BITS-WASE-Session 5 & 6 DATA Mining Section I

Data Mining
Classification: Alternative Techniques

Lecture Notes for Session 5 & 6
By Dr. K. Satyanarayan Reddy
Baesd on Text
Introduction to Data Mining
by
Tan, Steinbach, Kumar
Tan,Steinbach, Kumar
4/18/2004
Rule-Based Classifier
Classify records by using a collection of ifthen
rules
Rule:
(Condition)
where
Condition is a conjunctions of attributes
y is the class label
LHS: rule antecedent or condition

RHS: rule consequent
Examples of classification rules:
(Blood Type=Warm)
(Lay Eggs=Yes)
(Taxable Income < 50K)

(Refund=Yes)
Birds
Evade=No
4/18/2004
Rule-based Classifier (Example)

Name
human
python
salmon
whale
frog
komodo
bat
pigeon
cat
leopard shark
turtle
penguin
porcupine
eel
salamander
gila monster
platypus
owl
dolphin
eagle
Blood Type
warm
cold
cold
warm
cold
cold
warm
warm
warm
cold
cold
warm
warm
cold
cold
cold
warm
warm
warm
warm
Give Birth
yes
no
no
yes
no
no
yes
no
yes
yes
no
no
yes
no
no
no
no
no
yes
no
Can Fly
no
no
no
no
no
no
yes
yes
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
yes
no
yes
Live in Water
no
no
yes
yes
sometimes
no
no
no
no
yes
sometimes
sometimes
no
yes
sometimes
no
no
no
yes
no
Class
mammals
reptiles
fishes
mammals
amphibians
reptiles
mammals
birds
mammals
fishes
reptiles
birds
mammals
fishes
amphibians
reptiles
mammals
birds
mammals
birds
R1: (Give Birth = no) (Can Fly = yes)

Birds
R2: (Give Birth = no) (Live in Water = yes)
Fishes
R3: (Give Birth = yes) (Blood Type = warm)
Mammals
R4: (Give Birth = no) (Can Fly = no)
Reptiles
R5: (Live in Water = sometimes)
Amphibians
4/18/2004
Application of Rule-Based Classifier

A rule r covers an instance x if the attributes of the
instance satisfy the condition of the rule
R1: (Give Birth = no)
(Can Fly = yes)
(Live in Water = yes)
R3: (Give Birth = yes)
(Can Fly = no)
hawk
grizzly bear
Blood Type
warm
warm
Fishes
(Blood Type = warm)
Name
Birds
Mammals
Reptiles
Amphibians
Give Birth
Can Fly
Live in Water
Class
no
yes
yes
no
no
no
?
?
The rule R1 covers a hawk => Bird

The rule R3 covers the grizzly bear => Mammal
4/18/2004
Rule Coverage and Accuracy

Tid Refund Marital
Status
Coverage of a rule:
1
Yes
Single
Fraction of records
2
No
Married
that
satisfy
the
3
No
Single
antecedent of a rule
4
Yes
Married
5
No
Divorced
Accuracy of a rule:
6
No
Married
Fraction of records
7
Yes
Divorced
that satisfy both the
8
No
Single
9
No
Married
antecedent
and
10 No
Single
consequent of a
(Status=Single)
No
rule
Taxable
Income Class
125K
No
100K
No
70K
No
120K
No
95K
Yes
60K
No
220K
No
85K
Yes
75K
No
90K
Yes
10
Coverage = 40%, Accuracy = 50%

4/18/2004
How does Rule-based Classifier Work?

(Can Fly = yes)
(Can Fly = no)
lemur
turtle
dogfish shark
Blood Type
warm
cold
cold
Fishes
(Blood Type = warm)
Name
Birds
Mammals
Reptiles
Amphibians
Give Birth
Can Fly
Live in Water
Class
yes
no
yes
no
no
no
no
sometimes
yes
?
?
?
A lemur triggers rule R3, so it is classified as a mammal
A turtle triggers both R4 and R5

A dogfish shark triggers none of the rules
4/18/2004
Characteristics of Rule-Based Classifier

Mutually exclusive rules
Classifier contains mutually exclusive rules if the
rules are independent of each other
Every record is covered by at most one rule
Exhaustive rules
Classifier has exhaustive coverage if it accounts
for every possible combination of attribute
values
Each record is covered by at least one rule
4/18/2004
From Decision Trees To Rules

Classification Rules
(Refund=Yes) ==> No
Refund
Yes
No
NO
Marita l
Status
{Single,
Divorced}
(Refund=No, Marital Status={Single,Divorced},

Taxable Income<80K) ==> No
{Married}

Taxable Income>80K) ==> Yes
(Refund=No, Marital Status={Married}) ==> No
NO
Taxable
Income
< 80K
NO
> 80K
YES
Rules are mutually exclusive and exhaustive

