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WavesandParticles>CaseStudy:PhotoelectricEffect

Case Study: Photoelectric Effect

Thephotoelectriceffectisobservedwhenelectromagneticradiationstrikesthesurfaceofametal
andtheresultingenergytransfercausesthemetaltoemitelectrons.Thisphenomenonplayeda
majorroleintherejectionofclassicalphysicsandthedevelopmentofquantummechanics.

Introduction
The photoelectriceffect wasfirst documented in1887 by theGerman physicistHeinrich Hertz
and is therefore sometimes referred to as the Hertz effect. While working with a sparkgap
transmitter (a primitive radiobroadcasting device), Hertz discovered that upon absorption of
certain frequenciesof light,substances wouldgive offa visiblespark. In1899, thisspark was

TableofContents
1.Introduction
2.ClassicalExplanation
3.Lenard'sExperiment
4.QuantumExplanation
5.References
6.OutsideLinks
7.Problems

identified as lightexcited electrons (also called photoelectrons) leaving the metal's surface by J.J. Thomson. One of Hertz' former
assistantsnamedPhilippLenard wentontostudythiseffectandwas awardedtheNobelPrizeinphysicsforhis efforts.In1905,Albert
Einstein explained the photoelectric effect mathematically by proposing the concept of light quanta, or photons. This conclusion runs
countertotheclassicunderstandingofphysicsandisbetterunderstoodinthecontextof waveparticleduality.

Classical Explanation
According tothe classical understandingof physics, whenlight shineson a surface,it slowly transfersenergy into thesubstance. This
increasesthekineticenergyoftheparticlesuntilfinally,theygiveoffexcitedelectrons.Thisprocessiscalledthermalemissionanditwas
considered themost likelyexplanation for thephotoelectric effect. Giventhis justification,it was expectedthat increasinglight intensity,
regardless offrequency, would result inphotoelectrons with higher kineticenergies. In addition, sincethe substance must firstreach a
criticaltemperaturebeforeitcanbeginejectingelectrons,itwasexpectedthatthephotoelectriceffectwouldnotbeobservedimmediately.

Lenard's Experiment
Totestthetheoriesproposedbyclassicalmechanics,Lenardbuilttheexperimentaldeviceshownbelow.

Figure1Lenard'sexperimentalsetup
Whenlightreachedthecathode,electronswereemittedandtraveleddownthevacuumtubeuntiltheyreachedtheanode.Lenardcould
then determine the amount of electrons reaching the anode by measuring the current through the wire using a set potential voltage
(battery).Using thisdevice, Lenardran aseries ofexperiments inwhich hevaried thefrequency andintensity ofthe light.Surprisingly,
Lenardfoundthatbelowacertainthresholdfrequency,nomatterhowintensethelightwas,therewasnoemissionofelectrons.Abovethe
thresholdfrequency,thecurrent(i.e.the#ofelectronsreachingtheanode)wasdirectlyproportionaltothelightintensity.
Figure2CurrentIntensityandThresholdfrequency

Moreover,thecurrentappearedalmostinstantaneouslyafterthelightwasturnedon(Lenardmeasuredthistowithin0.1s,buttodayithas
beenobservedtooccurwithin1ns).Finally,byvaryingthepotentialandobservingthechangeincurrent,Lenardwasabletodeterminethe
kinetic energyof the ejected electrons.Interestingly, he found thathigher frequency light increasedthe kinetic energy ofthe electrons,
whilechangingthelightintensityhadnoeffectonthekineticenergy.Clearly,thesefindingscouldnotbeexplainedbyclassicalphysicsand
theremustbesomeotherexplanationforthephotoelectriceffect.

Quantum Explanation
Based on Lenard's experiment, the young physicist Albert Einstein set about explaining the photoelectric effect using the concept of
photons (i.e. distinct "packets" of light). This controversial theory states that light, while it may have wavelike properties, can also be
describedbysmall,masslessparticlesofenergy.Thiscomplex understandingofelectromagneticradiationisreferredtoas waveparticle
duality.Withthistheory,Einsteinproposedthatinthephotoelectriceffect,eachphotonwasstrikingasingleelectronandcausingittobreak
itsassociationwiththeatom.

Figure3Absorptionofaphotonbyanelectron
However,eachelectronwillonlyabsorbtheenergyandbeejectedifthefrequencyofthelightisofsufficientenergyaccordingtothe
equation
E = h

where isthefrequencyoftheincidentlightand h isPlanck'sconstant= h = 6.626 10

J s .Therequiredenergytofreeanelectron
fromanatom iscalledthework functionandisdesignatedby thesymbol .The thresholdfrequencyis thelowestenergy lightparticle
34

neededtosatisfythisworkfunction(i.e.overcometheelectron'saffinityfortheatom).Higherfrequencylightincreasesthekineticenergy(
K E )oftheejectedelectronaccordingtotheequation:
K E = h

Thefollowingtablesummarizestheworkfunctionsforseveralelements:
Table1WorkFunctions

Element

WorkFunction (eV)

Potassium

2.30

Sodium

2.75

Aluminum

4.28

Tungsten

4.55

Copper

4.65

Iron

4.70

Gold

5.10

Since every photon of sufficient energy excites only one electron, increasing the light's intensity (i.e. the number of photons/sec) only
increasesthenumberofreleasedelectronsandnottheirkineticenergy.Inaddition,notimeisnecessaryfortheatomtobeheatedtoa
critical temperature and therefore therelease of the electron is nearly instantaneous upon absorption ofthe light. Finally, because the
photons must be above acertain energy to satisfy the work function, a threshold frequencyexists below which no photoelectrons are
observed.ThisfrequencyismeasuredinHertz(1/second)inhonorofthediscovererofthephotoelectriceffect.
Thusinsummary,Einstein'ssimpleexplanationcompletelyaccountedfortheobservedphenomenoninLenard'sexperimentandbeganan
investigationintothefieldwenowcall quantummechanics.Thisnewfieldseekstoprovideaquantumexplanationforclassicalmechanics
andcreateamoreunifiedtheoryofphysicsandthermodynamics.
Thestudyofthephotoelectriceffecthasalsoleadtothecreationofnewphotoelectronspectroscopy theoryandapplications.

References
1. Knight,RandallD.PhysicsforScientistsandEngineers .1sted.PearsonEducationInc.SanFrancisco,CA.2004.12201230.
2. McQuarrie,DonaldA.QuantumChemistry.2nded.UnitedStatesOfAmerica:UniversityScienceBooks,2008.32124.

Outside Links
Wikipedia:PhotoelectricEffect
NobelPrizeWebsite:Lenard
WhatisaSparkGapTransmitter?
EinsteinandthePhotoelectricEffect

Problems
1. Summarizethefailureofclassicalphysicstoexplainthephotoelectriceffect.
2. Whatisthethresholdfrequencyandwhyisitimportant?
3. PotassiumhasamuchlowerworkfunctionthanGold,canyouthinkofanyreasonwhythiswouldbethecase?

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