2205

Principal Design Features: 2205 is a duplex stainless steel designed to combine improved resistance
to stress corrosion cracking, pitting, crevice corrosion and high strength when compared with other
stainless alloys. This alloy resists chloride environments and sulfide stress corrosion. It is also roughly
double the strength of standard austenitic stainless steels.
Applications: Most often employed in welded pipe and tube in chemical tanks, flue gas filters, acetic
acid distillation components and heat exchangers.
Machinability: Similar in nature to 316 stainless steel. Slow speeds, positive feeds, sharp tooling and
rigid mounts are essential. Machinable with either high speed or carbide tooling, with speeds for carbide
reduced by roughly 20 %.
Forming: Due to its inherently high strength and work hardening rate, 2205 is difficult to form. It will take
a lower radius than 316 stainless and a higher allowance must be made for springback.
Welding: TIG, MIG, SMAW and manual covered electrode methods have been successfully employed.
Use caution in the following areas : 1.) Do not preheat the weld piece. 2.) use low heat inputs and 3.)
Cool below 300 F between passes.
Hot Working: Hot work should be done in the range of 1750-2100 F, although room temperature
forming is recommended whenever possible. When any hot forming is performed, a full anneal with
rapid quench is required to retain maximum stability and properties.
Annealing: Anneal at 1868-1958 F(1020-1070 C), water quench

2304
Principal Design Features: This alloy is a duplex stainless steel whose structure is a balance of ferritic
and austenitic. It was designed to feature high strength and toughness, resistance to stress corrosion
cracking, low thermal expansion, high thermal conductivity and easy fabrication. This alloy is not
designed for applications which expose it to temperatures over 570 F for long periods.
Applications: Heat exchangers, feed water tubes, piping and instrumentation tubing for general
service. Industries utilizing this alloy include the coal handling, food and beverage, potash, waste water
and pulp and paper.
Machinability: Low speeds and constant feeds will minimize this alloy's tendency to work harden.
Tougher than 304 and 316 stainless with a long stringy chip, the use of chip breakers is recommended.
Forming: Due its inherently higher yield strength, initial forming pressures must be higher than those
required for standard 300 series stainless steel. Low ductility will make forming operations difficult.
Welding: All common methods including GTAW, SAW and GMAW can be successfully employed.
Preheating and post weld annealing is not required. Filler metal should be a balanced ferrite/ austenite
type like 2205 or 2304.
Hot Working:This is the recommended method of forming. It may commence after heating to 17502000 F, followed by rapid cooling after working. For maximum properties material should be fully
annealed after working.
Annealing: Heat to 1710-1920 F(930-1050 c), rapid quench.
Hardening: This material is not hardenable by heat treatment.

2507
Principal Design Features: This is a duplex alloy stainless steel designed to feature high strength,
resistance to pitting, stress corrosion cracking, erosion corrosion and corrosion fatigue, crevice

corrosion and strong weldability.

Applications: Applications include components exposed to strong chloride rich environments. Among
them are a variety of components in desalination plants, heat exchanger tubes in sea water cooling
plants, drive shafts for ocean going vessels, containers for the pulp and paper industry, tube and pipe
systems at petrochemical refineries and human implant components.
Machinability: Low speeds and constant feeds will minimize this alloy's tendency to work harden.
Tougher than 304 and 316 stainless with a long stringy chip, the use of chip breakers is recommended.
Forming: Due its inherently higher yield strength, initial forming pressures must be higher than those
required for standard 300 series stainless steel. Low ductility will make forming operations difficult.
Welding: All common methods including GTAW, SAW and GMAW can be successfully employed.
Preheating and post weld annealing is not required. Filler metal should be a balanced ferrite/ austenite
type like 2205, 2507 or 2304.
Hot Working: This is the recommended method of forming. It may commence after heating to 17502000 F, followed by rapid cooling after working. For maximum properties material should be fully
annealed after working.
Annealing: Heat to 1920-2060 F(1050-1125 C), rapid quench.
Hardening: This material is not hardenable by heat treatment.

301
Principal Design Features: 301 is a commonly available austenitic stainless with good corrosion
resistance and elevated carbon to allow for cold working to a variety of tempers. It can be obtained in
the annealed, 1/4 hard, 1/2 hard, 3/4 hard, full hard, extra full hard and high yield tempers from both
producers and distributors.
Applications: Automotive trim, kitchen equipment, hose clamps, wheel covers, aircraft components and
a wide variety of industrial applications.
Machinability: 301 is not available in bar, plate, tube, pipe or forging, therefore no information is
available.
Forming: Easily formed in the annealed condition. Care must be taken in forming operations which
involve deforming the material in the tempered condition as cracking and tearing can result.
Intermediate annealing only serves to reduce the hardness and therefore ultimate properties.
Welding: All popular techniques may be used, however the material will lose temper in the heat affected
weld zone.
Forging: Commence forging at 2000-2200 F(1093-1204 C) and finish at 1700 F(927 C).
Hot Working: While cold forming is recommended wherever feasible, forging, upsetting and other
operations can be performed at 1800-2100 F. Temperatures above this range will cause scaling and a
reduction in the workability of the material. Post-process annealing is required to re-attain maximum
corrosion resistant properties.
Cold Working: Most common cold work methods are successful with this alloy. It should be understood
however that the material will be more difficult to work than other austenitic stainless steels due its high
work hardening rate. The resulting hardening will, however, produce increases in strength and
toughness which may be of value in the finished product.
Annealing: 1850-2050 F (101-1121 C) followed by rapid cooling. For thin sections air cooling is
acceptable, while heavier sections should be water quenched.
Hardening: This alloy does not respond to heat treatment.

