanol was used as a petrol extender during WWII (and more recently) in concentrations
of 10-20%.
During the 1970s and 1980s Brazil used pure ethanol as the major fuel for cars. Sugar cane
was grown specifically for this purpose and engines were modified accordingly. The
program was subsidized by the Government, and was designed to address a trade imbalance
and reduce the consumption of non-renewable fossil fuels. The program was initially very
successful that by the mid 1980s 94% of new vehicles ran exclusively on ethanol. However
the use of ethanol was challenged in the 1990s by lower oil prices and the use of ethanol
was eventually phased out; however it has experienced resurgence in recent years following
record world oil prices and the release of flex-fuel cars in 2003. In Brazil, ethanol fuel is
currently cheaper than petrol.
Ethanol is currently used as a fuel additive in many Brazilian cars. 30% of Brazilian cars use
a fuel blend containing 25% ethanol. This is more cost effective and improves octane rating
and the higher flash point is easily met due to higher temperatures in Brazil. However car
modifications are still required to use such high percentages of ethanol.
Ethanol is used in USA (called gasohol) and Canada (where ethanol is required by the law to
be added to fuels) at approximately 10% with some success as it doesnt require engine
modifications and improves octane rating. However in colder states, some cars have had

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trouble starting (due to ethanols higher flash point) and it has been criticized for
consuming food crop.
In Australia, governments are encouraging 10% ethanol blends such as E10 by providing
subsidies for petrol suppliers that use it. Despite this, ethanol still costs more to produce.
There is some question as to whether using ethanol as a fuel additive at 10% still causes engine
corrosion. Nevertheless, the use of ethanol as a fuel extender seen currently has been reasonably
successful, particularly in Brazil where it has reduced the nations dependency on fossil fuels.
Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted
Anaerobic
37C
Yeast (zymase enzyme is biological catalyst for fermentation) and glucose solution
Solve problems, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to carry out the fermentation of
glucose and monitor mass changes
Aim: Monitor mass changes occurring during the fermentation of glucose
Equipment: 250mL vacuum flask with rubber stop and side arm, 500mL beaker, 50mL measuring
cylinder, large test tube, 20mL glucose solution (10% w/v), 1g sodium dihydrogen phosphate (yeast
nutrient), limewater, thermometer, electronic balance.
Method:
1) Weigh out 1g of yeast and add it to the vacuum flask
2) Measure 20mL of glucose solution using a measuring cylinder and add to the flask
3) Insert the rubber stop and weight the apparatus and record exactly the initial mass.
4) Place the reaction apparatus in a 500mL beaker containing water held at approximately
37C
5) Over successive days, re-weight the flask and record any mass changes that have occurred.
6) Connect the rubber hose to a glass test tube containing limewater. Observe and record any
changes in appearance.

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Results/Observations:
The initial yeast solution was milky yellow in colour. It was opaque and its smell
resembled chicken broth.
After 1 day, a creamy layer was on top of the mixture. An odour resembling that of
wine was noted.
After 2 days, the wine odour was much stronger. When the flask was swirled, the
creamy substance on top of the mixture dissolved. Sediment was observed at the
bottom of the flask.
The lime water went cloudy
Discussion: There were several assumptions made in this experiment:
The first was that all the mass change was due to the escape of CO2 and not due to
evaporating water or air entering.
We assume all the glucose was completely fermented
Some sources of experimental error include:
Lack of sensitivity of electronic scales
Difficulty of maintaining anaerobic conditions and a temperature of 37C
The entering of air into the vessel and the evaporation of water
The fermentation is limited as the yeast will die once ethanol concentration reaches 15%.
Due to the small amounts of glucose used, the mass changes are small and so there is a large
percentage of error.
Conclusion: We were successfully able to conduct an investigation to monitor mass changes in the
fermentation of glucose.
Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process
Fermentation is the process in which glucose is broken down into ethanol and carbon dioxide by
the action of enzymes present in yeast. Fermentation can only produce ethanol concentrations of
15% before the yeast die. Higher concentrations can only achieved by fractional distillation.
Sucrose is broken into its monosaccharide components by the enzyme invertase present in yeast:
Fermentation can then occur through the action of zymase in yeast:

The positive result for the release of carbon dioxide can be confirmed by passing the gas through
limewater, which then turns milky if carbon dioxide is present:

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Present information from secondary sources by writing a balanced equation for the fermentation of
glucose to ethanol

Define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and calculate the value for ethanol from firsthand data
The molar heat of combustion of a substance is the heat liberated when one mole of the substance
undergoes complete combustion with oxygen at standard atmospheric pressure with the final
products being carbon dioxide and liquid water only.

Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the advantages and disadvantages
of its use
Advantages
Ethanol can be produced by the fermentation of glucose, making it a more desirable fuel
source as it can be produced from renewable resources.
The presence of oxygen in the molecule means that combustion is almost always complete,
meaning a reduction in polluting forms such as CO and soot.
The presence of the oxygen also means that toxic additives such as MTBE
(methyltertiarybutylether) that help petrol burn evenly by providing oxygen do not need to
be added to fuel.
Ethanol also has the potential to be carbon neutral as the products of its use are exactly
those required for its production by photosynthesis.
Ethanol has already been successfully applied as a fuel extender without engine damage.
Ethanol has a high flash point, meaning it is safer to use on camping stoves as it is less likely
to accidentally ignite.
Ethanol has a higher RON or octane rating than petrol meaning it burns smoother in high
compression performance engines.
Ethanol contains no impurities such as sulfur and so produces no polluting SO2
Ethanol is easily transportable and can be easily incorporated into fuel blends
Disadvantages
Ethanol is far more expensive to produce than hydrocarbons used for fuel such as octane
Ethanol has a lower heat of combustion, so more ethanol would be required to travel the
same distance as when using petrol.
Ethanol has a high affinity to water making it corrosive to fuel lines and engines. The
process of distillation is thus very expensive

Richard Shaw

Large areas of land would be needed to grow biomass needed to produce ethanol. This can
cause environmental problems such as soil erosion, land clearing and deforestation as well
as result in losses of large amounts of arable land.
Ethanol is corrosive to engines and fuel lines, and using ethanol in concentrations above
10% would require engine modifications.
The smelly waste products of fermentation are difficult to dispose of.
Ethanol has a higher flash point that normal petrol, meaning a greater temperature is
required for combustion to occur.

Overall, ethanol is currently not viable as a stand-alone fuel source, and can currently only be used
a fuel additive/extender at concentrations of 10%. However, with ever increasing need for
renewable fuel sources as oil supplies dwindle, ethanol may become an important fuel alternative
of the future.

Identify data sources, choose resources and perform a first-hand investigation to determine and
compare heats of combustion of at least three liquid alkanols per gram and per mole.
Aim: To perform an experiment to determine the heat of combustion of a series of alkanols
Risk Assessment: Since alkanols are being burned there is exposure of a naked flame and a
flammable hazard. Care must be taken to ensure that any spills are cleaned up immediately and
safety goggles should be worn. A fire extinguisher should also be kept close by for emergencies.
Equipment: Electronic balance, aluminium can, thermometer, retort stand, clamp, boss head, spirit
burners (ethanol, propanol and butanol), measuring cylinder.
Method:
1) Weight the aluminium can and record its mass
2) Measure 300mL of water and pour it carefully into the can
3) Insert a thermometer into the can and record the initial temperature of the water
4) Place the can in the clamp on the retort stand
5) Weigh the capped ethanol spirit burner and record the mass
6) Light the burner and heat the water until the temperature rises by 20C
7) Extinguish the flame and cap the burner. Stir the water gently and record the maximum
temperature reached.
8) Reweigh the spirit burner and determine the mass difference
9) Repeat the process for propanol and butanol.

Richard Shaw

Discussion:
The main source of error on this experiment was the calorimeter as much of the heat was lost
to the surroundings. This could have been improved by using a better insulated calorimeter or a
wind break to minimize heat loss.
Incomplete combustion occurred as seen by the presence of black soot on the bottom of the can
Failure the keep the thermometer in the middle of the can
Heat absorption by the aluminium can, would not necessarily have been completely transferred
to the water.
Conclusion: We successfully measured the heat of combustion of a series of alkanols.
Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for straight-chained alkanols from C1 to C8

4. Oxidation-reduction reactions are increasingly important as a source of energy


Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of electrons
A metal displacement reaction occurs when one metal converts the ion of another metal into a
neutral atom through the transfer of electrons. This occurs because of a transfer of electrons
between the ions. While one metal loses electrons, the other metal gains electrons.

Perform a first-hand investigation to identify the conditions under which a galvanic cell is
produced

We found that a strong electrolyte is required


The electrodes cannot be touching and must be in contact with an electrolyte solution
between them
A salt bridge is required
A potential difference between the electrodes is required (i.e. the electrode cannot be the
same metal)

Identify the relationship between displacements of metal ions in solution by other metals to the
relative activity of metals
At the conclusion of a displacement reaction, the more reactive metal will be in the form of an ion
(in solution) while the less reactive metal is a neutral atom (solid form).

Perform a first-hand investigation and gather first hand information to measure the difference in
potential of different combinations of metals in electrolyte solution
Sand each of the metals before use, EXCEPT for lead as it is toxic and poses health risks.
Discussion: The cell voltages obtained were lower than the theoretical value because of a number
of reasons.

Richard Shaw

We used low quality voltmeters which created a load on the circuit causing the voltage to
drop significantly
The concentrations of electrolyte solutions used were 0.1M and not 1M as required.
We could not ensure other standard conditions such as temperature and pressure.
The metals may still have had impurities in them, particularly lead electrodes.
The salt bridge may have begun to dry out as it was used.

Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or gain of electrons
When elements lose of gain electrons, they undergo a change in oxidation states. Whether a
species is oxidised or reduced can be determined by examining their oxidation states.
The rules of oxidation states are:
The oxidation state of an element alone is 0
The oxidation state of an ion is equal to its charge
The sum of oxidation states of all atoms in a neutral molecule must add to 0
Oxygen has an oxidation state of -2 unless in the form of a peroxides where it is -1 and in
F2O where it equals +2.
Hydrogen has an oxidation state of +1 unless in the form of a metal hydride (-1)
Gather and present information on the structure and chemistry of a dry cell or lead-acid cell and
evaluate it in comparison to button cell, fuel cell, vanadium redox cell, lithium cell, liquid junction
photovoltaic device.
The lead-acid cell is the cell in the common motor car battery. Six such cells are joined together in
series to make a car battery. In the one cell the positive and negative electrodes each consists of
several plates joined together to maximise the area of contact between electrode and electrolyte
which allows the cell to deliver a large current. The electrode plates are close together: this also
increases the current the cell can deliver.

Chemistry

Lead-Acid cell
Anode:

Silver-Oxide Button Cell


Anode:

Cathode:

Cathode:

Overall:

Overall:

Electrolyte: 4M Sulfuric Acid


Voltage: 2V
As the reaction proceeds, the electrodes
are coated with insoluble lead sulfate and
the concentration of sulfuric acid

Electrolyte: KOH
Voltage:1.5V
This cell delivers a very constant voltage
throughout its lifetime, because as it operates
there is no change in concentration of the

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decreases. However the reaction can be


reversed and driven so that the cell is
restored to its original condition, by
applying a high voltage. Therefore the lead
acid cell is rechargeable.
Cost and
Practicality

Impact on
Society

Relatively cheap and suitable


for situations where large bursts
of current are needed (e.g. car
batteries). It is however,
expensive compared to other
smaller cells
Rechargeable, this means it has
a long lifespan and is more cost
effective
Low maintenance, reliable
Heavy duty casing makes it
robust and durable
Its large size constrains its use in
smaller applications
Voltage drops as lead sulfate
gradually precipitates out; needs
to be recharged when this
occurs
Used to electrically star cars and
heavy machinery which use
petrol and diesel engines
Allows development of starters
in cars and trucks, allowing
them to become an efficient
method of transport-unlike
previous manually started cars
Impacted on society
demographics, allowing for
urban sprawl with transport
becoming efficient

electrolyte solution. This cell also delivers a high


voltage for its small size. This cell is not
rechargeable.

Very practical: very small and


portable so can be used in small
appliances such as watches, hearing
aids and pace makers.
Steady voltage delivered over life
space as all reactant and products are
solids and are not depleted.
Long shelf life as the electrolyte is not
used up
More expensive than an ordinary dry
cell

Has increased the portability and


miniaturization of electronics
Has been extremely important in a
number of specialist areas such as in
hearing aids and pace makers which
have greatly improved the quality of
life for these people.