Rule set contains as much information as the
tree
4/18/2004
Tid Refund Marital

Status
Taxable
Income Cheat
Yes
Single
125K
No
No
Married
100K
No
No
Single
70K
No
Yes
Married
120K
No
95K
Yes
60K
No
Refund
Yes
No
NO
{Single,
Divorced}
Marita l
Status
{Married}
5
No
Divorced
Rules
Can
Be
Simplified
NO
Taxable
6
No
Married
Yes
Divorced 220K
No
No
Single
85K
Yes
No
Married
75K
No
10
No
Single
90K
Yes
(Status=Married)
No
Income
< 80K
NO
> 80K
YES
10
Initial Rule:
(Refund=No)
Simplified Rule: (Status=Married)

No
4/18/2004
Effect of Rule Simplification

Rules are no longer mutually exclusive
A record may trigger more than one rule
Solution?
Ordered rule set
Unordered rule set use voting schemes
Rules are no longer exhaustive

A record may not trigger any rules
Solution?
Use a default class
4/18/2004
10
Ordered Rule Set

Rules are rank ordered according to their priority
An ordered rule set is known as a decision list
When a test record is presented to the classifier

It is assigned to the class label of the highest ranked rule it has
triggered
If none of the rules fired, it is assigned to the default class
(Can Fly = yes)

turtle
Blood Type
cold
Fishes
(Blood Type = warm)

(Can Fly = no)

Name
Birds
Mammals
Reptiles
Amphibians
Give Birth
Can Fly
Live in Water
Class
no
no
sometimes
4/18/2004
11
Rule Ordering Schemes

Rule-based ordering
Individual rules are ranked based on their quality
Class-based ordering
Rules that belong to the same class appear together
Rule-based Ordering
Class-based Ordering
(Refund=Yes) ==> No
(Refund=Yes) ==> No




4/18/2004
12
Building Classification Rules

Direct Method:
Extract rules directly from data
e.g.: RIPPER, CN2, Holtes 1R
Indirect Method:
Extract rules from other classification models (e.g.
decision trees, neural networks, etc).
e.g: C4.5rules
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13
Direct Method: Sequential Covering

1.
2.
3.
4.
Start from an empty rule

Grow a rule using the Learn-One-Rule function
Remove training records covered by the rule
Repeat Step (2) and (3) until stopping criterion is
met
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14
Example of Sequential Covering
(i) Original Data
(ii) Step 1
4/18/2004
15
Example of Sequential Covering
R1
R1
R2
(iii) Step 2
(iv) Step 3
4/18/2004
16
Aspects of Sequential Covering

Rule Growing
Instance Elimination
Rule Evaluation
Stopping Criterion
Rule Pruning
4/18/2004
17
Rule Growing
Two common strategies
{}
Yes: 3
No: 4
Refund=No,
Status=Single,
Income=85K
(Class=Yes)
Refund=
No
Status =
Single
Status =
Divorced
Status =
Married
Yes: 3
No: 4
Yes: 2
No: 1
Yes: 1
No: 0
Yes: 0
No: 3
...
Income
> 80K
Yes: 3
No: 1
(a) General-to-specific
Refund=No,
Status=Single,
Income=90K
(Class=Yes)
Refund=No,
Status = Single
(Class = Yes)
(b) Specific-to-general
4/18/2004
18
Rule Growing (Examples)

CN2 Algorithm:
Start from an empty conjunct: {}
Add conjuncts that minimizes the entropy measure: {A}, {A,B},
Determine the rule consequent by taking majority class of instances covered
by the rule
RIPPER Algorithm:
Start from an empty rule: {} => class
Add conjuncts that maximizes FOILs information gain measure:
R0: {} => class (initial rule)
R1: {A} => class (rule after adding conjunct)
Gain(R0, R1) = t [ log (p1/(p1+n1)) log (p0/(p0 + n0)) ]
where t: number of positive instances covered by both R0 and R1
p0: number of positive instances covered by R0
n0: number of negative instances covered by R0
p1: number of positive instances covered by R1
n1: number of negative instances covered by R1
4/18/2004
19
Instance Elimination
Why do we need to eliminate
instances?
Otherwise, the next rule is
identical to previous rule
Why do we remove positive

instances?
R3
R1
+
class = +
+
Ensure that the next rule is

different
Why do we remove negative

instances?
class = -
Prevent
underestimating
accuracy of rule
Compare rules R2 and R3 in
the diagram
+ +
++
+
+
+
++
+ + +
+ +
-
+ +
-
+
-
R2
4/18/2004
20
Rule Evaluation
Metrics:
Accuracy
Laplace
M-estimate
nc
n
nc 1
n k
nc kp
n k
n : Number of instances
covered by rule
nc : Number of instances
covered by rule
k : Number of classes
p : Prior probability
4/18/2004
21
Stopping Criterion and Rule Pruning