302
Principal Design Features: Type 302 is a slightly higher carbon version of type 304, most commonly
found in strip and wire forms. While still used in a variety of industries, many applications have shifted to
304 and 304L due to advances in melting technology, availability and cost.
Applications: Primarily used in the stamping, spinning and wire forming industry. This alloy is formed
into all types of washers, springs, screens and cables.
Machinability: Slow speeds and high feeds will overcome this alloys tendency to work harden. Due to
gummy chips, it is recommended that chip breakers are used on all tooling.
Welding: This alloy can best be welded by resistance or shielded fusion methods. Filler metals should
be AWS E/ER308 or 312. Post weld annealing dissolves the chromium carbide and is recommended for
maximum resistance to intergranular attack.
Forging: Commence forging at 2100-2300 F(1149-1260 C). Do not forge below 1700 F(927 C).
Hot Working: Uniform heating to 2100 F(1149 C) will allow this allow to be forged, upset and headed
successfully. Do not work 302 below 1700 F (927 C). Forgings should be fully annealed after all
operations to reattain maximum corrosion resistance.
Cold Working: Cold working will dramatically increase the hardness of this material, however it is quite
ductile and may readily be drawn, spun and upset. Any cold work will cause this alloy to become
magnetic. Post-fabrication annealing is necessary to reattain maximum corrosion resistance and a nonmagnetic condition.
Annealing: 1850-2050 F (1010-1121 C) with cooling at a rapid rate to avoid the precipitation of
chromium carbides.
Hardening: This alloy does not respond to heat treatment.

303
Principal Design Features: 303 is one of the most popular of all the free machining stainless steels. It
offers good strength, corrosion resistance and great machinability. It will resist scaling at temperatures
up to 1600 F(871 C).
Applications: sed in an incredibly wide variety of parts both in screw and general machining industries.
Applications include hardware, fasteners, valve parts, nozzles and trim.
Machinability: Excellent speeds and feeds are capable with this material. The addition of sulfur causes
a very brittle chip. Many companies now offer premium machinability grades, such as CarTech with their
Project 70 and 7000 series.
Welding: Although not recommended, welding may be performed if low temperatures are employed.
Recommended filler metal is AWS E/ER312. At high temperature, the sulfur in 303 tends to precipitate
at the weld boundary resulting in weak and brittle joints.
Hot Working: Forging and upsetting may commence once the workpiece has been thoroughly heated
to 2100-2300 F (1149-1260 C). It is not recommended to work this material below 1700 F (927 C). Rapid
post-work cooling will optimize corrosion performance.
Cold Working: Minor deformation is possible with this alloy, although it is not its strong point. Type 303
Se is superior in this aspect.
Annealing: 1850-1950 F (1010-1066 C), followed by rapid cooling is the recommended practice.
Hardening: This alloy does not respond to hardening by heat treatment. Cold work will raise both the
hardness and strength characteristics

304
Principal Design Features: One of the most widely used and oldest of the stainless steels. This was
originally called 18-8 which stood for its chromium and nickel content. It possesses an excellent
combination of strength, corrosion resistance and fabricability. It is available in the widest variety of
forms and sizes of any stainless steel.
Applications: The list is endless. Almost every conceivable industry uses some of this material in some
way. Everything from stovetops to ball point pen barrels to flatware to fasteners has been fabricated
from this alloy.
Machinability: Slow speeds and heavy feeds will minimize this alloys tendency to work harden. Due to
long stringy chips, the use of chip breakers is advisable. Many companies now offer premium
machinability grades, such as CarTech with their Project 70 and 7000 series.
Welding: All fusion and resistance processes have been successfully employed in welding 304. AWS
E/ER308 or 312 filler metal is recommended. For cleaner, stronger welds, may users choose 304L
which has a controlled low carbon content designed to reduce carbide precipitation at the weld
boundaries.
Hot Working: Forging, heading and other hot working should follow uniform heating to 2100-2300 F
(1149-1260 C). Rapid cooling is necessary to attain maximum corrosion resistance in finished parts.
Cold Working: Readily fabricated by most cold working methods, 304 may require intermediate
annealing to avoid cracking or tearing from radical deformation. Full annealing should follow any
operation to reduce internal stress and optimize corrosion resistance.
Annealing: 1850-2050 F (1010-1121 C) followed by rapid cooling.
Hardening This alloy does not respond to heat treatment. Cold work will cause an increase in both
hardness and strength.