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Impact on the
Environment

Materials used are potentially


damaging to the environment:
Pb is a heavy toxic metal (can
cause anaemia and affect brain)
and sulfuric acid is corrosive
Explosive hydrogen gas is
released on recharging

Silver is a precious, expensive metal


and needs to be recycled
KOH electrolyte solution is caustic
No highly toxic materials that will
significantly harm the environment.

Lead Acid Cell

Silver-Oxide Button Cell

Richard Shaw

Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions


Outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction of electron flow
Define the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte to describe galvanic cells
Electrodes: The combination of conductor and associated ion solution through which electrons
enter or leave a cell
Anode: The electrode at which oxidation occurs
Cathode: The electrode at which reduction occurs
Electrolyte: A substance which in solution or molten state conducts electricity.

5. Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials


Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions under which a
nucleus is unstable
Radioactive isotopes are those that have an unstable nucleus and spontaneously emit radiation in
the form of , or radiation. Stable isotopes have a nucleus that remains unchanged over time
and do not emit radiation.
In order for a nucleus to be stable, it must lie within the zone of stability. In order for this to
occur, the nucleus cannot be too large as it must have an atomic number less than (or equal to) 83.
It must also have a suitable neutron to proton ratio. For Z<20, this ratio should be approximately
1:1. For 20<Z<50, this ratio should be approximately 1.3:1. For 50<Z<83, this ratio should be
approximately 1.5:1.
Process information from secondary sources to describe recent discoveries of elements
Recent investigation into transuranic elements has led to the discovery of multiple new elements
in recent times. The GSI or Association for Heavy Ion Research is one such institution at the
forefront of elemental discovery. A team led by Peter Ambruster and Gottfried Munzenburg at GSI
first discovered meitnerium in 1982 by bombarding bismuth with iron-58.

In 1984 they produced the element hassium by bombarding lead with iron-58.

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In 1994 they produced darmstadtium and roentgeium by bombarding a nickel-64 nucleus into lead
and bismuth respectively.

Since 1982 at total of 6 transuranic elements have been produced, all through the use of the GSIs
Universal Linear Accelerator capable of producing 20MeV per nucleon. Although these elements
are now established, they usually have extremely short half-lives and are produced in extremely
small quantities. In the case of darmstadtium, the required reaction only takes place at a very
specific velocity of the nickel-64 nucleus, and the produced darmstadtium decayed in a thousandth
of a second. These recently developed elements are still nothing more than a novelty, but with
continuing development and research they may one day be applicable in society.
Describe how transuranic elements are produced
Transuranic elements are non-naturally occurring elements and have an atomic number
greater than 92 and they are produced through various means such as neutron
bombardment, linear accelerators, cyclotrons and synchrotrons.
Neutron Bombardment:
Bombardment with high speed positive particle:

Use available evidence to analyse benefits and problems associated with the use of radioactive
isotopes in identified industries and medicine
Benefits:

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Medical Imaging: new range of non-invasive diagnostic methods which are more efficient
and effective at detecting abnormalities such as tumours. This allows cancer to be detected
earlier and hence allowing for medical intervention.
Radiotherapy: Isotopes such as I-123 and C0-60 can be used to treat tumours and cancerous
cells more effectively that other available methods
Food sterilization: irradiation of food and medicine by radioisotopes results in increased
shelf life and indirect health benefits in not consuming diseased/decaying food
Product quality testing: non destructive way for testing for cracks and damage. Sr-90 can be
used to gauge the thickness of paper while Na-24 is used to detect pipe leakage. Ir-192 used
in gamma radiography. Such monitoring equipment is sensitive, precise, efficient and
reliable.
Biochemistry studies: Cl-36 can be used to monitor methods of ion transport around a plant,
leading to further understanding of the roles of certain nutrients
Safety assessments: identifying cracks in bridges, planes and large scale machinery allows
prevention of serious accidents. Am-241 used in smoke detectors can potentially save lives
Problems
Health issues: tissue damage, immediate skin burns, nausea, sicknesses such as leukemia and
lung cancer and eventually death
Genetic mutation
Enzyme denaturing, disruption of protein synthesis
Radioisotopes are expensive and difficult to store as they continuously emit radiation
Potential for large scale nuclear disaster from nuclear reactors.
Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced
Commercial radioisotopes are usually formed by neutron bombardment, in cyclotrons or as
by-products of fission reactions. Neutron bombardment produces neutron rich isotopes
whereas cyclotrons generally produce neutron poor isotopes.
Linear accelerators are not used to produce commercial radioisotopes as they are extremely
large and powerful and their use is restricted to scientific study purposes
Example: cobalt-60 is produced by neutron bombardment of cobalt-59 and technetium-99m is
produced by the decay of molybdenum-99 which is obtained as a fission product of uranium-235 or
from neutron bombardment of molybdenum-98. Fluorine-18 (used for PET) is obtained by
bombarding nitrogen with a helium nucleus.
Identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect radiation
Photographic film/Dosimeter: when exposed to radiation the film darkens and indicates the
level of exposure and is used in dosimeters by laboratory workers.
Geiger-Muller Counter: Metal tube filled with argon gas. Radiation ionises the gas particles
and a high voltage accelerates the charged particles. The free electrons are accelerated
towards a central electrode. The electrons progressively gain energy and cause further
ionisation so that a cascade of electrons reaches the electrode. This movement of charge

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generates a current which is recorded. The size of the current indicates the incident
radiation and is thus used to detect and measure its magnitude.

Scintillation Counters: Radiation causes a scintillating substance such as zinc sulfide to


produce a light pulse when struck by radiation. These flashes of light are counted
electronically using a photomultiplier and indicate the amount of incident radiation
Wilson Cloud Chamber: Super saturated ethanol or water is cooled by dry ice. Radiation
ionises the vapor causing the formation of liquid droplets on the ions so that the radiation
path is visible. The different types of radiation leave different sized tracks and curve in
different directions under the influence of electric plates.

Identify one use of a named radioisotope in:


Industry Sodium-24 and Medicine Technetium-99m
Describe the way in which the above named industrial and medical radioisotopes are used and
explain their use in terms of their chemical properties
Sodium-24
Formed by deuteron bombardment of Sodium-23, Na-24 has greatly enhanced the industrial means
of leak detection in water and oil pipelines. Sodium-24 is reactive with a lot of elements and this
allows it to be combined into soluble compounds before being released safely into pipelines.
Sodium-24 is chemically non-toxic leaving the pipes contents safe for human and animal use.
Sodium-24 is a beta and low intensity gamma radiation emitter. No radiation from this radioisotope
will be detectable if there is no leak present in the pipe. But if a leak is present, then sodium-24
will leak into the pipes surroundings and radiation can then be detected. Sodium-24 has a
relatively short half-life of 15hrs meaning that the radioactivity of the pipes contents quickly
decays and the products of this decay pose no threat to humans or animals. Without the use of
sodium-24, leak detection was both expensive and time consuming as entire piping systems had to
be unearthed. Sodium-24 has improved this industrial process significantly in terms of efficiency,
precision, sensitivity and reliability.
On the other hand, as with the use of any radioisotope, sodium-24 also poses some problems.
Sodium-24 is a non-naturally occurring radioisotope, relying on the commercial production of the

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substance in a nuclear reactor. This poses the threat of possible large scale nuclear disaster (i.e.
Chernobyl). The short half-life of Na-24 also means that the pipeline area to be tested must be
reasonably close to a nuclear reactor. And as with any radioisotope exposure for
technicians/industrial workers can cause biological damage such as tissue damage or even cancer.
Technetium-99m
Technetium is produced by the neutron bombardment of molybdenum-98 to form molybdenum99 which then slowly decays to form Tc-99m, a meta-stable form of Tc-99. Chemically Tc-99m is
quite reactive and has multiple oxidation states; this property is beneficial as it allows Tc-99m to be
bound to different compounds for a variety of purposes. Combined with a tin compound it can
bind to red blood cells, allowing the circulatory system to be mapped and bleeding/clot sites to be
detected. When combined with a pyrophosphate ion Tc-99m sticks to calcium deposits in damaged
heart tissue, allowing for myocardial perfusion imagery. Sulfur colloid can also be combined with
Tc-99m to be taken up by the liver or spleen, making imaging of these organs easier. Tc-99m emits
low energy gamma radiation, minimizing the damage to healthy tissue and the high penetrative
ability of gamma radiation even at low intensity allows the radiation to be detected outside the
body. Tc-99m has a half life of 6hrs, this is also beneficial as there is minimal exposure to radiation
for the patient. However, such a short half-life also means the source of the radioisotope must be
very close to the hospital or produced on site with a cyclotron. As with any commercial
radioisotope its production using a nuclear reactor or cyclotron poses a risk for a potentially large
scale nuclear disaster. Its use also poses risks for technicians, scientists, medical staff and the patient
if they are subject to prolonged exposure. Gamma radiation can cause considerable tissue damage,
genetic mutation, enzyme denaturing and disruption to protein synthesis. Tc-99m exposure is kept
to a minimum when not in use by storing in a lead case. Although care must be taken in its use, Tc99m has greatly enhanced diagnostic techniques in medicine.

Richard Shaw

The Acidic Environment


6. Indicators were identified with the observation that the colour of some flowers
depends on soil composition
Classify common substances as acidic, basic or neutral
Acids
Bases
Acids have a sour taste
Alkalis have a soapy feel
Acids sting or burn the skin
Alkalis have a bitter taste
In solution, acids conduct electricity
Bases are good conductors of electricity
Change the colour of indicators
Change the colour of indicators
React with reactive metals to produce
React with amphoteric metals to
hydrogen gas
produce hydrogen gas
React with carbonates to form CO2
Dissolve amphoteric metal hydroxides
Acids
Bases
Neutral
Vinegar (acetic)
Cloudy ammonia
Salt
Fruits (citric)
Bi-carb soda (sodium carbonate)
Sugar
Vitamin C (ascorbic)
Pool chlorine
Water
Rust Converters (phosphoric)
Drain cleaners
Stomach Juices
Lime
(hydrochloric)
Perform a first-hand investigation to prepare and test a natural indicator
Aim: To prepare and test a natural indicator
Equipment: Quarter of red cabbage, hot plate, saucepan and water, large beaker, Pasteur pipette,
spot plate, universal indicator, 6ml of dilute HCl, 6mL of dilute NaOH.
Risk Assessment: When boiling the ware, be careful to wear gloves when moving the pot, as it will
reach high temperatures. The red cabbage solution may also stain clothes.
Method:
1) Cabbage leaves were torn into small pieces and placed into a saucepan. The saucepan was
filled with water just until it covered the cabbage leaves
2) The substance was boiled for 20 minutes on a hot plate with any water that was lost being
replaced.
3) The mixture was allowed to cool and then using tongs, the cabbage was removed.
4) The remaining liquid was poured into a beaker and its colour recorded (deep red/purple)
5) Two rows on the spot plate were then filled with solutions of HCl, NaOH and water.
6) Using the Pasteur pipette, 3 drops of cool cabbage solution were transferred into each spot
on a single row and the colour of each solution was recorded.
7) 3 drops of UI were added to each spot of the second row and the colours were recorded and
compared to those that contained the red cabbage.
Discussion: The active ingredient present in red cabbage is anthocyanin.
pH

10

12

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Color Red

Purple Violet

Blue

Blue-Green

Greenish Yellow

Conclusion: We were successfully able to prepare and test a natural red cabbage indicator.

Identify that indicators such as litmus, phenolphthalein, methyl orange, and bromothymol blue
can be used to determine the acidic or basic nature of a material over a range, that the range is
identified by change in indicator colour
Identify data and choose resources to gather information about the colour changes of a range of
indicators

Identify and describe some everyday uses of indicators including testing of soil acidity/basicity
Testing Soil
1. Moisten soil with water and add universal indicator
2. Place some BaSO4 power onto the soil surface
3. The white powder absorbs the soil water and the indicator colour can be readily seen
against the white background.
Some plants like azaleas need acidic soils while most flowering plants and vegetables need neutral
or slight basic soils
Pool Testing
1. Take a small sample of the water in a test tube and add an indicator such as phenol red
or universal indicator
2. Place and compare against a white background to easily identify the colour and then
refer to a colour chart
If pH is above 7.4 then green algal scum will form
If pH is below 7 then water will irritate eyes. Hypochlorite salts manage pool pH
Waste from laboratories must be monitored as the waste must be in the acceptable pH range so as
to minimize environmental harm and meet regulations. Photographic film waste is almost always
highly alkaline and must be neutralized.