Stopping criterion
Compute the gain
If gain is not significant, discard the new rule
Rule Pruning
Similar to post-pruning of decision trees
Reduced Error Pruning:
Remove one of the conjuncts in the rule
Compare error rate on validation set before and after
pruning
If error improves, prune the conjunct
4/18/2004
22
Summary of Direct Method

Grow a single rule
Remove Instances from rule
Prune the rule (if necessary)

Add rule to Current Rule Set
Repeat
4/18/2004
23
Direct Method: RIPPER

For 2-class problem, choose one of the classes as positive
class, and the other as negative class
Learn rules for positive class
Negative class will be default class
For multi-class problem
Order the classes according to increasing class
prevalence (fraction of instances that belong to a
particular class)
Learn the rule set for smallest class first, treat the rest as
negative class
Repeat with next smallest class as positive class
4/18/2004
24

Growing a rule:
Start from empty rule
Add conjuncts as long as they improve FOILs information
gain
Stop when rule no longer covers negative examples
Prune the rule immediately using incremental reduced
error pruning
Measure for pruning: v = (p-n)/(p+n)
p: number of positive examples covered by the rule in
the validation set
n: number of negative examples covered by the rule in
the validation set
Pruning method: delete any final sequence of conditions

that maximizes v
4/18/2004
25

Building a Rule Set:
Use sequential covering algorithm
Finds the best rule that covers the current set of
positive examples
Eliminate both positive and negative examples
covered by the rule
Each time a rule is added to the rule set, compute

the new description length
stop adding new rules when the new description
length is d bits longer than the smallest description
length obtained so far
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26

Optimize the rule set:
For each rule r in the rule set R
Consider 2 alternative rules:
Replacement rule (r*): grow new rule from scratch
Revised rule(r): add conjuncts to extend the rule r
Compare the rule set for r against the rule set for r*
and r
Choose rule set that minimizes MDL principle
Repeat rule generation and rule optimization for

the remaining positive examples
4/18/2004
27
Indirect Methods
P
No
Yes
Q
No
Rule Set
R
Yes
No
Yes
Q
No
Yes
r1: (P=No,Q=No) ==> r2: (P=No,Q=Yes) ==> +

r3: (P=Yes,R=No) ==> +
r4: (P=Yes,R=Yes,Q=No) ==> r5: (P=Yes,R=Yes,Q=Yes) ==> +
4/18/2004
28
Indirect Method: C4.5rules

Extract rules from an unpruned decision tree
For each rule, r: A
y,
consider an alternative rule r: A
y where A is
obtained by removing one of the conjuncts in A
Compare the pessimistic error rate for r against
all rs
Prune if one of the rs has lower pessimistic error
rate
Repeat until we can no longer improve
generalization error
4/18/2004
29
Indirect Method: C4.5rules

Instead of ordering the rules, order subsets of rules
(class ordering)
Each subset is a collection of rules with the same
rule consequent (class)
Compute description length of each subset
Description length = L(error) + g L(model)
g is a parameter that takes into account the presence
of
redundant
attributes
in
a
rule
set
(default value = 0.5)
4/18/2004
30
Example
Name
human
python
salmon
whale
frog
komodo
bat
pigeon
cat
leopard shark
turtle
penguin
porcupine
eel
salamander
gila monster
platypus
owl
dolphin
eagle
Give Birth
yes
no
no
yes
no
no
yes
no
yes
yes
no
no
yes
no
no
no
no
no
yes
no
Lay Eggs
no
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
no
yes
no
no
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
Can Fly
no
no
no
no
no
no
yes
yes
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
yes
no
yes
Live in Water Have Legs
no
no
yes
yes
sometimes
no
no
no
no
yes
sometimes
sometimes
no
yes
sometimes
no
no
no
yes
no
yes
no
no
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
Class
mammals
reptiles
fishes
mammals
amphibians
reptiles
mammals
birds
mammals
fishes
reptiles
birds
mammals
fishes
amphibians
reptiles
mammals
birds
mammals
birds
4/18/2004
31
C4.5 versus C4.5rules versus RIPPER

C4.5rules:
Give
Birth?
(Give Birth=No, Can Fly=Yes)
Birds
(Give Birth=No, Live in Water=Yes)
No
Yes
(Give Birth=Yes)
Fishes
Mammals
(Give Birth=No, Can Fly=No, Live in Water=No)
Live In
Water?
Mammals
Yes
()
Amphibians
RIPPER:
No
(Live in Water=Yes)
(Have Legs=No)
Sometimes
Fishes
Yes
Birds
Fishes
Reptiles
(Give Birth=No, Can Fly=No, Live In Water=No)