304L
Principal Design Features A low carbon version of type 304 stainless. 304L is used almost
interchangeably with 304 but is preferred for welding operations. It offers a good combination of
strength, corrosion resistance and fabricability.
Applications The list is endless. Almost every conceivable industry uses some of this material in some
way. Everything from stovetops to ball point pen barrels to flatware to fasteners has been fabricated
from this alloy.
Machinability Slow speeds and heavy feeds will minimize this alloys tendency to work harden. Due to
long stringy chips, the use of chip breakers is advisable. Many companies now offer premium
machinability grades, such as CarTech with their Project 70 and 7000 series.
Welding All fusion and resistance processes have been successfully employed in welding 304. AWS
E/ER308 or 312 filler metal is recommended. Its low carbon, means that the is less carbide precipitation
at the weld boundaries resulting in stronger welds.
Hot Working Forging, heading and other hot working should follow uniform heating to 2100-2300 F
(1149-1260 C). Rapid cooling is necessary to attain maximum corrosion resistance in finished parts.
Cold Working Readily fabricated by most cold working methods, 304L may require intermediate
annealing to avoid cracking or tearing from radical deformation. Full annealing should follow any
operation to reduce internal stress and optimize corrosion resistance.
Annealing 1850-2050 F (1010-1121 C) followed by rapid cooling.

Hardening This alloy does not respond to heat treatment. Cold work will cause an increase in both
hardness and strength.

309
Principal Design Features This alloy is known for good strength and oxidation resistance in continuous
service temperatures up to 2000 F (1093 C).It is superior to 304 stainless in both strength and corrosion
resistance.
Applications Oven linings, boiler baffles, fire box sheets, furnace components and other high
temperature containers.
Machinability This alloy machines similarly to type 304 stainless. Its chips are stringy and it will work
harden rapidly. It is necessary to keep the tool cutting at all times and use chip breakers.
Welding Most of the austenitic stainless steels can be readily welded using fusion or resistance
methods. Oxyacetylene welding is not recommended. Filler metal should be AWS E/ER 309 or 309L.
Hot Working Working temperatures are 2150 F (1177 C), with reheating necessary at 1800 F (982
C).Rapid quenching is recommended. Full post-work annealing is required to reattain maximum
corrosion resistance.
Cold Working Although this alloy has a high work hardening rate, it can be drawn, headed, upset, and
stamped. Full annealing is required after cold work to remove internal stress.
Annealing 1900-2050 F (1038-1121 C), water quench.
Hardening This alloy does not respond to heat treatment. Cold work will cause an increase in both
hardness and strength.

309S
Principal Design Features Basically a controlled carbon version of type 309 stainless designed to
improve the weld strength of the alloy while benefiting from the alloy's high resistance to heat and
corrosion. Superior corrosion resistance to 309 in the range of 800-1500 F (427-816 C).
Applications Oven linings, boiler baffles, fire box sheets, furnace components and other high
temperature containers.
Machinability This alloy machines similarly to type 304 stainless. Its chips are stringy and it will work
harden rapidly. It is necessary to keep the tool cutting at all times and use chip breakers.
Welding Most of the austenitic stainless steels can be readily welded using fusion or resistance
methods. Oxyacetylene welding is not recommended. Filler metal should be AWS E/ER 309L.
Hot Working Working temperatures are 2150 F (1177 C), with reheating necessary at 1800 F (982 C).
Rapid quenching is recommended. Full post-work annealing is required to reattain maximum corrosion
resistance.
Cold Working Although this alloy has a high work hardening rate, it can be drawn, headed, upset, and
stamped. Full annealing is required after cold work to remove internal stress.
Annealing 1900-2050 F (1038-1121 C), water quench.
Hardening This alloy does not respond to heat treatment. Cold work will cause an increase in both
hardness and strength.

310
Principal Design Features The strength of this alloy is a combination of good strength and corrosion
resistance in temperatures up to 2100 F (1149 C). Due to its relatively high chromium and nickel content
it is superior in most environments to 304 or 309 stainless.

Applications Oven linings, boiler baffles, kilns, lead pots, radiant tubes, annealing covers, saggers,
burners, combustion tubes, refractory anchor bolts, fire box sheets, furnace components and other high
temperature containers.
Machinability This alloy machines similarly to type 304 stainless. Its chips are stringy and it will work
harden rapidly. It is necessary to keep the tool cutting at all times and use chip breakers.
Welding Most of the austenitic stainless steels can be readily welded using fusion or resistance
methods. Oxyacetylene welding is not recommended. Filler metal should be AWS E/ER 310.
Hot Working Most common hot work methods can be successfully performed after uniform heating to
2150 F (1177 C). Do not forge below 1800 F (982 C). Rapid cooling is required to maximize corrosion
resistance.
Cold Working Although this alloy has a high work hardening rate, it can be drawn, headed, upset, and
stamped. Full annealing is required after cold work to remove internal stress.
Annealing 1900-2050 F (1038-1121 C) water quench.