Richard Shaw

7. While we usually think of the air around us as neutral, the atmosphere naturally
contains acidic oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur. The concentration of these
acidic oxides have been increasing since the Industrial Revolution
Identify oxides or non-meals which act as acids and describe the conditions under which they act
as acids
An acidic oxide is one which either:
Reacts with water to form an acid or
Reacts with bases to form salts (or does both)
A basic oxide is one that:
Reacts with acids to form salts but
Does not react with alkali solutions
Oxides that react with acids to form salts, but also react with alkalis are known as amphoteric
oxides. Neutral oxides are those that do not react with acids or bases.

Identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to de-carbonate soft drink and gather
data to measure mass changes involved and calculate the volume of gas released at 25C and 100kPa
Aim: To de-carbonate a soft drink and gather data to measure the mass changes involved and
calculate the volume of as released at 25C and 100kPa
Equipment: electronic scales, 375mL can of unopened soft drink, empty 800mL bottle with lid,
filter funnel
Method:
1) Measure the mass of the empty 800mL bottle and lid using the electronic scale
2) The 375mL can of soft drink was opened and poured into the 800mL bottle using the filter
funnel.
3) Re-weigh the 800mL bottle
4) Seal the bottle and shake vigorously for 10 seconds.
5) Re-open the bottle slowly to allow any gases to escape
6) Re-weigh the 800mL bottle
7) Repeat until a constant mass is measured
8) Calculate the amount of CO2 released from the change in mass.

Richard Shaw

Discussion: Shaking the bottle increases the movement of the particles and hence their kinetic
energy. This in turn causes an increase in temperature. Since the dissolution of CO2 is an
exothermic equilibrium reaction, by Le Chateliers Principle the equilibrium will shift so as to
minimise the disturbance, that is, minimise the change in temperature. Hence, the backward
endothermic reaction will be favoured, shifting the equilibrium to the left and reducing the
solubility of the CO2. The loss in mass throughout the experiment is due to the loss of CO2 escaping
from the bottle.
Droplets of water lost during the experimental method means that the apparent mass
of CO2 is larger than the actual case. This is minimised by opening the lid slowly
Decimal rounding on the electronic balance created inaccuracy
The small mass of CO2 lost means that there is a large percentage of error
Validity is reduced as the conditions were strictly kept at 25C and 100kPa.
Conclusion: We successfully de-carbonated a soft drink and measured the mass changes.
Analyse the position of these non-metals in the Periodic Table and outline the relationship
between position of elements in the Periodic Table and acidity/basicity of oxides
Acidic oxides are generally oxides of non-metals:
These are mostly covalent compounds and form covalent bonds with oxygen gas
They are located towards the right-hand side of the periodic table and are concentrated in
the top right-hand corner of the periodic table with the exception of noble gases
Basic oxides are generally oxides of metals:
They are mostly ionic compounds
They are located towards the left-hand side of the periodic table and increase in character
towards the bottom-left corner as the metallic character of the metals increases
Amphoteric oxides are generally oxides of semi-metals and are located near the borderline between
metals and non-metals.
Analyse information from secondary sources to summarise the industrial origins of sulfur dioxide
and oxides of nitrogen and evaluate reasons for concern about their release into the environment
Oxides of sulfur and nitrogen are a reason for concern due to the adverse effects they have on the
environment and its inhabitants, including humans. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide are
respiratory irritants and at concentrations as low as 1ppm can cause breathing difficulties,
aggravating asthma and emphysema. Prolonged exposure to sulfur dioxide can also lead to increase
susceptibility to bronchitis, and nitrogen dioxide can cause other lung infections and tissue damage.
Nitrogen dioxide is also harmful to vegetation and damages plant foliage. Oxides of nitrogen also
lead to the formation of photochemical smog when sunlight acts upon NO2 to form ozone. This is
both visually unattractive and a health hazard.

Richard Shaw

Another major concern for the release of oxides of nitrogen and sulfur into the environment is that
they lead to the formation of acid rain. Acid rain damages plant leaves, changes acidity of lakes and
rivers killing fish eggs and pH sensitive plants and animals. Soil pH is also affected which leads to
the biological magnification of heavy and toxic metals such as aluminium as well as the leeching of
minerals. Direct evidence in the form of quantitative analysis of Antarctic ice cores by the CSIRO
and indirect evidence through the increased occurrence of acid rain both indicate increasing
concentrations of oxides of sulfur and nitrogen in the air. With these increasing concentrations, it
is clear that such oxides are a concern to the environment and its inhabitants as it has numerous
adverse effects.
Define Le Chateliers principle
If a closed system at equilibrium is disturbed, then the equilibrium will shift so as to minimise the
disturbance.
Identify factors which can affect the equilibrium in a reversible reaction
Factors affecting the equilibrium of a reversible reaction:
Temperature
Pressure (partial)
Concentration
Describe the solubility of carbon dioxide in water under various conditions as an equilibrium
process and explain in terms of Le Chateliers principle

If the concentration (pressure) of CO2 is increased, then some CO2 goes into solution as
H2CO3 to try to counteract the increase; the equilibrium shifts to the right. If the pressure of
CO2 decreased, then some H2CO3 decomposes to CO2 and comes out of solution to try and
counteract the decrease, and the equilibrium shifts to the left.
If the total pressure of the reaction system is increase, the equilibrium moves in the
direction that tends to reduce pressure. Some CO2 dissolves, the equilibrium shifts right.
The formation of carbonic acid from carbon dioxide and water is exothermic. This means
that as it proceeds from left to right, heat is liberated, and conversely as it goes from right to
left heat is absorbed. Thus, if we increase the temperature of this reaction the equilibrium
will move to the left in order to counteract the increase in temperature.
A word of caution is needed about the effect of increasing the total pressure of the system. If we
had increased the total pressure by pumping in some nitrogen or argon into the vessel, this would
have had no effect upon the equilibrium because it would not have changed the pressure of CO2.
Another way of increasing CO2 solubility is to make the solution alkaline. If there is OH- in the
solution, then carbonic acid reacts with it, effectively removing the product from the reaction of
water with carbon dioxide. The equilibrium then moves to try and counteract this, so more CO2
dissolves to form H2CO3 which in turn reacts with OH- and so on. This illustrates an affective
method of forcing an equilibrium reaction to completion-remove the product as it form.

Richard Shaw

Identify natural and industrial sources of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen
Natural Sources
Industrial Sources
Sulfur Dioxide
(0.001ppm)

Volcanoes and geothermal hot


springs

Burning of sulfur containing fossil fuels

Metal extraction from their sulfide ores,


such as the smelting of ZnS

Nitric Oxide

High localized temperatures


provided by lightning strikes

Formed due to high temperatures in


combustion chambers, such as at power
stations and motor vehicles.

Nitrogen Dioxide Oxidation of NO


(0.001ppm)

Formed due to high temperatures in


combustion chambers, such as at power
stations and motor vehicles.

Nitrous Oxide

Increased uses of nitrogen based


fertilizers has increased the amount of
nitrous oxide released.

The action of bacteria on


nitrogenous materials in soils

Describe, using equations, examples of chemical reactions which release sulfur dioxide and
chemical reactions which release oxides of nitrogen
Assess the evidence which indicates increases in atmospheric concentration of oxides of sulfur and
nitrogen
Despite there being no evidence for a global increase in the concentrations of these oxides there is
both direct and indirect evidence suggesting the atmospheric concentrations of oxides of sulfur and
nitrogen have been increasing in localized areas. Qualitative analysis of Antarctic ice cores by the
CSIRO has shown a steady increase in concentrations of these oxides in the past few decades. Also,
while the averages in cities has not increased significantly, the number of days where
concentrations have exceeded safety levels has been increasing. Such quantitative evidence is
slightly unreliable as the levels of these oxides are below 0.01ppm and hence it is difficult to
measure their concentrations to a sufficiently high degree of accuracy. Also, before the 1950s is no
reliable data, and it wasnt until the 1970s with the development of infra-red spectroscopy that

Richard Shaw

more accurate measurement could be made. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide can be washed out
of the atmosphere, reducing direct evidence reliability.
On the other hand, indirect evidence also suggests increasing concentrations of these oxides in
localized regions. The increasing incidence of acid rain as well as the increasing incidence of
pollution and photochemical smog both suggest increasing concentrations of oxides of sulfur and
nitrogen. However, this evidence is also flawed as it is indirect, and hence is affected by various
other variables that reduce its validity. Overall, although we do not have evidence to suggest a
global increase in the concentration of these oxides, there is an increasing amount of quantitative
and qualitative data that suggest the localized concentrations of oxides of sulfur and nitrogen have
been increasing since the industrial revolution.
Explain the formation and effects of acid rain
Rain is naturally acidic due to the dissolution of carbon dioxide forming weak carbonic acid. Acid
rain refers to rain that has a higher hydrogen ion concentration than normal-higher than about 10-5
mol/L. Acid rain occurs due to the dissolution of acidic oxides in the atmosphere. Sulfur dioxide is
one such acidic oxide which is produced by natural means such as volcanoes and geothermal hot
springs and industrial processes such as the burning of sulfur containing fossil fuels and metal
extraction from sulfide ores.
Burning of fossil fuels:
Burning of Zinc Sulfide:
The other major acidic oxide that contributes to the formation of acid rain is nitrogen dioxide.
Nitric oxide is formed in high localized temperatures created by lightning strikes and naturally
reacts in the atmosphere to produce nitrogen dioxide. Nitrogen dioxide is also produced in the high
temperatures of combustion chambers of power stations and motor vehicles.
Formation of Nitrogen Dioxide:
Both sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide are acidic oxides and react with water to form acids.
Sulfur dioxide reacts with water to form sulfurous acid.
Substances in the upper atmosphere then catalyse the reaction between sulfurous acid and oxygen
to from sulfuric acid.
Similarly, nitrogen dioxide reacts with water to form a mixture of nitric acid and nitrous acid.
Substances in the atmosphere then catalyse the reaction between nitrous acid and oxygen causing
the formation of more nitric acid.
Both sulfuric acid and nitric acid are soluble in water and are the major acids present in acid rain.
As this rain forms and falls onto the Earths surface, these strong acids are also brought to the
surface causing harmful effects on the built and natural environment.
Acid rain damages plant leaves and has cause mass defoliation of pine forests in Europe and USA.
Acid rain changes acidity of lakes and rivers killing fish eggs and pH sensitive plants and animals.

Richard Shaw

Soil pH is also affected which leads to the biological magnification of heavy and toxic metals such
as aluminium as well as the leeching of minerals vital to the survival of flora. Acid rain also causes
damage to concrete, marble, limestone and sandstone buildings and statues (Notre Dame).
It is clear that acid rain has a wide range of negative effects on the natural and built environment.
It is only through the regulation of release of acidic oxides such as SO2 and NO2 that acid rain can
be minimised.

8. Acids occur in many foods, drinks and even within our stomachs
Define acids as proton donors and describe the ionisation of acids in water
According to the Bronsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases, an acid is a proton donor while a base
is a proton acceptor. In water, an acid will donate a proton to the water molecule to form its
conjugate base. Also, water is acting as a proton acceptor, that is, water is acting as a base and
forming its conjugate acid.
Solve problems and perform a first-hand investigation to use pH meters/probes and indicators to
distinguish between acidic, basic and neutral chemicals
Aim: To use pH meters/probes and indicators to distinguish between acidic, basic and neutral
chemicals.
Equipment: litmus paper, methyl orange, phenolphthalein and bromothymol blue indicators, pH
meter, spot plate, test tubes, 0.1M solutions of HCl, acetic acid, citric acid, NaOH, ammonia and
distilled water.
Risk Assessment: Acids and bases are corrosive and caustic and so caution must be taken to avoid
contact with skin, eyes and clothing. Safety goggles should be worn.
Method:
1) 5mL of each solution was poured into a separate test tube
2) The pH meter was removed from its storage solution and the sensitive glass probe was
washed with distilled water and then patted dry
3) The probe was immersed in the HCl and the reading was recorded
4) This was repeated for all solutions, taking care to re-wash, dry and calibrate with each
reading.
5) Using dropper bottles, 4 drops of each indicator was placed on the spot plate.
6) Using a dropper bottle, 3 drops of each of the solutions was added to the indicators and the
resultant colour changes were recorded.
Conclusion: We were able to use pH metres and indicators to distinguish between acidic, basic and
neutral chemicals.
Identify acids including acetic (ethanoic), citric (2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic),
hydrochloric and sulfuric acid

Richard Shaw

Acetic Acid

Citric Acid

Sulfuric Acid

Plan and perform a first-hand investigation to measure the pH of identical concentrations of strong
and weak acids
Aim: To measure and compare the pH of identical concentrations of hydrochloric acid, acetic acid
and citric acid
Equipment: pH meter, 0.1M solutions of HCl, acetic and citric acids, 3 test tubes, test tube rack
Risk assessment: Acids and bases are corrosive and caustic and so caution must be taken to avoid
contact with skin, eyes and clothing. Safety goggles should be worn.
Method:
1) 10mL of each solution was pipetted into a separate test tube on the test tube rack.
2) The pH meter was removed from its storage solution and the sensitive glass probe was
washed with distilled water and then patted dry
3) The probe was immersed in the HCl and the reading was recorded
4) This was repeated for all solutions, taking care to re-wash, dry and calibrate with each
reading.
Discussion: The pH of HCl was 1. The pH of acetic acid was 2.9. The pH of citric acid was 2.1.
Conclusion: We were able to measure and compare the pH of identical concentrations of strong
and weak acids.
A pH meter is an instrument that directly measures the pH of a solution. The sensing device
consists of a pair of electrodes. The measuring electrode consists of a thin glass membrane which
develops and electrical potential which depends on the pH. The other electrode is a reference
electrode. When these electrodes are immersed in a solution they form a galvanic cell, and the
EMF of this cell is converted in a pH reading. Using a pH meter is a non-destructive testing method
as it does not alter the chemical equilibrium involved and leaves the solution unchanged.