Reptiles
Can
Fly?
Amphibians
Reptiles
(Can Fly=Yes,Give Birth=No)
No
()
Birds
Mammals
Reptiles
4/18/2004
32
C4.5 versus C4.5rules versus RIPPER

C4.5 and C4.5rules:
PREDICTED CLASS
Amphibians Fishes Reptiles Birds
ACTUAL Amphibians
2
0
0
CLASS Fishes
0
2
0
Reptiles
1
0
3
Birds
1
0
0
Mammals
0
0
1
0
0
0
3
0
Mammals
0
1
0
0
6
0
0
0
2
0
Mammals
2
0
1
1
4
RIPPER:
PREDICTED CLASS
Amphibians Fishes Reptiles Birds
ACTUAL Amphibians
0
0
0
CLASS Fishes
0
3
0
Reptiles
0
0
3
Birds
0
0
1
Mammals
0
2
1
4/18/2004
33
Advantages of Rule-Based Classifiers

As highly expressive as decision trees
Easy to interpret
Easy to generate
Can classify new instances rapidly
Performance comparable to decision trees
4/18/2004
34
Instance-Based Classifiers
Set of Stored Cases
Atr1
...
AtrN
Class
A
Store the training records
Use training records to

predict the class label of
unseen cases
B
B
C
A
Unseen Case
Atr1
...
AtrN
C
B
4/18/2004
35
Instance Based Classifiers

Examples:
Rote-learner
Memorizes entire training data and performs
classification only if attributes of record match one of
the training examples exactly
Nearest neighbor
Uses k closest points (nearest neighbors) for
performing classification
4/18/2004
36
Nearest Neighbor Classifiers

Basic idea:
If it walks like a duck, quacks like a duck, then its
probably a duck
Compute
Distance
Training
Records
Test
Record
Choose k of the
nearest records
4/18/2004
37
Nearest-Neighbor Classifiers
Unknown record
Requires three things
The set of stored records

Distance Metric to compute
distance between records
The value of k, the number of
nearest neighbors to retrieve
To classify an unknown record:

Compute distance to other
training records
Identify k nearest neighbors

Use class labels of nearest
neighbors to determine the
class label of unknown record
(e.g., by taking majority vote)
4/18/2004
38
Definition of Nearest Neighbor
(a) 1-nearest neighbor
(b) 2-nearest neighbor
(c) 3-nearest neighbor
K-nearest neighbors of a record x are data points

that have the k smallest distance to x
4/18/2004
39
1 nearest-neighbor
Voronoi Diagram
4/18/2004
40
Nearest Neighbor Classification

Compute distance between two points:
Euclidean distance
d ( p, q )
(p
q)
Determine the class from nearest neighbor list

take the majority vote of class labels among the
k-nearest neighbors
Weigh the vote according to distance
weight factor, w = 1/d2
4/18/2004
41

Choosing the value of k:
If k is too small, sensitive to noise points
If k is too large, neighborhood may include points from
other classes
4/18/2004
42

Scaling issues
Attributes may have to be scaled to prevent
distance measures from being dominated by
one of the attributes
Example:
height of a person may vary from 1.5m to 1.8m
weight of a person may vary from 90lb to 300lb
income of a person may vary from $10K to $1M
4/18/2004
43

Problem with Euclidean measure:
High dimensional data
curse of dimensionality
Can produce counter-intuitive results

111111111110
100000000000
vs
011111111111
000000000001
d = 1.4142
d = 1.4142
Solution: Normalize the vectors to unit length
4/18/2004
44
Nearest neighbor Classification

k-NN classifiers are lazy learners
It does not build models explicitly
Unlike eager learners such as decision tree
induction and rule-based systems
Classifying unknown records are relatively
expensive
4/18/2004
45
Example: PEBLS
PEBLS: Parallel Examplar-Based Learning System
(Cost & Salzberg)
Works with both continuous and nominal features
For nominal features, distance between two nominal
values is computed using modified value difference
metric (MVDM)
Each record is assigned a weight factor

Number of nearest neighbor, k = 1
4/18/2004
46
Example: PEBLS
Tid Refund Marital
Status
Taxable
Income Cheat
Yes
Single
125K
No
d(Single,Married)
No
Married
100K
No
= | 2/4 0/4 | + | 2/4 4/4 | = 1
No
Single
70K
No
d(Single,Divorced)
Yes
Married
120K
No
No
Divorced 95K
Yes
No
Married
No
d(Married,Divorced)
Yes
Divorced 220K
No
= | 0/4 1/2 | + | 4/4 1/2 | = 1
No
Single
85K
Yes
d(Refund=Yes,Refund=No)
No
Married
75K
No
= | 0/3 3/7 | + | 3/3 4/7 | = 6/7
10
No
Single
90K
Yes
60K
Distance between nominal attribute values:
= | 2/4 1/2 | + | 2/4 1/2 | = 0
10
Marital Status
Class
Refund
Single
Married
Divorced
Yes
No
Class
Yes
No
Yes
No
d (V1 ,V2 )
i
4/18/2004
n1i
n1
n2i
n2
47
Example: PEBLS
Tid Refund Marital
Status
Taxable
Income Cheat
Yes
Single
125K
No
No
Married
100K
No
10
Distance between record X and record Y:

d
( X ,Y )
wX wY
d ( X i , Yi )
i 1
where:
wX
wX
Number of times X is used for prediction