310S
Principal Design Features The strength of this alloy is a combination of good strength and corrosion
resistance in temperatures up to 2100 F (1149 C). Due to its relatively high chromium and nickel content
it is superior in most environments to 304 or 309 stainless.
Applications Oven linings, boiler baffles, fire box sheets, furnace components and other high
temperature containers.
Machinability This alloy machines similarly to type 304 stainless. Its chips are stringy and it will work
harden rapidly. It is necessary to keep the tool cutting at all times and use chip breakers.
Welding Most of the austenitic stainless steels can be readily welded using fusion or resistance
methods. Oxyacetylene welding is not recommended. Filler metal should be AWS E/ER 310.
Hot Working Most common hot work methods can be successfully performed after uniform heating to
2150 F (1177 C). Do not forge below 1800 F (982 C). Rapid cooling is required to maximize corrosion
resistance.
Cold Working Although this alloy has a high work hardening rate, it can be drawn, headed, upset, and
stamped. Full annealing is required after cold work to remove internal stress.
Annealing 1900-2050 F (1038-1121 C) water quench.
Hardening This alloy does not respond to heat treatment. Cold work will cause an increase in both
hardness and strength.

316
Principal Design Features This austenitic stainless steel has an increased molybdenum content to
increase its resistance to corrosion when compared to other 300 series alloys. It will resist scaling at
temperatures up to 1600 F (871 C) and maintains good mechanical properties and creep strength at
high temperatures.
Applications Widely used in industry, it was initially designed for paper mill machinery. It has been
used in marine environments and a wide variety of general industrial components.
Machinability Low speeds and constant feeds will minimize this alloy's tendency to work harden.
Tougher than 304 stainless with a long stringy chip, the use of chip breakers is recommended. Many
companies now offer premium machinability grades, such as CarTech with their Project 70 and 7000
series.

Welding All common fusion and resistance methods except oxyacetylene welding have proven
successful. Use AWS E/ER316 or 316L filler metal for best results.
Hot Working All common hot working processes are possible with this alloy. Heat to 2100-2300 F
(1149-1260 C). Avoid working this material below 1700 F (927 C). For optimum corrosion resistance, a
post-work annealing is recommended.
Cold Working Shearing, stamping, heading and drawing can be successfully performed . To remove
internal stresses, a post-work annealing is recommended.
Annealing 1850-2050 F (1010-1121 C), followed by rapid cooling.
Hardening This alloy does not respond to heat treatment. Cold work will cause an increase in both
hardness and strength.

316L
Principal Design Features 316L is often substituted for 316 stainless due to its superior weldability
with no appreciable difference in price or properties. It combines good availability in all forms and size
ranges with great strength and corrosion resistance.
Applications Components used in marine environments and chemical equipment. Suitable for any
application where 316 stainless is used and stronger welds are desirable.
Machinability Low speeds and constant feeds will minimize this alloy's tendency to work harden.
Tougher than 304 stainless with a long stringy chip, the use of chip breakers is recommended. Many
companies now offer premium machinability grades, such as CarTech with their Project 70 and 7000
series.
Welding All common fusion and resistance methods except oxyacetylene welding have proven
successful. Use AWS E/ER 316L filler metal for best results.
Hot Working All common hot working processes are possible with this alloy. Heat to 2100-2300 F
(1149-1260 C). Avoid working this material below 1700 F (927 C). For optimum corrosion resistance, a
post-work annealing is recommended.
Cold Working Shearing, stamping, heading and drawing can be successfully performed . To remove
internal stresses, a post-work annealing is recommended.
Annealing 1850-2050 F (1010-1121 C), followed by rapid cooling.
Hardening This alloy does not respond to heat treatment. Cold work will cause an increase in both
hardness and strength.

317
Principal Design Features 317 is a higher chromium, nickel and molybdenum version of 316 stainless
designed principally for increased strength and corrosion resistance.
Applications Textile, pulp paper and chemical equipment, for corrosion resistance.
Machinability Low speeds and constant feeds will minimize this alloy's tendency to work harden.
Tougher than 304 stainless with a long stringy chip, the use of chip breakers is recommended.
Welding All common fusion and resistance methods except oxyacetylene welding have proven
successful. Use AWS E/ER317 or 317L filler metal for best results.
Hot Working All common hot working processes are possible with this alloy. Heat to 2100-2300 F
(1149-1260 C). Avoid working this material below 1700 F (927 C). For optimum corrosion resistance, a
post-work annealing is recommended.
Cold Working Shearing, stamping, heading and drawing can be successfully performed . To remove

internal stresses, a post-work annealing is recommended.