Describe the use of the pH scale in comparing acids and bases

Richard Shaw

Gather and process information from secondary sources to write ionic equations to represent the
ionisation of acids
Describe acids and their solutions with the appropriate use of the terms strong, weak, concentrated
and dilute
Use available evidence to model the molecular nature of acids and simulate the ionisation of strong
and weak acids
Identify pH as log10[H+] and explain that a change in pH of 1 means a ten-fold change in [H+]
Note: The number of significant figures in the hydrogen ion concentration determines the number
of decimal places of the pH and vice versa.

Gather and process information from secondary sources to explain the use of acids as food additives
Acids are often added to food during manufacturing or processing. There are several reasons for
this:
Acids lower the pH of the food and its container which has the effect of killing
microorganisms such as bacteria that are responsible for the spoiling of food.
Acids acts as anti-oxidants and so prevent spoilage by slowing the oxidation of oils
Acids may be added to improve taste by adding a certain tangy or tartness flavour
The common acids used for such purposes are acetic acid, citric acid and occasionally phosphoric
acid. Propanoic acid is often used as a preservative in bread.

Compare the relative strengths of equal concentrations of citric, acetic and hydrochloric acids and
explain in terms of the degree of ionisation of their molecules
Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid and has a degree of ionisation of 100%
Citric acid is a weak acid and has a degree of ionisation of 7.94%
Acetic acid is a weak acid and has a degree of ionisation of 1.26%
Identify data, gather and process information from secondary sources to identify examples of
naturally occurring acids and bases and their chemical compositon
HCl is produced by glands in the lining of our stomachs to form an acidic environment for the
efficient operation of enzymes that break some complex food molecules into easily transportable
small molecules that are absorbed into the blood stream when they pass into the intestine.
Acetic Acid present in vinegar which is commonly made from the natural oxidation of the ethanol.
Citric Acid occurs in citrus fruits, and is also made industrially and widely used as a food additive.
Ascorbic Acid occurs widely in fruits and vegetables and essential to our health and well being.
Formic Acid is a naturally occurring acid in ant and bee stings.
Ammonia present in the stale urine of humans and other animals. Formed by the anaerobic decay
of organic matter.

Richard Shaw

Amines have a strong fishy smell and are weak bases that are also formed in the anaerobic
decomposition of organic matter.
Metallic oxides occur naturally in the lithosphere
Hydrogen Carbonate a naturally occurring base in the blood.

Describe the difference between a strong and weak acid in terms of an equilibrium reaction
between the intact molecules and its ions
A weak acid exists in equilibrium between the intact molecules and its ions. A strong acid does not
exist in equilibrium and all the molecules are disassociated and exist as ions in solution.

Process information from secondary sources to calculate pH of strong acids given appropriate
hydrogen ion concentrations

9. Because of the prevalence and importance of acids, they have been used and studied
for hundreds of years. Over time, the definitions of acids and bases have been refined
Outline the historical development of ideas about acids including those of:
- Lavoisier
- Davy
- Arrhenius
Originally, an acid was a substance that had a sour taste and which reacted with certain metals. In
1776, Antoine Lavoisier proposed that acids were substances that contained oxygen. While this is
clearly wrong due to the existence of many acids lacking the presence of oxygen such as HCl and
HBr, Lavoisiers proposal was significant as it was the first attempt to classify acids by their
chemical properties/structure.
In 1815 Humphrey Davy attempted to rectify Lavoisiers proposal by studying hydrochloric acid
and hydrogen cyanide. Their obvious lack of oxygen led to Davy proposing that all acids contained
replaceable hydrogen-hydrogen that could be partly or totally replaced by metal ions. When acids
reacted with metals, they formed salts and bases were substances that reacted with acids to form
salts and water. Davy provided the first working definition of an acid and base, but was still unable
to justify why many substances contained replaceable hydrogen but were not acidic, and why
substances with acidic properties did not contain hydrogen such as SO2 and NO2. He was also
unable to explain how both acids and bases could conduct electricity.
In 1884 Svante Arrhenius proposed that an acid was a substance that produces hydrogen ions in
solution, and a base produced hydroxide ions in solution. This allowed Arrhenius to explain and
generalize acid-base reactions by the net ionic equation:
Arrhenius went further and classified acids as strong or weak depending on their degree of
ionisation in solution (strong acids ionised completely, weak acids do not). The shortcomings of

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this definition lie in the fact that it does not give due recognition to the solvent as the degree of
ionisation is dependent not only on the acid but also the solvent. For example, HCl is a strong acid
in water but when dissolved in diethyl ether is quite weak. Also, acid-base reactions often do not
require hydrogen or hydroxide ions to be produced. HCl and react with ammonia to form
ammonium chloride salt without needing to be ionised in solution.
Finally, in 1923 Johannes Bronsted and Thomas Lowry independently proposed a new, and
currently accepted definitions of acids and bases. The Bronsed-Lowry theory defines an acid as a
proton donor and a base as a proton acceptor. Bronsted-Lowry theory explained the inadequacies
of previous definitions as it allowed neutralization to proceed by direct proton transfer reactions
and gave recognition to the role of the solvent in the ionisation process.
Note: You may need to go on to talk about conjugates and the relationships between and possibly
mention this theories impact on the pH of salts.

Gather and process information from secondary sources to trace developments in understanding
and describing acid/base reactions
Choose equipment and perform a first-hand investigation to identify the pH of a range of salt
solutions
Aim: To identify the pH of a range of salt solutions
Equipment: pH meter, 5 large test tubes, test tube rack, 0.1M solutions of potassium sulfate,
ammonium chloride, sodium acetate, sodium chloride and ammonium nitrate.
Risk Assessment: Acidic and basic substances are corrosive and caustic and so caution must be
taken to avoid contact with skin, eyes and clothing. Safety goggles should be worn.
Method:
1) Place 15mL of each solution into a separate test tube on the test tube rack
2) The pH meter was removed from its storage solution and the sensitive glass probe was
washed with distilled water and then patted dry
3) The probe was immersed in the NaCl solution and the reading was recorded
4) This was repeated for all solutions, taking care to re-wash, dry and calibrate with each
reading.
Discussion:
0.1M Solution
pH Reading
Potassium Sulfate
7.1
Ammonium Chloride
6.2
Sodium Acetate
8.2
Sodium Chloride
7.1
Ammonium Nitrate
6.1
Conclusion: We were able to identify the pH of a range of salt solutions.
Outline the Brnsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases

Richard Shaw

In 1923 Johannes Bronsted and Thomas Lowry independently proposed a new, and currently
accepted definitions of acids and bases. The Bronsed-Lowry theory defines an acid as a proton
donor and a base as a proton acceptor. Bronsted-Lowry theory explained the inadequacies of
previous definitions as it allowed neutralization to proceed by direct proton transfer reactions and
gave recognition to the role of the solvent in the ionisation process.
Note: You may need to go on to talk about conjugates and the relationships between and possibly
mention this theories impact on the pH of salts.
Perform a first-hand investigation and solve problems using titrations and including the
preparation of standard solutions, and use available evidence to quantitatively and qualitatively
describe the reaction between selected acids and bases
Aim: To determine the concentration of sodium hydroxide
Equipment list: volumetric flask, funnel, electronic scales, retort stand, clamp, burette, pipette,
conical flask, oxalic acid (anhydrous), sodium hydroxide, phenolphthalein indicator
Risk Assessment: Acids and bases are corrosive and caustic and so caution must be taken to avoid
contact with skin, eyes and clothing. Safety goggles should be worn.
Method:
Part 1-Preparing a Primary Standard
1) 2.25g of oxalic acid was weight out using an electronic balance and transferred into a clean
beaker. The oxalic acid was dissolved by adding a suitable amount of demineralised water.
2) Using a funnel, the oxalic acid solution was transferred to a clean 250mL volumetric flask
3) The volumetric flask was filled with demineralised water until the bottom meniscus was
level with the 250mL graduation mark.
4) The flask was stoppered and gently inverted, before being labeled 0.1M oxalic acid.
Part 2-Titration
1) A Pipette was filled with 25mL of the oxalic acid solution and transferred to a conical flask,
that had previously been rinsed with water
2) 3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator was then added to the conical flask
3) The burette was filled with NaOH until the bottom of the meniscus reached the 0mL mark.
The burette was set up over the conical flask using a retort stand and clamp
4) The NaOH was slowly run into the conical flask as the flask was swirled. A rough titre was
performed and then steps 1-4 were repeated to obtain 3 consistent titre volumes (within
0.1mL)
5) The concentration of the NaOH could then be calculated
Conclusion: We were successfully able to create a standard solution and conduct a titration using
this standard solution to determine the concentration of NaOH.
Describe the relationship between an acid and its conjugate base and a base and its conjugate acid
An acid donates a proton to form its conjugate base while a base accepts a proton to form its
conjugate acid.

Richard Shaw

Identify a range of salts which form acidic, basic or neutral solutions and explain their acidic,
neutral or basic nature
Perform a first-hand investigation to determine the concentration of a domestic acidic substance
using computer-based technologies
A titration of acetic acid can be made easier using a pH probe and data logger to generate a curve of
pH as the volume of acid added is increased. From this titration curve, the equivalence point and
volume acid needed to reach this point can be determined.

Identify conjugate acid/base pairs


Identify amphiprotic substances and construct equations to describe their behaviour in acidic and
basic solutions
Analyse information from secondary sources to assess the use of neutralisation reactions as a safety
measure or to minimise damage in accidents or chemical spills
Neutralisation is a reaction between an acid and a base and is an exothermic process that involves
the transfer of protons. Many acids and bases pose a health hazard as they are often highly

Richard Shaw

corrosive, and hence it is important to neutralize any spills that occur as fast as possible. In addition
sewage authorities put strict limits on the pH of laboratory and factory effluents discharges to
sewers. The acid/base used in the neutralization process must be chosen carefully, being acids or
bases themselves they too pose a health hazard. An ideal substance to use will react quickly to
neutralize a spill, will not cause harm if excess is used and is safe to handle. A weak acid or base
that is also cheap is ideal. Sodium hydrogen carbonate is an ideal substance often used in the
neutralization of spills as it is amphiprotic and hence can be used to neutralize both acid and base
spills. Furthermore, it is easy and safe to handle, cost effective and poses no threat if excess is used.
The utilization of neutralization has greatly helped in minimizing damage of accidents or industrial
waster. Despite some neutralization substances being a hazard themselves, their use has greatly
minimised the damage of acidic and basic chemicals.
Note: Neutralization is exothermic and thus cannot be used for body spills as it can cause burns

Identify neutralisation as a proton transfer reaction which is exothermic

Describe the correct technique for conducting titrations and preparation of standard solutions
Titration and Standard Solution Technique
Volatalisation of HCl and HNO3 and absorption of water by H2SO4 makes them unsuitable
primary standards. Similarly, NaOH and KOH both absorb moisture from the air and also
react with CO2 and are thus not a suitable primary standard.
Anhydrous sodium carbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate or oxalic acid (C2H2O4) is a
suitable primary standard.
Preparing a Standard Solution
1. Ensure that the substance being used as a primary standard is as pure as possible and
particularly that it is free of moisture (dry in oven, cool in dessicator)
2. Weigh as accurately as possible on electronic balance
3. Ensure volumetric flask has been thoroughly cleaned with pure water
4. Carefully transfer all solute from the measuring beaker into the volumetric flask
5. Ensure that the solute is completely dissolved before filling flask with water. The bottom of
the meniscus should sit on the graduation mark
6. Final solution should be gently inverted or shaken to ensure uniform mixing
Using a pipette
To fill a pipette after rinsing with some of the solution first, the solution is drawn in using the
pipette filler until the solution is well above the graduation mark. The solution is then carefully
run out until the meniscus sits exactly on the mark. To do this it is essential that the pipette is held
at eye level to avoid parallax errors. The solution is then run out of the pipette into the conical
flask by gravity (not by blowing) and finally, the pipette is held with its tip in contact with the wall