Number of times X predicts correctly
1 if X makes accurate prediction most of the time
wX > 1 if X is not reliable for making predictions

4/18/2004
48
Bayes Classifier
A probabilistic framework for solving classification
problems
Conditional Probability:
P ( A, C )
P (C | A)
P ( A)
P( A | C )
Bayes theorem:
P (C | A)
P ( A, C )
P (C )
P ( A | C ) P (C )
P ( A)
4/18/2004
49
Example of Bayes Theorem

Given:
A doctor knows that meningitis causes stiff neck 50% of the
time
Prior probability of any patient having meningitis is 1/50,000
Prior probability of any patient having stiff neck is 1/20
If a patient has stiff neck, whats the probability

he/she has meningitis?
P( M | S )
P( S | M ) P( M )
P( S )
0.5 1 / 50000
1 / 20
0.0002
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50
Bayesian Classifiers
Consider each attribute and class label as random
variables
Given a record with attributes (A1, A2,,An)
Goal is to predict class C
Specifically, we want to find the value of C that
maximizes P(C| A1, A2,,An )
Can we estimate P(C| A1, A2,,An ) directly from

data?
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51
Bayesian Classifiers
Approach:
compute the posterior probability P(C | A1, A2, , An) for
all values of C using the Bayes theorem
P( A A A | C ) P(C )
P( A A A )
P(C | A A A )
1
Choose
value
P(C
|
of
C
A1,
that
A2,
maximizes
,
An)
Equivalent to choosing value of C that maximizes

P(A1, A2, , An|C) P(C)
How to estimate P(A1, A2, , An | C )?

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52
Nave Bayes Classifier

Assume independence among attributes Ai when class is
given:
P(A1, A2, , An |C) = P(A1| Cj) P(A2| Cj) P(An| Cj)
Can estimate P(Ai| Cj) for all Ai and Cj.
New point is classified to Cj if

maximal.
P(Cj)
P(Ai| Cj)
4/18/2004
is
53
How tol Estimate

Probabilities from Data?
l
c
Tid
at
Refund
o
eg
a
c
i
r
at
o
eg
a
c
i
r
on
u
it n
s
u
o
s
s
a
cl
Marital
Status
Taxable
Income
Evade
Yes
Single
125K
No
No
Married
100K
No
No
Single
70K
No
Yes
Married
120K
No
No
Divorced
95K
Yes
No
Married
60K
No
Yes
Divorced
220K
No
No
Single
85K
Yes
No
Married
75K
No
10
No
Single
90K
Yes
Class: P(C) = Nc/N

e.g.,
For
7/10,
discrete attributes:
P(Ai | Ck) = |Aik|/ Nc k
where |Aik| is number of

instances having attribute
Ai and belongs to class Ck
Examples:
10
P(No)
=
P(Yes) = 3/10
P(Status=Married|No) =
P(Refund=Yes|Yes)=0
4/18/2004
4/7
54
How to Estimate Probabilities from Data?

For continuous attributes:
Discretize the range into bins
one ordinal attribute per bin
violates independence assumption
Two-way split: (A < v) or (A > v)

choose only one of the two splits as new attribute
Probability density estimation:

Assume attribute follows a normal distribution
Use data to estimate parameters of distribution
(e.g., mean and standard deviation)
Once probability distribution is known, can use it to
estimate the conditional probability P(Ai|c)
4/18/2004
55
u s Probabilities from Data?

How oto Estimate
o
u
o
c
Tid
e
at
Refund
Yes
a
c
i
r
e
at
Marital
Status
Single
a
c
i
r
t
n
o
Taxable
Income
125K
in
as
l
c
Evade
Normal distribution:
No
Married
100K
No
No
Single
70K
No
Yes
Married
120K
No
No
Divorced
95K
Yes
No
Married
60K
No
Yes
Divorced
220K
No
No
Single
85K
Yes
No
Married
75K
No
10
No
Single
90K
Yes
1
2
P( A | c )
No
( Ai
ij
2
ij
ij
One for each (Ai,ci) pair

For (Income, Class=No):
If Class=No
sample mean = 110
sample variance = 2975
10
P ( Income 120 | No)