Annealing 1850-2050 F (1010-1121 C), followed by rapid cooling.
Hardening This alloy does not respond to heat treatment. Cold work will cause an increase in both
hardness and strength.

317L
Principal Design Features 317L is a low carbon version of 317 stainless. It possesses the same high
strength and corrosion resistance and will produce stronger welds due to its low carbon content. Many
users are shifting over to this alloy in lieu of 304 and 316 as availability and cost improves.
Applications Chemical and petrochemical process equipment, pulp and paper manufacturing and
condensers in fossil and nuclear fueled power generation stations.
Machinability Low speeds and constant feeds will minimize this alloy's tendency to work harden.
Tougher than 304 stainless with a long stringy chip, the use of chip breakers is recommended.
Welding All common fusion and resistance methods except oxyacetylene welding have proven
successful. Use AWS E/ER 317L filler metal for best results.
Hot Working All common hot working processes are possible with this alloy. Heat to 2100-2300 F
(1149-1260 C). Avoid working this material below 1700 F (927 C). For optimum corrosion resistance, a
post-work annealing is recommended.
Cold Working Shearing, stamping, heading and drawing can be successfully performed . To remove
internal stresses, a post-work annealing is recommended.
Annealing 1850-2050 F (1010-1121 C), followed by rapid cooling.
Hardening This alloy does not respond to heat treatment. Cold work will cause an increase in both
hardness and strength.

321
Principal Design Features The key feature of 321 stainless is its resistance to intergranular corrosion.
It employs titanium as a stabilizing element against chromium carbide formation. This alloy also exhibits
strength characteristics superior to those of 304 stainless.
Applications Jet engine parts, furnace heat treated parts, expansion joints, turbo superchargers, oil
refiners, exhaust manifolds and high temperature chemical production equipment.
Machinability Slightly tougher than 304 stainless, this material will produce the same tough stringy
chips. The use of slow speeds and constant positive feeds will minimize this alloy's tendency to work
harden.
Welding 321 may be welded by all commonly used fusion and resistance methods. Oxyacetylene
welding is not recommended. When necessary, use AWS E/ER347 filler metal.
Hot Working Working temperatures of 2100-2300 F (1149-1260 C) are recommended for forging,
upsetting and other hot work processes. Do not work this alloy at temperatures below 1700 F ( 927 C).
Material must be water quenched or fully annealed after working to reattain maximum corrosion
resistance.
Cold Working Although this material requires higher initial forces than 304 stainless, it is quite tough
and ductile and can be readily stamped, blanked, spun and drawn.
Annealing 1800-2000 F (928-1093 C), air cool. This procedure will result in maximum ductility. For
maximum corrosion resistance, see the note on stabilizing anneal under corrosion.
Hardening This alloy does not harden by heat treating. Elevated properties may only be obtained

through cold reduction

347
Principal Design Features Similar to 321 stainless, 347 uses columbium as a stabilizing element to
maximize its principal feature: resistance to intergranular corrosion. It can be used in applications
requiring repeated heating in the range of 800 and 1650 F (427-899 C).
Applications High temperature gaskets and expansion joints, rocket engine parts, aircraft collector
rings and exhaust manifolds and chemical production equipment.
Machinability Slightly tougher than 304 stainless, this material will produce the same tough stringy
chips. The use of slow speeds and constant positive feeds will minimize this alloy's tendency to work
harden.
Welding 347 may be welded by all commonly used fusion and resistance methods. Oxyacetylene
welding is not recommended. When necessary, use AWS E/ER347 filler metal.
Hot Working Working temperatures of 2100-2250 F (1149-1232 C) are recommended for forging,
upsetting and other hot work processes. Do not work this alloy at temperatures below 1700 F ( 927 C).
Material must be water quenched or fully annealed after working to reattain maximum corrosion
resistance.
Cold Working Although this material requires higher initial forces than 304 stainless, it is quite tough
and ductile and can be readily stamped, blanked, spun and drawn.
Annealing 1850-2000 F (1010-1093 C), water quench. This procedure will result in maximum ductility.
For maximum corrosion resistance, see the note on stabilizing anneal under corrosion.
Hardening This alloy does not harden by heat treating. Elevated properties may only be obtained
through cold reduction