Richard Shaw

of the receiving flask or beaker. It is important that the final portion of liquid in the pipette is not
blown out as the pipette is already calibrated to take this into account.
Using a burette
Before filling a burette, it is rinsed with a portion of the solution to be dispensed. It is then
overfilled and the excess run out. During this procedure, care is taken to ensure that all air bubbles
are removed; to do this it may be necessary to hold the burette at an angle. Once any such are
bubbles are removed, the burette is clamped vertically and the liquid level is lowered until the
bottom of the meniscus sits exactly on the mark.
Measuring cylinders cannot be used because its accuracy is only around 5% whereas for
volumetric analysis we need to measure volumes to 0.5% or better.
Conducting Titration
Fill a burette with a solution of known concentration and adjust the solution level in the
burette to the zero mark
Place a solution of the sample to be analysed in a conical flask under the burette
Add one or two drops of a suitable indicator to the flask
Place a white tile or card under the flask to make it easier to detect the colour change in the
indicator without overshooting the equivalence point
Slowly run the solution from the burette into the flask with continuous swirling until the
indicator just changes colour. Near the equivalence point add the titrant slowly. Half-drops
can be used by allowing a small drop to form on the end of the burette then washing it into
the flask with a bottle
Read the volume delivered by the burette as accurately as possible.
Repeat the titration several times until a consistent volume of titrant is obtained (differing
by no more than 0.1 or 0.2 mL)
Calculate the required concentration of the unknown using basic stoichiometry.
Qualitatively describe the effect of buffers with reference to a specific example in a natural system
A buffer is a solution that contains comparable amounts of a weak acid and its conjugate base or a
weak base and its conjugate acid and is therefore able to maintain an approximately constant pH
even when significant amounts of strong acid or strong base are added to it. Buffer systems occur
naturally and are extremely important in biological systems. A number of metabolic activities that
occur within the body produce acids or bases as waste products. Without an effective buffering
system, the pH would fluctuate wildly. Biological systems cannot function in such extreme
conditions, as enzymes can only function properly in a narrow pH range. Below a pH of 7.35 and a
condition known as acidosis develops, and below 6.8 can result in death. Similarly, if the pH rises
above 7.45 a condition known as alkalosis occurs. The presence of buffers in the blood maintains
the pH between 7.35 and 7.45. The main buffer system used in controlling the pH of the blood is
the carbon dioxide and water/carbonic acid/ hydrogen carbonate ion buffer system.

Richard Shaw

This buffer system allows the pH of our blood to be ultimately controlled through our breathing
which involves the inhaling and exhaling of carbon dioxide, and works with a second buffer
involving haemoglobin in red blood cells:

10. Esterification is a naturally occurring process which can be performed in the


laboratory
Describe the difference between the alkanol and alkanoic acid functional groups in carbon
compounds
An alkanol contains the OH functional group. An alkanoic acid contains the COOH functional
group.
Identify data, plan, select equipment and perform a first-hand investigation to prepare an ester
using reflux
Aim: To prepare an ester using reflux
Equipment: Boiling chips, cooling condenser, round bottom flask, hot plate, retort stand, clamp,
tap with running water, large beaker, separating funnel, tripod, cause, Bunsen burner, butan-1ol, glacial acetic acid, 8M sulfuric acid, saturated NaHCO3.
Risk Assessment: Many of the chemical we were using such as acetic acid and sulfuric acid are
corrosive. Others like butan-1-ol were flammable. Care must be taken when handling these
chemicals and the wearing of safety goggles throughout the experiment is advisable. The use of
a Bunsen burner is also a risk and so a fire extinguisher was kept near.
Method:
1) 12.5mL of butan-1-ol and 15mL of glacial acetic acid were placed in the round flask
2) The teacher added 5ml of 8M sulfuric acid to the flask as well as some boiling chips
3) The refluxing apparatus was assembled as shown below.
4) The water condenser was turned on so a uniform flow was achieved

Richard Shaw

5) The flask was held in place using a retort stand and clamp and was placed in a large
beaker full of water which sat on the gauze mat above the tripod and Bunsen burner
6) The mixture was heated under reflux for 30 minutes. It was then allowed to cool for 5
minutes and the water was turned off.
7) 15mL of water and sodium hydrogen carbonate was added to the funnel and shaken.
The lower aqueous layer was drained off and the ester remained in the separating
funnel. Note: the ester could be further purified using distillation
Discussion: The ester was a murky white colour when viewed in the separating funnel. The
ester smelt strongly of nail polish and a slight hint of raspberry. An aqueous layer formed upon
addition of sodium hydrogen carbonate and water and the aqueous layer could be drained off.
Bubbles were produced when adding sodium hydrogen carbonate.
After the ester has formed, not all the reactants have been converted to products so there will
be some unreacted carboxylic acid. The addition of sodium hydrogen carbonate neutralizes this
remaining acid. By adding water, the alkanol dissolves in the water while the ester forms an
immiscible layer on top of it. WE could then use a separating funnel to drain off the denser
aqueous layer leaving the ester on top.
Conclusion: We were able to produce an ester using reflux.

Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for describing the esters produced by reactions of straightchained alkanoic acids from C1 to C8 and straight-chained primary alkanols from C1 to C8
Process information from secondary sources to identify and describe the uses of esters as
flavours and perfumes in processed foods and cosmetics
Esters have pleasant, fruity odours and occur widely in nature as perfumes and flavouring
agents. While the characteristic smells or flavours of many plants and fruits usually arise from a
complex mixture of substances, often one ester can be identified as the major ingredient of the
smell or flavour.

Richard Shaw

Explain the difference in melting point and boiling point caused by straight-chained alkanoic
acids and straight-chained primary alkanol structures
Both the C-O and the O-H bonds are polar bonds. This means that alkanols are polar molecules.
The C=O bond is also polar, so with these three polar bonds, alkanoic acids are even more polar
than alkanols. In addition to simple polarity, the O-H bonds are able to form hydrogen bonds.
Consequently there are strong intermolecular forces in alkanols and alkanoic acids. They also
have high solubilitys in water. Alkanols however are only able to form one hydrogen bond,
while alkanoic acids are able to form two hydrogen bonds, meaning that there are stronger
intermolecular forces present in alkanoic acids. This means that a greater amount of energy is
required to break these molecules apart, and hence they have a high melting point and boiling
point than corresponding alkanols. Furthermore, as molecular mass increases, the
intermolecular forces present also increases and hence the melting point and boiling points also
increase.
Note: Heat of combustion also increases with molecular mass. Esters are polar but do not have
any hydrogen bonds meaning they have much weaker intermolecular forces, and thus lower
melting and boiling points.

Identify esterification as the reaction between an acid and an alkanol and describe, using
equations, examples of esterification

Describe the purpose of using acid in esterification for catalysis


Esterification uses a concentrated sulfuric acid catalyst. This catalyst lowers the activation
energy of the reaction by providing an alternate energy pathway for the reaction to follow.
This in turn increases the rate of reaction (which is very slow at room temperature without a
catalyst) and allows the reaction to reach equilibrium faster. Sulfuric acid also acts as a
dehydrating agent, it absorbs the product water as it forms causing the equilibrium to shirt to
the right (by Le Chateliers Principle) and therefore increase the yield of ester.
Explain the need for refluxing during esterification
Refluxing is the process of heating a reaction mixture in a vessel with a cooling condenser
attached in order to prevent the loss of volatile reactant or product. It allows us to bring about
the esterification reaction at a higher temperature and thereby increase the rate of reaction

Richard Shaw

(which is otherwise very slow). Refluxing avoids a dangerous build-up of volatile reactants,
which are also flammable and prevents the dangerous build-up of pressure (if the flask is sealed
at the top).
Note: The water bath and boiling chips are used to promote even boiling. The boiling chips
provide a nucleus for boiling to occur and prevent super heating and bumping.
Outline some examples of the occurrence, production uses of esters
Esters are produced through esterification. Concentrated sulfuric acid is used as a catalyst.
And refluxing is also required by using a cooling condenser to prevent loss of any volatile
reactant or product, and allows the reaction to be brought to a higher temperature than
otherwise possible.
Uses: esters are good industrial solvents as they have both polar and non-polar groups. They
are used as artificial flavoring agents and perfumes, such as butyl ethanoate as raspberry and
iso-pentyl ethanoate as banana. Ethyl ethanoate is also nail polish remover.
High molecular weight esters are also used as plasticizers like dialkyl phthalates for PVC, as
well as in other foods such as margarine, soap making and cosmetic oils.

Richard Shaw

Chemical Monitoring and Management


11.

Much of the work of chemists involves monitoring reactants and products of reactions
and managing reaction conditions

Outline the role of a chemist employed in a named industry or enterprise, identifying the branch
of chemistry undertaken by the chemist and explaining a chemical principle that the chemist uses
Burhan Gemikonakli works as a plant chemist for Qenos, a chemical manufacturing company that
makes ethylene from ethane for use in plastics. Burhans work is mainly in industrial and analytical
chemistry which involves the monitoring of chemical processes as well as determining what
substances are present in a sample. Burhans role involves monitoring ethylene quality produced,
monitoring wastes and effluent discharges, collaborating with process engineers at the cracking
furnace to solve onsite problems as well as instrument calibration and shift-worker training. Much
of Burhans analyses require gas liquid chromatography which relies on the chemical principle of
solubility. GLC involves vaporizing a mixture and passing it through a series of pipes coated with a
liquid stationary phase. The components varying interaction with this stationary phase causes them
to more with the mobile phase through the pipes at differing speeds, and thus reaching a detector
at varying times. The detector measures these retention times and with standards, allows Burhan to
determine what substances are present in a given sample.

Gather, process and present information from secondary sources about the work of practicing
scientists identifying:
-the variety of chemical occupations
Environmental chemist, concerned with determining how substances interact with the
environment and with monitoring concentrations of substances, particularly pollutants.
Polymer chemist, involved with developing new polymers with particular properties,
studying existing polymers and the polymerisation process to make it more efficient
Industrial chemist, concerned with the chemistry of industrial processes
Forensic chemist, concerned with the collection of evidence for use in law courts,
particularly with identifying and tracing the origins of substances found at crime scenes
Nuclear chemist, focuses on the productions and uses of radioisotopes in medicine, industry
and agriculture as well as studying the fundamental nature of nuclear reactions

Richard Shaw

Pharmaceutical chemist, concerned with the discovery, testing, synthesis and commercial
development of chemicals for use as medicines
-a specific chemical occupation for a more detailed study
Burhan works as an analytical/industrial chemist
Identify the need for collaboration between chemists as they collect and analyse data
Chemical problems often require expertise in more than one branch of chemistry. Consequently,
collaboration is often needed between different specialist chemists in order for the problem to be
safely and efficiently solved. A chemical spill in an industrial chemical manufacturer would require
an analytical chemist to determine the nature of the spill but would also require an environmental
chemist to determine the effects of the spill on biota and an industrial chemist to determine how
the spill occurred. It is only through collaboration that issues such as a chemical spill can be
adequately handled. Collaboration relies on communication skills and enhances the reliability and
accuracy in the way a situation is handled.
Describe an example of a chemical reaction such as combustion, where reactants form different
products under different conditions and thus would need monitoring
In industry it is important to monitor chemical reactions and the conditions under which they
proceed. This allows the maximum amount of the desired product to be formed while minimizing
production of unwanted by products. Monitoring also ensures that no unnecessary pollutants are
being produced by the reaction itself or by impurities in the starting materials. Monitoring and
managing a reaction also ensures that the reaction is going to completion and not forming an
undesirable equilibrium or leaving unreacted reactants, allowing the reaction to be as energy and
financially efficient as possible.
Combustion is one such industrial chemical reaction in which monitoring is crucial to the
efficiency of industrial operations. In an excess of oxygen, combustion is complete and proceeds as:

However, if combustion reactions are not monitored carefully and there is a deficiency in oxygen,
incomplete combustion occurs:

Incomplete combustion results in the formation of different and unwanted products such as CO
and C (soot). Not only does incomplete combustion produce less heat per mole and hence reducing
the industrial processes efficiency and increasing costs, but also has environmental consequences.
CO is toxic, having detrimental effects on human health such as inhibiting the absorption of
oxygen by hemoglobin. C (soot) is also a pollutant which can cause respiratory irritation and
pollute waterways adversely affecting biota. Hence, it is clear that monitoring of chemical
reactions is essential. Without adequate monitoring, different undesirable products may be formed
causing a wide range of adverse effects.