1
e
2 (54.54)
( 120 110 ) 2
2 ( 2975 )
0.0072
4/18/2004
56
)2
Example of Nave Bayes Classifier

Given a Test Record:
(Refund
No, Married, Income 120K)
naive Bayes Classifier:

P(Refund=Yes|No) = 3/7
P(Refund=No|No) = 4/7
P(Refund=Yes|Yes) = 0
P(Refund=No|Yes) = 1
P(Marital Status=Single|No) = 2/7
P(Marital Status=Divorced|No)=1/7
P(Marital Status=Married|No) = 4/7
P(Marital Status=Single|Yes) = 2/7
P(Marital Status=Divorced|Yes)=1/7
P(Marital Status=Married|Yes) = 0
For taxable income:
If class=No:
sample mean=110
sample variance=2975
If class=Yes: sample mean=90
sample variance=25
P(X|Class=No) = P(Refund=No|Class=No)
P(Married| Class=No)
P(Income=120K| Class=No)
= 4/7 4/7 0.0072 = 0.0024
P(X|Class=Yes) = P(Refund=No| Class=Yes)

P(Married| Class=Yes)
P(Income=120K| Class=Yes)
= 1 0 1.2 10-9 = 0
Since P(X|No)P(No) > P(X|Yes)P(Yes)

Therefore P(No|X) > P(Yes|X)
=> Class = No
4/18/2004
57
Nave Bayes Classifier

If one of the conditional probability is zero, then the
entire expression becomes zero
Probability estimation:
Original : P( Ai | C )
Laplace : P( Ai | C )
N ic
Nc
N ic 1
Nc c
m - estimate : P( Ai | C )
c: number of classes
p: prior probability
m: parameter
N ic mp
Nc m
4/18/2004
58
Example of Nave Bayes Classifier

Name
human
python
salmon
whale
frog
komodo
bat
pigeon
cat
leopard shark
turtle
penguin
porcupine
eel
salamander
gila monster
platypus
owl
dolphin
eagle
Give Birth
yes
Give Birth
yes
no
no
yes
no
no
yes
no
yes
yes
no
no
yes
no
no
no
no
no
yes
no
Can Fly
no
no
no
no
no
no
yes
yes
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
yes
no
yes
Can Fly
no
no
no
yes
yes
sometimes
no
no
no
no
yes
sometimes
sometimes
no
yes
sometimes
no
no
no
yes
no
Class
yes
no
no
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
mammals
non-mammals
non-mammals
mammals
non-mammals
non-mammals
mammals
non-mammals
mammals
non-mammals
non-mammals
non-mammals
mammals
non-mammals
non-mammals
non-mammals
mammals
non-mammals
mammals
non-mammals
yes
no
Class
A: attributes
M: mammals
N: non-mammals
6
7
1
P( A | N )
13
6 2 2
0.06
7 7 7
10 3 4
0.0042
13 13 13
7
P( A | M ) P( M ) 0.06
0.021
20
13
P( A | N ) P( N ) 0.004
0.0027
20
P( A | M )
P(A|M)P(M) > P(A|N)P(N)

=> Mammals
4/18/2004
59
Nave Bayes (Summary)

Robust to isolated noise points
Handle missing values by ignoring the instance
during probability estimate calculations
Robust to irrelevant attributes
Independence assumption may not hold for some

attributes
Use other techniques such as Bayesian Belief
Networks (BBN)
4/18/2004
60
Support Vector Machines
SVM also works very well with Highdimensional Data and avoids the
curse of dimensionality problem.
Another unique aspect of this
approach is that it represents the
Decision Boundary using a Subset
of the Training examples, known as
the Support Vectors.
4/18/2004
61
Maximum Margin Hyperplanes

Figure below shows a plot of a data set containing examples that belong to two
different classes, represented as squares and circles.
The data set is also linearly separable; i.e., a Hyperplane can be found such that
all the squares reside on one side of the Hyperplane and all the circles reside
on the other side.
4/18/2004
62
Support Vector Machines contd.
Find a linear hyperplane (decision boundary) that will separate the data
4/18/2004
63
Support Vector Machines contd.

B1
One Possible Solution
4/18/2004
64
B2
Another possible solution
4/18/2004
65
B2
Other possible solutions: There are infinitely many such hyperplanes

possible
4/18/2004
66

B1
B2
Which one is better? B1 or B2?