409
Principal Design Features 409 is an alloy designed principally for the automotive exhaust industry,
although it has been used successfully in other industrial applications. It combines good elevated
temperature corrosion resistance with medium strength, good formability and overall cost. In recent
years, however, and with the upcoming US government requirement for a 100,00 mile exhaust
capability, other alloys have been becoming more prevalent.
Applications Automobile mufflers, catalytic converters, tailpipes, farm equipment, structural supports
and hangers, transformer cases, diamond tread plate and shipping containers.
Machinability Machining this alloy produces tough, draggy chips with heavy build-up. While this alloy
can be machined in the annealed condition, it tends to perform better in the cold drawn or heat treated
condition.
Forming This alloy is quite ductile in the annealed condition and can be easily formed using all
commonly employed practices. Experienced fabricators report that it is similar in formability to soft
carbon steel.
Welding Can be successfully welded employing SMA, GMA and GTA processes. When not used in a
high temperature environment, filler metal AWS ER309 is acceptable for use. For stronger, more
resilient welds at high temperature, use weld filler such as 409 Cb, AWS ER430 or W18 Cr-Cb.
Hot Working Heat to 1500-1600 F(816-871 C) then rapidly heat to 1900-2050 F(1038-1121 C). Do not
soak at this temperature and do not work at temperatures below 1500 F(816 C). Air cool forgings.

Cold Working Despite a rather low work hardening rate, this alloy can be easily formed using most
common methods.
Annealing Soak material at 1200-1400 F(649-760 C) and air cool.
Hardening This alloy is not hardenable by heat treatment

410
Principal Design Features 410 is the basic martensitic stainless which will attain high mechanical
properties after heat treatment. It has good impact strength, corrosion and scaling resistance up to 1200
F (649 C).
Applications Cutlery, steam and gas turbine blades and buckets, bushings, valve components,
fasteners, screens and kitchen utensils.
Machinability Tough, draggy chips with heavy build-up. While this alloy can be machined in the
annealed condition, it tends to perform better in the cold drawn or heat treated condition.
Welding Most common methods of welding can be successfully employed with this alloy. To reduce the
chance of cracking, it is advisable to preheat the workpiece to 350-400 F (177-204 C). Post-weld
annealing is recommended to reattain maximum ductility. Filler metal, when required, should be AWS
E/ER410.
Hot Working 2000-2200 F (1093-1204 C) is the proper hot work range. Do not work this material below
1650 F (899 C).
Cold Working Readily cold formed using most of the common practices.
Annealing 1200-1400 F (649-760 C), followed by air cooling.
Tempering Temper for desired hardness, air or furnace cool.
Hardening 1750-1850 F (954-1010 C), oil quench for maximum hardness.

430
Principal Design Features A basic ferritic non-heat treatable stainless steel. Its strengths are in
ductility, formability, good corrosion and oxidation resistance, thermal conductivity and finish quality.
Applications

Appliance, automotive and architectural trim, vaults, heat exchangers, scientific

apparatus and vending machine components.

Machinability Rated at 60 % of B1112. Relatively easily machined in all common procedures.
Forming Similar in forming characteristics to 304 stainless steel without the same degree of ductility. It
does not, however, work harden greatly.
Welding All common welding methods used for stainless will be successful with 430. Filler metal
should be AWS E/ER308 or 312.
Forging Bring the work piece to 1500 F (816 C), then on quickly to 1900 F (1038 C). Prolonged
exposure at this temperature will cause grain growth. Do not work this material at less than 1500 F (816
C). Air cool to room temperature and anneal.
Hot Working Generally the recommended method of hot forming is to work the material at between
1300 and 1500 F. Hot forming is only required on heavy sections.
Annealing Soak at 1500 F, furnace cool (50 F/hour) to 1100 F, then air cool.
Hardening 430 does not respond to hardening by heat treatment.

KeithXtreme

02-07-2006 06:53 PM

Tube Processes
Electric Resistance Welded (ERW)
Cold Drawn Welded (CDW)
Drawn Over Mandrel (DOM)
Cold Drawn Seamless (CDS)
Cold Rolled Electric Welded (CREW)
Hot Rolled Electric Welded (HREW)
What's the difference between Tube and Pipe?
Types of Tube and Pipe
Electric Resistance Welded (ERW)
Cold formed, electric resistance welded tubing can be produced in round, square
or rectangle shapes. ERW tube is produced by processing a flat rolled steel into
strips which are cold-formed, welded and seam annealed or normalized
(depending on the manufacturer). You can usually identify ERW tube by the blue
strip down one side of the tube (which is the welded area). The ERW process can
guarantee the weld to be as strong or stronger than the rest of the tube body.
The origin from a flat strip results in a more concentric product than Cold Drawn
Seamless (CDS). ERW can also be known as CREW (Cold Rolled Electric Welded).
Typical Applications:
Structural columns, beams, supports, heavy equipment frames with 58,000 PSI
tensile.
Cold Drawn Welded (CDW)
Produced from a steel strip by cold forming, electric resistance welding (ERW) and
cold drawing to finished dimensions, CDW is the most versatile and widely sold
mechanical tubing grade. A variety of thermal treatments can be applied to alter
the mechanical properties and machinability. CDW is used for a tremendous
variety of machine parts where close tolerances and higher mechanical properties
are needed.
Typical Applications:
Automotive components, shock absorbers, hydraulic cylinders, sleeves, bushings,
axles and shafting.