Richard Shaw

12.

Chemical processes in industry require monitoring and management to maximise


production

Identify and describe the industrial uses of ammonia


a. Fertilisers: chemical compounds which promote the growth of plants, providing
significant commercial benefits to the agricultural and horticultural industries.
Ammonium sulfate is a common fertiliser:
b. Nitric acid: ammonia is used to make nitric acid through a process known as the
Ostwald process:
Nitric acid from this process can then be used to make fertilisers (such as ammonium
nitrate), nitro-explosives, and synthetic fibres.
c. Ammonia is used in the manufacture of synthetic fibres such as rayon, acrylics, nylon
and dyes
d. Pharmaceutical drugs
e. Refrigeration
f. Ammonium hydroxide cleaning agent
Gather and process information from secondary sources to describe the conditions under which
Haber developed the industrial synthesis of ammonia and evaluate its significance at that time in
world history
During the early 20th century, the main source of fertilizer was from Chilean saltpetre (KNO3). This
was also used for the production of explosives such as nitroglycerine and TNT. However the early
20th century also saw saltpetre supplies begin to rapidly decline as world populations continued to
grow, and this was a serious issue as fertilizer demands for food crops could not longer be easily
met. Furthermore, the growing German militancy through World War I also saw demands for
saltpetre increase for the manufacturing of more explosives. Then in 1908, Fritz Haber first
developed a method for synthesizing ammonia from its constituent gases in what is know as the
Haber process:

The Haber process allowed demands for both fertilizers worldwide and explosives to be met.
Habers significant contribution to the German war effort is now believed to be a factor which
prolonged World War I. Habers contribution to the German war effort was a significant tragedy
for humanity, possibly causing countless deaths. The Haber process has also had a significant
positive impact in providing an alternative for fertilizer production, possibly averting a world wide
famine. It is evident that Fritz Haber and the Haber process have made a significant impact not
only at that time in world history, but continues to impact society today.

Richard Shaw

Identify that ammonia can be synthesized from its component gases, nitrogen and hydrogen
Describe that the synthesis of ammonia occurs as a reversible reaction that will reach equilibrium
Identify the reaction of hydrogen with nitrogen as exothermic
Explain why the rate of reaction is increased by higher temperatures
Higher temperatures cause the kinetic energy of reactant particles to increase. This increases the
likely hood of collisions where the particles have sufficient energy to overcome the activation
energy of the reaction and hence react to form products. Hence rate of reaction is increased by
higher temperatures.
Explain why the yield of product in the Haber process is reduced at higher temperatures using Le
Chateliers principle
The synthesis of ammonia from its constituent gases as in the Haber process is an exothermic
equilibrium reaction. Le Chateliers principle states that a closed system at equilibrium will shift so
as to minimize the effects of a disturbance, hence increasing the temperature will cause the
equilibrium to favour the backward endothermic reaction, reducing the yield of ammonia which is
produced by the forward exothermic reaction.
Explain why the Haber process is based on a delicate balancing act involving reaction energy,
reaction rate and equilibrium
The synthesis of ammonia from its constituent gases as in the Haber process is an exothermic
equilibrium reaction. Le Chateliers principle states that a closed system at equilibrium will shift so
as to minimize the effects of a disturbance. Hence, decreasing the temperature in the Haber process
will cause the exothermic reaction to be favoured, leading to a desirable increase in the yield of
ammonia. However, increasing the temperature increases the number of molecules with sufficient
energy to overcome the activation energy and also increases the number of molecular collisions,
leading to an increased rate of reaction. Therefore, a lower temperature will increase the yield of
ammonia but lower the rate of reaction. Similarly, a high temperature will decrease the yield but
increase the rate of reactions. Hence, the Haber process involves a compromise temperature being
used so that a delicate balance can be established that takes both rate and yield into consideration
to produce the most efficient and economical means of producing ammonia industrially.
Explain that the use of a catalyst will lower the reaction temperature required and identify that
catalyst(s) used in the Haber process
The use of a catalyst lowers the activation energy of the reaction by providing an alternate energy
pathway along which the reaction can proceed. By lowering the activation energy, the temperature
required for the reaction is also lowered (as less KE is needed by the reactant molecules). The
catalyst used in the Haber process is magnetite Fe3O4 as well as promoters CaO, MgO, K2O, Al2O3.
Analyse the impact of increased pressure on the system involved in the Haber process

Richard Shaw

Le Chateliers Principle states that a closed system at equilibrium will shift so as to minimise the
change, hence if the pressure on the system is increased, the system will shift so as to minimise the
increase in pressure by favouring the reaction that reduces the number moles of gas. Since the gas
mole ratio of the Haber process system is 4:2 (2:1), an increase in pressure will cause the
equilibrium to shift to the right, increasing the yield of ammonia.
Explain why monitoring of the reaction vessel used in the Haber process is crucial and discuss the
monitoring required
The Haber process is the industrial process in which nitrogen and hydrogen gases are reacted to
produce ammonia:

The Haber process is critical to international ammonia production and has allowed for mass
production of fertilizers, fibres, plastics and explosives. Monitoring this equilibrium reaction is
critical in order to maximise efficiency as well as maintaining safety. Careful monitoring of the
reaction vessel ensures that the rate and yield of ammonia is maximized. The conditions that
require monitoring are:
Ratio of hydrogen to nitrogen, which must be kept at 3:1 within the reaction vessel so that
there is no build up of one reactant that reduces efficiency and so that there is no unsafe
build up of pressure
Temperature: which must be maintained at ~400C to optimize both rate and yield
Decreasing the temperature causes the exothermic reaction to be favoured (by Le Chateliers
Principle), increasing in the yield of ammonia. However, increasing the temperature increases
the rate of reaction. Therefore, a lower temperature will increase the yield of ammonia but
lower the rate of reaction. Similarly, a high temperature will decrease the yield but increase the
rate of reaction. Hence, the Haber process involves a compromise temperature being used so
that a delicate balance can be established that takes both rate and yield into consideration.
Pressure: which must be maintained at ~2.5 x 104 kPa to maximise yield (by shifting the
equilibrium to the right), excessively high pressures (and temperature) can damage the
catalyst and compromise safety and is too costly
The magnetite catalyst (Fe3O4) as well as catalyst promoters (CaO, MgO, K2O, Al2O3) must
also be carefully monitored to ensure that the catalyst surface is not compromised
The outgoing ammonia which is removed by liquefaction (to shift the equilibrium to the
right) must be of a sufficient purity for further applications such as use in explosives
The build-up of non reactive gases such as argon must also be monitored and minimized to
promote higher efficiency
Unwanted gases such as oxygen must also be excluded as it poses a threat of explosion. CO2,
CO and Sulfur compounds must also be excluded as they are catalyst poisons that would
reduce the rate of reaction

Richard Shaw

13.

Manufactured products, including food, drugs and household chemicals, are analysed to
determine or ensure their chemical composition

Deduce the ions present in a sample from the results of tests

Richard Shaw

Richard Shaw

Richard Shaw

Richard Shaw

Perform first-hand investigations to carry out a range of tests, including flame tests, to identify the
following ions:
Phosphate, sulfate, carbonate, chloride, barium, calcium, lead, copper, iron
Describe the use of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) in detecting concentrations of metal ions
in solutions and assess its impact on scientific understanding of trace elements
AAS is a very sensitive analytical technique which uses the absorption of light to measure very
small or minute concentrations of substances. If ground state atoms of an element are irradiated
with light of a wavelength known to be absorbed by them, then those atoms will absorb some of
that light. By measuring the fraction of light at that wavelength that is absorbed, we can determine
the concentration of the element. This is the basis of AAS.

Richard Shaw

By measuring the intensity of the wavelength of light known to exist as part of the samples
absorption spectrum reaching the detector with and without the sample in the flame, the
instrument calculates and displays a function called absorbance. Absorbance is proportional to
concentration, so the measured absorbance can be used to calculate the concentration of the
particular element being examined. The absorbance of the sample is compared against calibrated
absorbance curves using standard solutions of known concentrations.
AAS is effective because:
It is fast, relatively simple and inexpensive to operate
It has great sensitivity and accuracy, and is capable of measuring very low concentrations of
ions
Reliable as absorption spectra are unique to each element
Selective, it will only measure the concentration of one element regardless of the number
and identity of other ions in the sample
AAS is ineffective because:
Can only test on metal at a time and a different lamp is required for each element
Preparing standard solutions is often difficult and cumbersome
AAS is only effective with metal ions
Trace elements; are elements that are required by living organisms in very small concentrations but
necessary for their survival. Examples of trace elements include zinc, cobalt, copper, nickel,
molybdenum, iodine and selenium. Before the onset of AAS, these trace elements existed in such
low concentrations that they were in fact undetectable by previous means such as gravimetric and
volumetric analysis. AAS demonstrated that these elements were essential for the well being of
organisms and their importance is now well understood. For example, AAS showed molybdenum
deficiencies in legumes in arid parts of Victoria were the cause of poor crops. AAS has allowed for a
greater understanding of the human and plant function and greatly enhanced diagnostics as well as
improved agricultural productivity through our increased knowledge of trace elements.
Gather, process and present information to describe and explain the evidence for the need to
monitor levels of one of the above ions in substances used in society
Lead is a toxic heavy metal that adversely affects humans and the environment.
Lead is rapidly absorbed into the brain where it causes neurological damage in adults. In
children lead can cause learning difficulties, behavioral disorders such as ADHD, learning
impairments and mental retardation
Lead poisoning causes anaemia as it inhibits the binding of iron to hemoglobin
If left untreated lead poisoning can eventually lead to death
Kidneys and reproductive system are also effected by lead, as well as other organ damage by
disrupting enzyme systems
Lead contamination is likely to occur if monitoring isnt carried out due to the large number of
sources of possible contamination such as:
Old paints and fuels (leaded petrol)
Sandpapering old paints and house demolitions release airborne particulates of lead

Richard Shaw

Mining and refining of lead also releases air borne particulates of lead and releases lead
through waterways
Lead-acid batteries in aqueous run-off
Pottery glazes, workers and the firing process also releases particulates of lead as airborne
particulates.
Identify data, plan, select equipment and perform first-hand investigations to measure the sulfate
content of lawn fertilizer and explain the chemistry involved
Aim: To quantitatively determine the sulfate concentration in fertilisers using gravimetric analysis
Equipment: ammonium sulfate fertiliser, electronic balance, stirring rod, 0.1% agar-agar, filter
paper, filter funnel, mortar and pestle, BaCl2 solution, 6M HCl, drying oven, AgNO3
Method:
1) Grind up fertiliser in mortar and pestle
2) Accurately weigh 2g of fertiliser
3) Dissolve in clean beaker and acidify with 6M HCl
4) Heat slowly to completely dissolve all fertiliser
5) Add BaCl2 dropwise while stirring until no visible cloudiness appears at point of contact
6) Allow to settle for 3-4 minutes and test the solution again for cloudiness
7) Add 10mL of agar-agar dropwise while stirring and then allow to settle for another 3-4
minutes
8) Decant liquid off top onto filter funnel with filter paper
9) Collect some filtrate and test with more BaCl2, and no cloudiness was observed
10) Tip rest of beaker onto filter paper, rinse beaker 3 times with de-mineralised water and
transfer liquid to filter paper.
11) Rinse the filter paper with boiling water, and on the 3rd rinse collect some water and test
with AgNO3, no precipitate was observed to form.
12) Dry in drying over and weigh accurately.
13) Calculate the sulfate content of the fertiliser

Richard Shaw

Conclusion: We were able to determine the sulfate content of the fertiliser by gravimetric analysis
Analyse information to evaluate the reliability of the results of the above investigation and to
propose solutions to problems encountered in the procedure
Problems with this practical and how they can be solved:
Validity-Other precipitates forming such as Ba3(PO4)2, this is solved by acidifying the
fertiliser with 6M HCl
Reliability-Incomplete precipitation of SO42-, this is solved by testing the filtrate after
precipitation for cloudiness at point of contact
Reliability-Incomplete transfer of BaSO4 to filter paper, this is solved by rinsing
thoroughly
Reliability and Validity- BaSO4 is very small and could clog or pass through the filter
paper, this can be solved by using a sintered glass crucible
Validity-unused agar could have been weighed with the BaSO4, this was combated
by rinsing the filter paper 3 times with boiling water to dissolve any unused agar.
Note: Agar-agar is used as a coagulant to make the removal of BaSO4 easier.
Gather, process and present information to interpret secondary data from AAS measurements and
evaluate the effectiveness of this in pollution control
AAS is a very sensitive analytical technique which uses the absorption of light to measure very
small or minute concentrations of substances. AAS has both advantages and disadvantages in the
analysis of pollutants for pollution control.
AAS is effective because:
It is fast, relatively simple and inexpensive to operate
It has great sensitivity and accuracy, and is capable of measuring very low concentrations of
ions
Reliable as absorption spectra are unique to each element
Selective, it will only measure the concentration of one element regardless of the number
and identity of other ions in the sample
AAS is ineffective because:
Can only test on metal at a time and a different lamp is required for each element
Preparing standard solutions is often difficult and cumbersome
AAS is only effective with metal ions meaning that is cannot test of many pollutants such as
acidic oxides
Overall, AAS is effective in pollution control as it allows for extremely accurate measurements of
many common pollutants such as Pb2+ ions; however AAS is not always practical such as when
many pollutants need to be measured at once or if non-metal pollutants need to be measured.