How do you define better?
4/18/2004
67

B1
B2
b21
b22
margin
b11
b12
Find hyperplane maximizes the margin => B1 is better than B2
4/18/2004
68
4/18/2004
69

Both decision boundaries can separate
the training examples into their
respective
classes
without
committing
any Misclassification
Errors.
Each decision boundary Bi is associated
with a pair of hyperplanes, denoted
as bi1 and bi2, respectively.
bi1 is obtained by moving a parallel

hyperplane away from the decision
boundary until it touches the closest
square(s),
Whereas bi2 is obtained by moving the
hyperplane until it touches the closest
circle(s).
The Distance between these

hyperplanes is known as
MARGIN of the classifier
two
the
From the diagram shown in Figure 5.22,notice that

the margin for B1 is considerably larger than that for
B2.
In this example, B1 turns out to be the Maximum
Margin Hyperplane of the training instances.
4/18/2004
70
Linear SVM: Separable Case

A linear SVM is a classifier that searches for a
hyperplane with the Largest Margin, which is why it
is often known as a Maximal Margin Classifier.
Figure 5.23 shows a 2-dimensional
Training Set consisting of squares
and circles.
A Decision Boundary that bisects the
training examples into their respective
classes is illustrated with a solid line.
Any example located along the
decision boundary must satisfy
Equation 5.28 given in next slide.
4/18/2004
71
Linear SVM: Separable Case contd.
4/18/2004
72

B1

w x b 0

w x b

w x b
b11
f ( x)
1
if w
1 if w
x b
x b
1
1
b12
Margin
4/18/2004
|| w ||2
73

We want to maximize:
Margin
2
2
|| w ||
Which is equivalent to minimizing:
L( w)
2
|| w ||
2
But subjected to the following constraints:
f ( xi )
1
if w
1 if w
xi b
xi b
1
1
This is a constrained optimization problem

Numerical approaches to solve it (e.g., quadratic programming)
4/18/2004
74

What if the problem is not linearly separable?
4/18/2004
75

What if the problem is not linearly separable?
Introduce slack variables
2
N
Need to minimize:
|| w ||
L( w)
C
2
i 1
k
i
Subject to:
f ( xi )
1
if w
1 if w
xi b
xi b
11
i
i
4/18/2004
76
Nonlinear Support Vector Machines

What if decision boundary is not linear?
4/18/2004
77
Nonlinear Support Vector Machines

Transform data into higher dimensional space
4/18/2004
78
Characteristics of SVM
SVM has many desirable qualities that make it one of the most widely
used classification algorithms. Following is a summary of the general
characteristics of SVM:
1. The SVM learning problem can be formulated as a convex optimization
problem, in which efficient algorithms are available to find the global
minimum of the objective function.
2. SVM performs Capacity Control by maximizing the margin of the

decision boundary.
3. SVM can be applied to categorical data by introducing dummy variables
for each categorical attribute value present in the data.
For example, if Marital Status has three values {Single, Married,
Divorced}, a binary variable can be introduced for each of the attribute
values.
4. The SVM formulation presented in this Section is for binary class
problems.
4/18/2004
79
Ensemble Methods
It is a techniques for improving Classification Accuracy
by Aggregating the Predictions of multiple classifiers.
These techniques are known as the Ensemble or
classifier combination methods.
An ensemble method constructs a set of base
classifiers from training data and performs
classification by taking a vote on the predictions
made by each base classifier.
Construct a set of classifiers from the training data.

Predict class label of previously unseen records by
aggregating predictions made by multiple classifiers.
4/18/2004
80
General Idea
D
Step 1:
Create Multiple
Data Sets
Step 2:
Build Multiple
Classifiers
D1
D2
C1
C2
Step 3:
Combine
Classifiers
....
Original
Training data
Dt-1
Dt
Ct -1
Ct
C*
4/18/2004
81
Why does it work?

Suppose there are 25 base classifiers
Each classifier has error rate, = 0.35
Assume classifiers are independent
Probability that the ensemble classifier makes a
wrong prediction:
25
i 13
25
i
(1
)25
0.06
4/18/2004
82
Examples of Ensemble Methods

How to generate an ensemble of classifiers?
Bagging: Bagging, which is also known as bootstrap
aggregating, is a technique that repeatedly
samples (with replacement) from a data set
according to a uniform probability distribution.
Each bootstrap sample has the same size as the
original data.
Because the sampling is done with replacement,
some instances may appear several times in the
same training set, while others may be omitted
from the training set.
4/18/2004
83
Examples of Ensemble Methods contd.

Boosting: Boosting is an iterative procedure used to
adaptively change the distribution of training examples so
that the base classifiers will focus on examples that are
hard to classify.
Unlike bagging, Boosting assigns a weight to each training
example and may adaptively change the weight at the end
of each boosting round.
The weights assigned to the training examples can be used
in the following ways:
1. They can be used as a sampling distribution to draw a set
of bootstrap samples from the original data.
2. They can be used by the base classifier to learn a model
that is biased toward higher-weight examples.
4/18/2004
84
Bagging
Sampling with replacement
Original Data
Bagging (Round 1)
Bagging (Round 2)
Bagging (Round 3)
1
7
1
1
2
8
4
8
3
10
9
5
4
8
1
10
5
2
2
5
6
5
3
5
7
10
2
9
8
10
7
6
9
5
3
3
10
9
2
7
Build classifier on each bootstrap sample