Drawn Over Mandrel (DOM)

DOM is formed from strip and Electric Resistance Welded (ERW) then cold drawn
through a die and over a mandrel resulting in improved inner surfaces and
dimensional quality. This process, called cold drawing, may be repeated more
than once to reach the planned OD, ID, or wall dimension. Multiple draws can also
be used to increase the strength or improve the surface finish of the tubes.
During the drawing operation, the tubes may be process annealed to increase the
ductility of the material. Lower cost alternative to CDS with equal or superior
physical properties.
Typical Applications:
Machined parts, rollers, shafts, sleeves, steering columns, axle tubes, drive
shafts, bushings and is most readily adaptable in cylinder applications with a
80,000 PSI tensile.
Cold Drawn Seamless (CDS)
General purpose seamless tubing, which is a solid bar of carbon steel drawn over
a mandrel to form the tube section. CDS allows selection of chemistry and rough
tube size. Cold drawing produces higher physical properties without heat treating.
Offers widest range of sizes and chemistries in mechanical tubing. Better
tolerances and reduced machining allowances over Hot Finished Seamless (HFS).
Typical Applications:
Machined parts, bushings, spacers, bearings, rollers, shafts, sleeves and cylinders
with a 75,000 PSI tensile.
Cold Rolled Electric Welded (CREW)
Cold rolled steels are steels that are shaped by high pressure rollers at normal
temperature in the steel mill. Cold rolling work hardens the material substantially.
The steel is then welded by the electric weld process. A cold rolled steel can be
either a mild steel or a high carbon steel. Can also be termed as ERW (Electric
Resistance Welded). See ERW
Hot Rolled Electric Welded (HREW)
Hot rolled steel is steel that is rolled to size in the mill while red hot. Hot rolling
steel does not work harden it as much as cold rolling. For this reason, hot rolled
steel is more easily machined than cold rolled.
What's the difference between Tube and Pipe?
The general term for pipe was that it was primarily used for carrying gas or liquid.
It was not intended for structural use because the dimensions used in describing
pipe was not dimensionally accurate. Measurement was referred to its inside
diameter and wall thickness. The inside diameter was a true dimension, but over
the years had become "nominal" (in name only) so that when pipe size was
referred to, it was an approximate inside diameter measurement with the

thickness described by the term "schedule".

Pipe is generally more rigid than tube, and is usually produced in heavier wall
thicknesses.
Pipe is specified by a nominal dimension which bears little or no resemblance
to the actual dimensions of the pipe. 1" Schedule 40 pipe, for instance, has an
actual OD of 1.32", a wall of 0.133", and an inner diameter of 1.049". Tube
dimensions are actual dimensions.
Pipe fittings are sized to meet pipe sizes, but not tube sizes. A 1" schedule 40
nipple will fit correctly on a 1" schedule 40 pipe, but not on a 1" OD tube.
Tube refers to round, square, rectangular or any shape of hollow material of
uniform thickness which is defined by the outside diameter and wall thickness
dimensions. It is the grade of the metals and how tube is produced and processed
that is important.
Structural Tube is generally produced using the ERW (Electric Resistance
Welded) process. Identified under the Circular Hollow Section (CHS) or Hollow
Structural Sections (HSS) class. Some steel mills specifically develop structural
tube for roll over protective structures.
Mechanical Tubing is usually produced as seamless, as-welded or DOM
(Drawn Over Mandrel) tube.
Types of Tube and Pipe
Structural Tube - high strength welded steel tubing
Mechanical Tube - seamless, as-welded and drawn over mandrel
Stainless Tubing and Pipe - several seamless and welding processes requiring
resistance to corrosive materials
Standard Pipe - several seamless or electric weld process, carries liquid or gas

Summary
The present study reports the results obtained by simulating a rotary piercing process.
In particular, the mechanism of hole formation and propagation for seamless tube
production has been modelled via FEM simulation and the outputs have been
compared with the experimental evidence.
The first phase of the research is focused on the definition of a reliable model and on
its implementation into a two-dimensional simulation code. The technological data
characterising the productive process have been defined in cooperation with Pietra
S.p.A..
The second phase consists in the simulation of the start and propagation of the hole
and in the comparison between simulation and experimental results. The utilised
simulation code is DEFORM 2D, its remeshing module has been modified to model
fracture initiation and propagation, that is start and development of the internal hole.

1. INTRODUCTION
When the need of industries is for tubes, different technology for tube productions can
be considered. In particular, depending on the final application, and on the required
dimensions, tubes can be manufactured by extrusion, welding or rotary piercing. If the
need is for seamless tubes and the ratio length-diameter of the tube is high, the best
technology for tube production is represented by the rotary piercing process or
Mannesman process.
By analysing the rotary tube piercing process as reported in Figure 1, a hole is formed
by peripherally rolling a cylindrical hot round bar over a conical piercer point. The
rod is driven by a pair of cone-shape rolls which have skewed axis and rotate in the
same direction. The frictional load between the rolls and the rod causes the rod to
rotate and forces it to advance longitudinally over the piercer point, where the internal
fracture starts [1-3].