Richard Shaw

14.
Human activity has caused changes in the composition and the structure of the
atmosphere. Chemists monitor these changes so that further damage can be limited
Describe the composition and layered structure of the atmosphere
The atmosphere is a layer of gas approximately 200-300km thick that encircles the earth. It is
arranged into four distinct layers with differing characteristics, but the overall composition can be
summaries as:
78% nitrogen gas
21% oxygen gas
0.93% argon gas
Trace amounts of other gases such as CO2, Ne, He, CH4, NH3, CO, N2O etc
Layer
Troposphere

Altitude
(km)
0-15

Most Common Gases


N2, O2, H2O, CO2, Ar

Description

Stratosphere

Mesosphere

15-50

50-80

N2, O2, O3

N2, O2

Thermosphere/
Ionosphere

>80

Ions (O , NO ), O
+
2

Contains most of earth


gases, organisms inhabit
this zone, weather events
occur here
Temperature decreases
with altitude
Contains ozone (25km)
Temperature increases
with altitude and gives
stability
Planes fly here
Coldest layer (down to 100C)
Temperature decreases
with altitude
Meteors burn up here
Temperature rises with
altitude, ionic and atomic
gas particles here.
Important in radio
communications since
radio waves reflect off

Richard Shaw

ionosphere
Satellites orbit here

Present information from secondary sources to write the equations to show the reactions involving
CFCs and ozone to demonstrate the removal of ozone from the atmosphere

Identify the main pollutants found in the lower atmosphere and their sources

Richard Shaw

Describe ozone as a molecule able to act both as an upper atmosphere radiation shield and a lower
atmosphere pollutant
Ozone is poisonous to humans and most other life forms when inhaled. Ozone causes breathing
difficulties, aggravates respiratory problems, and produces headaches and premature fatigue.
However in the stratosphere ozone protects all life forms by filtering out short-wavelength U.V.
light which damages living tissue, acting as a radiation shield. Thus ozone is both an upper
atmosphere radiation shield and a lower atmosphere pollutant.
Lower atmosphere: photochemical smog is a type of air pollution that is produced when
sunlight acts upon motor car exhausts to form ozone and other harmful substances.

Upper atmosphere: ozone acts as a radiation shield through the mechanisms:

Richard Shaw

Gather, process and present information from secondary sources including simulations, molecular
model kits, or pictorial representations to model isomers of haloalkanes
Describe the formation of a coordinate covalent bond
Demonstrate the formation of coordinate covalent bonds using Lewis electron dot structures

Present information from secondary sources to identify alternative chemicals used to replace CFCs
and evaluate the effectiveness of their use as a replacement of CFCs
HCFC: have C-H bonds which are easily broken down by radicals in the troposphere, this
reduces the amount of pollution reaching the stratosphere. Thus their ozone destroying
capacity is much less, but is still quite significant.
HFC: they contain C-H bonds and so can be broken down in the troposphere and have no
harmful C-Cl bonds and thus their ozone destroying capacity is zero. They are more
expensive than CFCs and les;s efficient.
Compare the properties of oxygen allotropes O2 and O3 and account for them on the basis of
molecular structure and bonding
Property
O2
O3
Colour
Colourless
Pale Blue
Odour
Odourless
Acrid Odour
Boiling Point/Melting Point Lower: linear molecule with
Higher: Trigonal planar
symmetrical distribution of
molecule with asymmetrical
electrons meaning that the
electron distribution meaning
molecule is non-polar. Only
that molecule is polar.
dispersion forces present.
Dipole-dipole and dispersion
BP:-183C
forces mean greater
intermolecular forces.
BP: -111C
Reactivity
Stable: double bond only
Less stable: single coordinate
covalent bond requires less

Richard Shaw

Solubility
Density

Less soluble (non-polar)


Density of air

energy to break than double


bond
Soluble (polar)
1.5 x density of air

Compare the properties of the gaseous forms of oxygen and the oxygen free radical
A neutral species that has an unpaired electron and which can be formed by splitting a molecule
into two neutral fragments is called a free radical. Due to the presence of an unpaired electron, and
an incomplete valence shell, free radicals are much more reactive than stable molecules. Oxygen
gas and ozone are stable molecules in which all the atoms have completely filled valence shells.
The oxygen free radical on the other hand has an incomplete valence shall (with 6 electrons rather
than the complete 8), making the free radical far more reactive than oxygen gas or ozone.
Identify the origins of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons in the atmosphere
CFCs were first introduced in the 1930s as a refrigeration replacement for ammonia. The major
sources of CFCs are in their use as aerosol propellants, refrigerator coolants, foam blowing agents
and cleaning electronic circuit boards. Halons were used as fire extinguishers.

Identify and name examples of isomers (excluding geometrical and optical) of haloalkanes up to
eight carbon atoms
Discuss the problems associated with the use of CFCs and assess the effectiveness of steps taken to
alleviate these problems
The primary issue with CFCs in the stratosphere is their role in depleting atmospheric ozone.
Chlorine radicals are particularly damaging to the ozone layer. CFCs are relatively inert and
insoluble, and thus are able to diffuse into the upper atmosphere. Once in the stratosphere, short
wavelength UV causes the formation of chlorine free radicals:
This free radical then reacts with ozone:
The Chlorine free radical is then regenerated:

Or

The net result is conversion of ozone into oxygen, with the regeneration of the free radical which
can then cause even more damage.

Richard Shaw

Depletion of ozone in the stratosphere is a problem because it results in more harmful UV radiation
reaching the Earths surface. This causes:
Increased incidence of sunburn and skin cancer
Increased risk of eye cataracts
Increased risk of disease and illness due to the lowering of the immune system from UV
exposure
Reduced plant growth due to UV interference in photosynthesis cycles
Increased damage to many synthetic materials, such as polymers which become brittle and
surface powder.
Steps taken to alleviate these problems include legislation, CFC alternatives (above), sun protection
and polymer stabilisers:
Legislation:
Montreal Protocol 1987 has meant that the use of CFCs has been completely phased out in
developed countries, except in essential cases where no acceptable substitutes have been
found (asthma inhalers).
Copenhagen Amendment (1992) was to stop halon use by end of 1994, cease manufacturing
CFCs by 1996, phase out HCFCs by early in the 21st century
Allow less developed countries some period of grace and provide some financial assistance
to help them phase out CFCs
Alternative ompounds:
HCFC: have C-H bonds which are easily broken down by radicals in the troposphere, this
reduces the amount of pollution reaching the stratosphere. Thus their ozone destroying
capacity is much less, but is still quite significant.
HFC: they contain C-H bonds and so can be broken down in the troposphere and have no
harmful C-Cl bonds and thus their ozone destroying capacity is zero. They are more
expensive than CFCs and less efficient.
Sun Protection:
Sunscreen, hats, sunglasses etc help prevent sunburn, cancer and eye cataracts
This method of alleviation is effective in treating the effects of ozone depletion but clearly
does not aid to alleviate the problem itself
Polymer Stabilizers:
Stabilizers prevent cracking of plastics and stops them becoming brittle in U.V light
This is effective in addressing the effect of zone depletion but does not help alleviate the
problem of CFC ozone depletion.
Analyse the information available that indicates changes in atmospheric ozone concentrations,
describe the changes observed and explain how this information was obtained

Richard Shaw

Atmospheric ozone levels were detected through ground based instruments called UV
Spectrophotometers that measure the intensity of light received at a wavelength at which ozone
absorbs and then at a wavelength on either side of this. A comparison of these intensities gives a
measure of total ozone in the atmosphere per unit area of the Earths surface at that location. The
ozone hole that began to appear with the introduction of CFCs in the 1930s was first detected by
this method. Instruments in satellites called Total Ozone Mapping Spectrophotometers (TOMS)
work similarly to ground based equipment but they are also able to measure ozone concentration
as a function of altitude and geographic position. TOMS were first introduced in the late 1980s
where they recorded a thinning of the ozone layer over Antarctica, with declines of over 50% in
spring just after winter. The more pronounced ozone depletion in spring is predominantly due to a
seasonal change with warmer weather allowing chlorine atoms held to the ice to be freed and then
cause ozone destruction in the stratosphere. Aside from these seasonal changes, UV
spectrophotometers recorded a 3% to 8% decline in ozone levels with an increasing number of
ozone holes appearing and spreading from Antarctica to Australian and New Zealand. More
recently, due to legislation such as the Copenhagen Amendment, ozone depletion rates have
declined and ozone levels have been relatively stable in recent years.

Ozone concentration varies both seasonally and in the long-term.


Serious ozone depletion occurs seasonally and in localized areas (small holes in highly
populated areas of the northern-hemisphere)
In the Antarctic winter when there is no sunlight, certain solid particles form that are able
to catalyse a reaction between hydrogen chloride and chlorine nitrate (both products from
the reactions with methane and nitrogen dioxide that remove Cl radicals):

At the beginning of spring, sunlight is able to split chlorine gas into two free radicals and
each of these is then able to destroy ozone as shown earlier.
Note: Total ozone per unit area above a location is generally measured in Dobson Units, DU. 1 DU
is the amount of ozone that corresponds to a 0.01mm thickness of pure ozone at atmospheric
pressure. The normal amount of ozone is 300 DU.

15.
Human activity also impacts on waterways. Chemical monitoring and management
assists in providing safe water for human use and to protect the habitats of other organisms
Identify that water quality can be determined by considering:
-concentration of common ions
Carbonate
First check pH, if pH is less than pH, carbonate is unlikely to be present in significant
amounts. Heat sample to ~80C and carefully add drops of 0.1M HCl with gas bubbles (that
turn limewater milky) being a positive test for carbonate.
Precipitate with Ca2+ and then use gravimetric analysis (mg/L or ppm)
Hydrogen carbonate is another common ion found in water that can be determined
volumetrically by titration with standardised HCl.

Richard Shaw

Chloride
White precipitate with AgNO3 that goes black in UV and then use gravimetric analysis.
Titrating with AgNO3 and dilute potassium chromate indicator. When all the chloride ions
have reacted, any excess silver nitrate added will react with chromate ions to form a redbrown precipitate of silver chromate. This procedure is known as Mohrs method.
If 10mL solution becomes turbid after adding 1 drop of 1x10-2M then chloride concentration
is >0.2mg/L
Sulfate
White precipitate with BaCl2 then use gravimetric analysis
If 10mL solution becomes turbid after adding 1 drop of 1x10-2M then sulfate concentration
is >0.5mg/L
Phosphate
Ammonium molybdate test. Acidify sample, add (NH4)2MoO4 and gently heat for a few
minutes. The appearance of yellow precipitate or turbidity indicates phosphate presence.
Colorimetry using a spectrophotometer can give quantitative concentration. A measured
quantity of a solution of ammonium molybdate and a catalyst are added to the sample
followed by careful mixing. Solid ascorbic acid is then added to the mixture to form intense
molybdenum blue. By comparing the absorbance of this solution with that produced by a
standard phosphate solution treated identically, we can calculate the concentration of
phosphate.
Nitrate
Brown ring test. Add iron(II) sulfate to the solution, then slowly adding concentrated
sulfuric acid and watching for a brown ring on the test tube.
Note: that the presence of nitrite ions will interfere with this test.
Alternatively, adding a few drops of sulfuric acid and small piece of copper foil to 1mL of
the sample. Heating this mixture in a fume cupboard and observing brown fumes of noxious
nitrogen dioxide gas is a positive result for nitrate.