Each sample has probability (1 1/n)n of being
selected
4/18/2004
85
Boosting
An iterative procedure to adaptively change
distribution of training data by focusing more on
previously misclassified records
Initially, all N records are assigned equal weights
Unlike bagging, weights may change at the end of
boosting round
4/18/2004
86
Boosting
Records that are wrongly classified will have their
weights increased
Records that are classified correctly will have their
weights decreased
Original Data
Boosting (Round 1)
Boosting (Round 2)
Boosting (Round 3)
1
7
5
4
2
3
4
4
3
2
9
8
4
8
4
10
5
7
2
4
6
9
5
5
7
4
1
4
8
10
7
6
9
6
4
3
10
3
2
4
Example 4 is hard to classify

Its weight is increased, therefore it is more
likely to be chosen again in subsequent rounds
4/18/2004
87
Example: AdaBoost
Base classifiers: C1, C2, , CT
Error rate:
1
N
w j Ci ( x j )
yj
j 1
Importance of a classifier:
1 1
ln
2
i
i
4/18/2004
88
Example: AdaBoost
Weight update:
wi
( j 1)
wi( j ) exp
Z j exp
if C j ( xi )
yi
if C j ( xi )
yi
where Z j is the normalizat ion factor
If any intermediate rounds produce error rate higher

than 50%, the weights are reverted back to 1/n and
the resampling procedure is repeated
Classification:
T
C * ( x)
arg max
y
C j ( x)
j 1
4/18/2004
89
Illustrating AdaBoost
Initial weights for each data point
Original
Data
0.1
0.1
0.1
+++
- - - - -
++
Data points
for training
B1
0.0094
Boosting
Round 1
+++
0.0094
0.4623
- - - - - - -
= 1.9459
4/18/2004
90
Illustrating AdaBoost
B1
0.0094
Boosting
Round 1
0.0094
+++
0.4623
- - - - - - -
= 1.9459
B2
Boosting
Round 2
0.0009
0.3037
- - -
- - - - -
0.0422
++
= 2.9323
B3
0.0276
0.1819
0.0038
Boosting
Round 3
+++
++ ++ + ++
Overall
+++
- - - - -
= 3.8744
++
4/18/2004
91
THANK YOU
4/18/2004
92

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Data Mining

Classification: Alternative Techniques

Introduction to Data Mining

LHS: rule antecedent or condition

(Taxable Income < 50K)

Introduction to Data Mining

Rule-based Classifier (Example)

R1: (Give Birth = no) (Can Fly = yes)

Introduction to Data Mining

Application of Rule-Based Classifier

(Can Fly = yes)

R2: (Give Birth = no)

(Live in Water = yes)

R3: (Give Birth = yes)

(Can Fly = no)

R5: (Live in Water = sometimes)

(Blood Type = warm)

R4: (Give Birth = no)

The rule R1 covers a hawk => Bird

Introduction to Data Mining

Rule Coverage and Accuracy

Coverage = 40%, Accuracy = 50%

Introduction to Data Mining

How does Rule-based Classifier Work?

(Can Fly = yes)

R2: (Give Birth = no)

(Live in Water = yes)

R3: (Give Birth = yes)

(Can Fly = no)

R5: (Live in Water = sometimes)

(Blood Type = warm)

R4: (Give Birth = no)

A lemur triggers rule R3, so it is classified as a mammal

A turtle triggers both R4 and R5

Introduction to Data Mining

Characteristics of Rule-Based Classifier

Introduction to Data Mining

From Decision Trees To Rules

(Refund=No, Marital Status={Single,Divorced},

(Refund=No, Marital Status={Single,Divorced},

Rules are mutually exclusive and exhaustive

Introduction to Data Mining

Tid Refund Marital

Simplified Rule: (Status=Married)

Introduction to Data Mining

Effect of Rule Simplification

Rules are no longer exhaustive

Introduction to Data Mining

Ordered Rule Set

When a test record is presented to the classifier

(Can Fly = yes)

R2: (Give Birth = no)

(Live in Water = yes)

R3: (Give Birth = yes)

(Blood Type = warm)

R5: (Live in Water = sometimes)

Introduction to Data Mining

Rule Ordering Schemes

(Refund=No, Marital Status={Single,Divorced},

(Refund=No, Marital Status={Single,Divorced},

(Refund=No, Marital Status={Single,Divorced},

(Refund=No, Marital Status={Married}) ==> No

(Refund=No, Marital Status={Married}) ==> No

(Refund=No, Marital Status={Single,Divorced},

BITS-WASE-Session 5 & 6 DATA Mining Section I

BITS-WASE-Session 5 & 6 DATA Mining Section I