More in detail, the round bar rotates and undergoes to a cyclic progressive
compression which results in high tensile stresses in the centre of the rod itself as
reported in Figure 2. According to the theory of plasticity fracture starts exactly at the
centre of the bar because the tensile stress reaches its breakage value. The internal
hole is then sized and calibrated by an internal mandrel (Figure 1).

Figuure 1. The rotary tube piercing process

Figure 2. Stress distribution in the transversal section of the rod

2. RESEARCH AND PRODUCTION

The mechanism of hole formation with a Rotary Piercing Mill represents one of the
most important aspects of the productive cycle of steel seamless tubes. This is a
subject addressed by many researchers, designers, mill builders and tube makers, who
are continuously looking at innovative solutions so to improve the technology of the
process itself.
The results gained by the research team of the University of Brescia in cooperation
with Pietra S.p.A. company, and reported in the following of this paper, refer to the
analysis of stresses generated during the hole formation of a hot round bar by using a
rotary piercing mill. These results are relevant for the productive reality and for the
future development of the research.
The technical information, achieved through simulations, together with the knowledge
on the seamless tubes process formation, can furnish to all the workers of this field
useful elements to deeply understand the complex phase of hole formation. This
knowledge will give the possibility to optimize some parameters which are governing
the productive process. As an example, the working temperature of the round bar, the
geometry of the rolls, the shape and the position of the head of the mandrel, and other
more. These aspects are all of priority importance to obtain the best qualitative and
productive performance.

3. STUDY OF MATERIAL BREAKAGE

The study of material fracture is a very relevant topic. In fact, if production processes
involving material breakage, such as for example blanking, cutting or process related
to development of internal cracks (extrusion or tube rotary piercing), want to be
addressed the simulation program has to deal with modelling of fracture. Fracture can
be simulated mainly in two different ways:
1. splitting the mesh nodes,
2. deleting the mesh elements.
The choice of the model depends on the available simulation code, and on the real
possibility to manage the separation mechanism.
The FEM model, used for the simulation of material fracture and hole formation and
presented in this paper, is a customised version of DEFORM 2D, a lagrangian implicit
code. Material breakage can be simulated by deleting the mesh elements of the
workpiece material when the damage value is higher than a defined critical value.
Using this code the Authors obtained good results in the study of orthogonal cutting,
blanking and forecast of chevron cracks in foreword extrusion [10-12].

The developed model was applied also to rotary tube piercing as reported in [13]. The
promising results obtained in the first part of the research gave to the Authors the idea
to continue the research itself and to concentrate the efforts in the definition of a
model able to match the experimental evidence. Of course, this could be done thanks
to the active cooperation and experience of Pietra S.p.A. which since 1946 works in
the field of steel seamless tube production by using a rotary piercing mill.

4. THE IMPLEMENTED FRACTURE MODEL

As already mentioned, the developed code is a customisation of the standard
DEFORM 2D version. The modified code differs from the original one in the
possibility of implementing a new damage criterion (which defines how and when
fracture begins), in the subroutines for deleting the elements, and in the remeshing
module (which improves the mesh quality after deleting the elements).
To study the material breakage ductile fracture criteria have been used. In fact, the
main assumption of these criteria is that ductile fracture occurs when the maximum
damage value in the workpiece exceeds a critical value or a so called critical damage
value" (Ccr). The big problem related to this approach is the definition of the critical
damage value. In fact, its choice affects when and how fracture begins. As a
consequence, its value has to be defined under realistic working conditions, taking
into account the effects of working temperature, of strain, strain rate on the flow stress
and on the breaking stress.
In previous publications the Authors considered several damage criteria such as, for
example, Oyane, 1972, Cockroft and Latham, 1968 and McClintock, 1968 [4-8]. But,
what it has been found to give better results is the choice of a criterion able to take
into account the state of stresses which develops during the piercing process. In
particular, by analysing the mechanism of hole formation and its dependence on the
stress state, a criterion based on the Maximum Principal Stress has been implemented.
Figure 3 shows the calculated maximum principal stress, it is evident that it reaches
the higher value in the centre of the round bar. When the maximum principal stress is
higher than a critical value lim, which is the limit stress, the fracture starts form the
centre of the rod. To implement the Maximum Principal stress criterion, the value of
maximum principal stress has to be calculated for each element of the mesh according
to:

Using the sign convention

, the value of the maximum principal

stress can be easily calculated:

Figure 3. Plot of the calculated maximum principal stress

5. MODEL DEFINITION AND IMPLEMENTATION