Richard Shaw

-total dissolved solids


Total dissolved solids is the mass of solids dissolved in unit volume of water (mg/L or ppm).
Undisturbed waterways usually have a TDS< 100ppm. TDS often rises to 300ppm near farm/grazing
land. Sea water has a TDS of 35000ppm, and drinking water for humans should have TDS<500ppm.
TDS by evaporation, filter off suspended solids then by evaporating a sample of water to
dryness and weighing the solids left.
TDS by conductivity, nearly all the solids are dissolved as ions which conduct electricity.
Although conductivity (measured in siemens/cm) is actually a measurement of total
dissolved salts, it is still a fair approximation of TDS.
TDS (in ppm) = 0.65 x Conductivity (measured in mS/cm)
-hardness
Hardness is a measure of a water samples ability to form lather or a measure of calcium and
magnesium ion concentrations. Water hardness is measured by determining the total
concentration of magnesium and calcium ions in the water and expressing the result as milligrams
of CaCO3 per litre. Warragamba Dam has a hardness of 40mg/L.

Richard Shaw

Hardness can be tested qualitatively by adding soap and seeing if foam lather can be made.
A volumetric titration is used for a quantitative analysis. It uses the fact that both calcium
and magnesium ions in an ammonia, ammonium buffer solution form a complex with the
quadruply charged anion of ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid (EDTA). The indicator used
for this titration is another complexing agent Eriochrome Black T, which has a blue colour
that turns red with magnesium. The equivalence point is when the solution changes from
purple to blue.
Water can be softened by boiling (temporary solution), precipitating calcium with carbonate, using
water softeners to change the nature of calcium and magnesium (such as sodium
hexametaphosphate (Na2[Na4(PO3)6])) and de-ionisation using ion exchange resins.
-turbidity
Turbidity is a measure of the cloudiness or transparency of a water sample. It is caused by
suspended solids. Turbidity is measured in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU) and gives a
measure of the amount of suspended solids present. Turbidity is caused by run-off, land-clearing
and heavy rain.
Turbidity can be assessed by measuring the depth of water needed to render invisible a
mark on the flat bottom of a specially designed. If the tube is marked the NTU can be read
off, otherwise the depth of the water can be measured and a calibration graph used to obtain
a value.
Alternatively, a secchi disk can be used, however this method only allows for arbitrary
comparison between different samples.
-acidity
Acidity can be measured through indicators, or quantitatively through the use of a pH meter. A pH
outside the range of 6.5-8.5 indicates some pollution, possibly from industrial wastes, fertiliser runoff, acid drainage from a mine site, sulfide ores or acid rain.
-dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen demand
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a measure of the concentration of dissolved oxygen in a water supply. In
natural water bodies there is a steady DO of 9ppm. Low DO can be due the decomposition of
organic matter caused by the discharge of poorly treated sewage, thermal pollution and
eutrophication. Aerobic bacteria turn oxygen into carbon dioxide, water, nitrate, phosphate, and
sulfate. Anaerobic bacteria convert organic matter into methane, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide and
amines.
DO levels can be determined via two methods:
Winkler Titration Method, to perform the test, sample bottles of known volumes (typically
250mL) are completely filled at the test site. Back at the laboratory, sufficient water is
removed to allow addition of small aliquots (2 to 5mL) of a manganese sulfate solution and a
solution containing both iodide and hydroxide. The bottle is firmly stoppered and agitated
then allowed to stand to let equation 1 go to completion forming the brown ppt MnO(OH)2.

Richard Shaw

A few mL of sulfuric acid is then added to re-dissolve the solids and cause the MnO(OH)2 to
oxidize the iodide (equation 2).

The iodine is then titrated as in equation 3, with sodium thiosulfate solution, Na2S2O3, using
starch as the indicator (starch forms intense blue with iodine which disappears at
equivalence point):

Electrolysis method (oxygen sensor), the electrolytic oxygen sensor uses the fact that, at
constant voltage and with constant electrode surface area and constant separation between
electrodes, the rate of electrolysis of a substance is proportional to its concentration. The
electrolysis causes a current to flow; this current is measured and converted to an oxygen
concentration. The reaction with oxygen that occurs at the cathode is:

And the anode reaction is:

The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of a water body is a measure of the concentration of
dissolved oxygen that is needed for the complete breakdown of the organic matter in the water by
aerobic bacteria. If a water sample has a BOD of 4ppm, then decomposing all the organic matter
would reduce the DO by 4ppm. Typical BOD levels are:
Unpolluted natural waterways,< 5ppm
Reasonably well treated sewage, <20 to 30ppm
Raw sewage, 150 to 300ppm
Urban storm water run off, 100 to 500ppm
BOD is can be measured in via two methods:
The municipal water supplies where BOD is expected to be low, it is measured by adding
nutrient to the sample and incubating it at 20C in a sealed air-free contained in the dark for
5 days then measuring the residual DO, with the difference before and after incubation
being the BOD.

Richard Shaw

Samples with high BOD are analysed by adding oxygen to keep the sample saturated and
measuring the amount of oxygen used.

Perform first-hand investigations to use qualitative and quantitative tests to analyse and compare
the quality of water samples
Aim: To analyse water from a range of sites
Equipment: 5 x 250mL beakers, 25mL conical flask with stopper, TDS meter, turbidity tube, pH
meter, test-tubes, 5mL 0.1M Na2S, oxygen sensor
Method:
1) 250mL samples of the following water samples were collected-tap water, rainwater, run-off,
creek water, and distilled water
2) The tap water sample was smelled for any detectable odour, and shaken to test for the
presence of detergents (slow disappearance of bubbles indicating positive result)
3) A portion of the tap water was poured into a test tube and the pH was measured using the
pH meter.
4) TDS meter was then used to measure TDS
5) The oxygen probe was used to measure the DO of the water
6) The sample was then poured into a turbidity tube and the point where the cross was no
longer visible was noted
7) 1mL of Na2S was added to the test tube to test for heavy metal ions
8) Steps 2-7 were repeated for each water sample
Conclusion: We were successfully able to conduct qualitative and quantitative tests to compare the
quality of water samples.
Gather, process and present information on the range and chemistry of the tests used to:
-identify heavy metal pollution of water
Heavy metal pollution can be tested by AAS, flame tests, or precipitation reactions with Na2S.
If a precipitate forms with acidified Na2S then one or more of the following cations is
present:Pb2+, Ag+, Hg2+, Cu2+,As3+.
If a precipitate forms with basified Na2S then one or more of the following cations is
present:Cr3+, Zn2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Ni2+, Co2+, Mn2+, Al3+.
-monitor possible eutrophication of waterways
Eutrophication is the process in which a water body becomes enriched with nutrients such as
phosphate and nitrate to such an extent that algal blooms become likely. Algal blooms from
eutrophication release poisons that kill livestock, use oxygen and suffocate fish, lead to sediment
build-up, give water an unpleasant taste and clog pumps used for moving water to irrigate land and
to supply animal troughs. There are two main sources of nutrients for eutrophication are sewage
and fertiliser run-ff. Colorimetric methods can be used to test for nitrate and phosphate. In most
waterways, phosphate is the limiting nutrient and best to monitor to check for eutrophication.
An algal bloom is likely:

Richard Shaw

In a dam or lake, if phosphate concentration > 0.05ppm


In a river or stream, if phosphate concentration is >0.1ppm
N:P>10:1 is another (less reliable) indicator for eutrophication, 60ppm of PO43- or 600ppm of NO3indicate eutrophication has begun.
Identify factors that affect the concentrations of a range of ions in solution in natural bodies of
water such as rivers and oceans
Pathway of rain to water body- rain can dissolve nitrates and phosphates from natural
nutrients and calcium and magnesium from decomposing minerals along the surface. If the
water percolates deeper into the soil, rocks and aquifers, then chloride, carbonate, and
metal ions such as Fe3+, Mn2+, Cu2+ and Zn2+ may also dissolve in the rain water
Weather- heavy rain and flooding temporarily elevates the concentration of dissolved ions
due to increased run-off
Agriculture- land clearing increases run-off, sediment and ion dissolution and agricultural
fertilisers contribute nitrates and phosphates through run-off or dumping
Effluent discharge and sewage-phosphates and nitrates in sewage, industrial effluents
contain many heavy metals, harmful ions can be leached from poorly designed dumps
Acid rain- can leach certain cations particularly Al3+
Excessive irrigation causes water tables to rise, lifting solutions of ions and bringing them to
the surface, such as calcium and magnesium.
Gather, process and present information on the features of the local town water supply in terms of:
-catchment area
65km west of Sydney
Water is collected from the catchments of the Wollondilly and Coxs River systems covering
an area of 9,050 square kilometres to form Lake Burragorang and Warragamba Dam.
Height: 142 metres

Length: 351 metres

Thickness at base: 104 metres

-possible sources of contamination in this catchment


Animal faecal matter, air borne debris, minimal run off from roads and soil
-chemical tests available to determine levels and types of contaminants
Contaminants cannot all be tested for directly, and so E coli are used as an indicator organism.
Sample place on nutrient bed and incubated for 12 to 24hrs, colonies can the be counted by eye.
Results are reported as colony forming units per 100mL. If there is more than 1CFU/100mL, the
water is drinkable. More than 200CFU/100mL, the water is unsafe for swimming.
Cyanobacteria are tested for by chlorophyll a phase extraction using acetone. Measuring
chlorophyll a concentration indicates NO3- and PO43- contamination which causes eutrophication.

-physical and chemical processes used to purify water

Richard Shaw

See Below
-chemical additives in the water and the reasons for the presence of these additives
Additives include Al3+, ammonia and chlorine, sodium hexafluorosilicate, potassium permanganate,
sodium carbonate. The reasons for the addition of these additives are below.
Describe and assess the effectiveness of methods used to purify and sanitise mass water supplies
1. Rough Filtration: water passes through large screens to filter out large suspended solids and
debris
2. Aeration: the water gets sprayed into the air to increase the DO level. Any H2S is oxidized
to SO42- and any iron salts are oxidized to iron oxides
3. Flocculation: this involves the removal of suspended solids by using a coagulant or floc.
Fe3+ or Al3+ can be used to form hydroxide compounds which act as a surface on which small
suspended solids collect.

4. Sedimentation and Decantation: the flocs settle at the bottom of the sludge along with other
heavier particles which have already settled. The clear water is then moved to the filtration
state and the sludge removed from the bottom of the tank.
5. Sand Filtration: sand and gravel filter removes additional particular matter
6. Anthracite Filtration: activated carbon filter which removes organic molecules and removes
much of the bad taste and odour of the water
7. Chlorination: bubbling Cl2 through the water kills microorganisms such as coliforms.

This is known as primary disinfection. The hypochlorite ions remove remaining bacteria
and prevent the growth of algae. Chlorine is also a strong oxidizing agent that can
bleach coloured compounds such as iron oxides in water, and remove the tastes and
odours produced by some algae. Secondary disinfection involves the addition of
suitable excess of chlorine to ensure decontamination throughout the distribution
system.
8. Fluoridation: preventing the incidence of tooth decay by limiting the amount of acid
produced by the bacterial decay of sugar. Small quantities (1ppm) are added as Na2SiF6.
Na2CO3 can be added to soften the water, and potassium permanganate oxidizes Mn
compounds that cause the build-up of scale on the inside of pipes and stain clothes.

Current process is quite effective. Flocculation and filtration removed most suspended solids.
Anthracite filtration and chlorination remove most organic matter. Both sets of processes are
sufficiently fast and effective.
However, in mid 1998, the protozoans Giardia and Cryptosporidium were not removed by
purification or sanitization processes. Only alternatives such as ozone, UV or microscopic

Richard Shaw

membrane filters could remove the bacteria. However, these methods are too expensive and
slow to be used regularly.
Therefore the most effect method is the currently employed method, with perhaps better
chemical monitoring and management.

Describe the design and composition of microscopic membrane filters and explain how they purify
contaminated water
A microscopic membrane filter is essentially a thin film of a synthetic polymer through which
there are pores of fairly uniform size. They are made of a thin film of a synthetic polymer such as
polypropylene or polytetrafluoroethylene. The simplest type of microscopic membrane filter is just
a sheet of porous polymer that is pleated around a central rigid porous core and held in place with a
surround mesh.

Another type of membrane filter has the porous material made into hollow capillaries. Each
capillary filters as dirty water flows from the outside through the wall of the capillary and clean
water comes out of the inside. Larger number of capillaries are bundled together to make a microfiltration unit with a large surface area. The filters use gravity, vacuum or pressure pumps to force
the water through the membrane where particulates are collected. Water is forced across, not
through the film to reduce blockages. Membrane filters are more reliable and greatly purify water,
however they are expensive and require greater amounts of energy and time.

Advantages

Disadvantages

Richard Shaw

Removes smaller particles


Removes virtually all particles larger
than the pore size
Can increase speed depending on
purpose
Flexible and fairly durable
Allows for back flushing

Expensive
Slow for large volumes of water
Cannot remove dissolved solids such as
heavy metal ions
Pores become clogged quickly if too
many suspended solids

Richard Shaw

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