Classification of DC machine

DC machines (i.e. DC generators or DC motors) can be classified on the basis of their excitation winding. Field
winding may be connected to armature winding (in series or parallel) or it may be separately excited. This
divides DC machines in two main types. You will understand further classification of DC machines from the
diagram below

DC MOTOR
Construction of a DC motor is same as that of a DC generator. A same DC machine can be used interchangeably, as a
motor or generator, at least theoretically.

Working Principle Of A DC Motor

We know, a motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Theprinciple of working of a DC motor is that "when a current carrying conductor moves in a magnetic field,
it experiences a mechanical force". The direction of this force is given by Fleming's left hand rule and it's
magnitude is given by F = BIl (Newton).
Fleming's left hand rule: if we extend index finger, middle finger and thumb of our left hand, perpendicular to
each other, and direction of magnetic field is represented by index finger, direction of current is represented by
middle finger, then the thumb represents the direction of the force experienced by the current carrying
conductor.

Above diagram simplifies understanding the working principle of a DC motor. When armature windingsare
connected to supply current sets up in the winding, also field magnets are excited. In this case, current carrying
armature conductors experiences force due to the magnetic field, according to the principle stated above. Thus,
this force causes motor to run.

Back EMF
According to fundamental laws of nature, no energy conversion is possible until there is something to oppose
the conversion. In case of generators this opposition is provided by magnetic drag, but in case of motors there
is back emf. Back emf can be given by the emf equation of DC generator i.e.

When the armature of the motor is rotating, the conductors also are cutting the magnetic
flux lines, and hence according to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, emf
induces in the armature conductors. And the direction of this induced emf is such that it
opposes armature current (Ia). The circuit diagram below illustrates the direction of the
back emf and armature current.

Roles of back emf:

Back emf plays very important role in Dc motor. If there was no back emf, the motor will
not be able to convert the electrical energy into mechanical energy. Following are the various roles of back emf:
i)

Back emf protect the armature from short circuit during running condition. If there was no back emf
during running condition, the armature will draw a very high current.

ii)

Back emf will help to produce required amount of torque according to increased or decreased external
load torque. If the external load torque on the motor is increased, speed of the motor will decrease.
Therefore, the back emf will also decrease ( Eb is directly proportional N). Hence, the armature
current increases thus producing more torque.

iii) In every energy conversion system, an opposing agent is necessary without which the system will not
be able to convert the energy. In DC motor the back emf plays the role of the opposing agent. Back
emf opposes the applied voltage so that the applied voltage V has to force the current through the
armature against the opposition of back emf. The electric work done in overcoming this opposition is
converted into mechanical energy in the form of mechanical rotation of the armature.

TORQUE EQUATION OF DC MACHINE

To establish the torque equation, let us first consider the basic circuit diagram of a dc motor, and its voltage equation.

Referring to the diagram beside, we can see, that if E is the supply voltage, E b is the back emf produced and Ia, Ra are
the armature current and armature resistance respectively then thevoltage equation is given by,

But keeping in mind that our purpose is to derive the torque equation of dc motor we multiply both sides of
equation (2) by Ia.

Now Ia2.Ra is the power loss due to heating of the armature coil, and the true effective mechanical power that is
required to produce the desired torque of dc machine is given by,

The mechanical power Pm is related to the electromagnetic torque Tg as,

Where is speed in rad/sec.

Now equating equation (4) & (5) we get,

Now for simplifying the torque equation of dc motor we substitute.

Where, P is no of poles,
is flux per pole,
Z is no. of conductors,
A is no. of parallel paths,
and N is the speed of the D.C. motor.

Substituting equation (6) and (7) in equation (4), we get:

The torque we so obtain, is known as the electromagnetic torque of dc motor, and subtracting the mechanical and
rotational losses from it we get the mechanical torque.
Therefore, Tm = Tg mechanical losses.
This is the torque equation of dc motor. It can be further simplified as:

Which is constant for a particular machine and therefore the torque of dc motor varies with only flux and
armature current Ia.
The Torque equation of a dc motor can also be explained considering the figure below.

Current / conductor Ic = Ia / A
Therefore, force per conductor = fc = BLIa/A
Now torque Tc = fc.r = BLIa.r/A

Hence the total torque developed of a dc machine is,

This torque equation of dc motor can be further simplified as:

Which is constant for a particular machine and therefore the torque of dc motor varies with only flux and
armature current Ia.

Characteristics Of DC Motors
Generally, three characteristic curves are considered for DC motors which are, (i) Torque vs. armature
current (Ta - Ia), (ii) Speed vs. armature current and (iii) Speed vs. torque. These are explained below for
each type of DC motor. These characteristics are determined by keeping following two relations in mind.
Ta .Ia & N Eb/

Characteristics Of DC Shunt Motors

Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)
This characteristic is also known as electrical characteristic. In case of DC shunt motors we can assume the
field flux to be constant. Though at heavy loads, decreases in a small amount due to increased armature
reaction. But as we are neglecting the change in the flux , we can say that torque is proportional to armature
current. Hence the Ta-Ia characteristic for a dc shunt motor will be a straight line through origin. Since, heavy
starting load needs heavy starting current, shunt motor should never be started on a heavy load.

Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)

As flux is assumed constant, we can say N Eb. But, back emf is also almost constant, the speed remains
constant. But practically, as well as Eb decreases with increase in load. But, the Eb decreases slightly more
than , and hence the speed decreases slightly. Generally, the speed decreases by 5 to 15% of full load speed
only. And hence, a shunt motor can be assumed as a constant speed motor.

Speed Vs. Torque (N-Ta)

This characteristic is also called as mechanical characteristic. When the speed of the motor decreases, the
back emf Eb will also decrease, then the armature current increases and the armature torque will also increase.
Because there is no appreciable change in speed of the DC shunt motor from no-load to full load, shunt motor
is suitable to drive a load which is totally and suddenly thrown off so that there is no fear of excessive speed,
hence, such machine is used for driving shaft of machine tools, lathe machine etc.

Characteristics Of DC Series Motors

Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)
We know that torque is directly proportional to armature current and flux, Ta .Ia. In DC series motors, field
winding is connected in series with armature. Thus, before magnetic saturation of the field, flux is directly
proportional to Ia. Therefore, before magnetic saturation Ta Ia2. At light loads, Ia as well as is small and

hence the torque increases as the square of the armature current. Therefore, the Ta-Ia curve is parabola for
smaller values of Ia. After magnetic saturation of the field winding, flux is independent of armature current Ia.
Therefore, the torque varies proportional to Ia only, T Ia. Therefore, after magnetic saturation, Ta-Ia curve
becomes straight line. The shaft torque (Tsh) is less than armature torque (Ta) due to stray losses. In DC
series motors, (prior to magnetic saturation) torque increases as the square of armature current, these motors
are used where high starting torque is required.

Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)

We know the relation, N Eb/
For small load current (and hence for small armature current) change in back emf Eb is small and it may be
neglected. Thus, for small currents speed is inversely proportional to . As we know, flux is directly
proportional to Ia, speed is also inversely proportional to Ia. When armature current is very small the speed
becomes dangerously high. That is why a series motor should never be started without some mechanical
load.
But, at heavy loads, armature current Ia is large. And hence speed is low which results in decreased back emf
Eb. Due to decreased Eb, more armature current is allowed.

Speed Vs. Torque (N-Ta)

From the above two characteristics of DC series motor, it can be found that when speed is high, torque is low
and vice versa.

Characteristics Of DC Compound Motor

DC compound motors have both series as well as shunt windings. In a compound motor series and shunt
windings are connected such that series flux is in direction with shunt flux then the motor is said to be
cumulatively compounded. And if series flux is opposite direction as that of the shunt flux, then the motor is
said to be differentially compounded. Characteristics of both these types are explained below.
(a) Cumulative compound motor. Cumulative compound motors are used where series characteristics are
required but the load is likely to be removed completely. Series winding takes care of the heavy load, whereas
the shunt winding prevents the motor from running at dangerously high speed when the load is suddenly
removed. These motors are generally employed a flywheel, where sudden and temporary loads are applied like
in rolling mills.

(b) Differential compound motor. Since in differential field motors, series flux opposes shunt flux, the total
flux decreases with increase in load. Due to this, the speed remains almost constant or even it may increase
slightly with increase in load. Differential compound motors are not commonly use, but they find limited
applications in experimental and research work.

Starting Methods Of A DC Motor

Basic operational voltage equation of a DC motor is given as: E = Eb + IaRa and hence

Ia = (E - Eb) / Ra

Now, when the motor is at rest, obviously, there is no back emf Eb, hence armature current will be high (20-30
times rated current) at starting. This excessive current will1. Blow out the fuses and may damage the armature winding and/or commutator brush arrangement.
2. Produce very high starting torque (as torque is directly proportional to armature current), and this high
starting toque will produce huge centrifugal force which may throw off the armature windings.
Thus, to avoid the above dangers while starting a DC motor, it is necessary to limit the starting current. For
that purpose, starters are used to start a DC motor. There are various starters like, 3 point starter, 4 point
starter, No load release coil starter, thyristor starter etc.
The concept behind every DC motor starter is, adding external resistance to the
armature winding at starting.

3 Point Starter
The

internal

wiring

of

a3

point

starter is

as

shown

in

the

figure.

When motor is to be started, the lever is turned gradually to the right. When lever
touches point 1, the field winding gets directly connected across the supply, and
the armature winding gets connected with resistances R1 to R5 in series. Hence at
starting full resistance is added in series with armature. Then as the lever is moved
further, the resistance is gradually is cut out from the armature circuit. Now, as the
lever reaches to position 6, all the resistance is cut out from the armature circuit and
armature gets directly connected across the supply. The electromagnet E (no
voltage coil) holds the lever at this position. This electromagnet releases the lever when there is no (or low)
supply voltage. When the motor is overloaded beyond a predefined value, overcurrent release electromagnet D
gets activated, which short circuits electromagnet E, and hence releases the lever and motor is turned off.

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MACHINE

Speed Of A DC Motor
We know, back emf of a DC motor Eb is the induced emf due to rotation of the armature in magnetic field. Thus
value of the Eb can be given by the EMF equation of a DC generator.

Eb = PNZ/60A

(where, P= no. of poles, =flux/pole, N=speed in rpm, Z=no. of armature conductors, A=parallel paths)
thus from above equations

N=

E 60A
/PZ
b

but, for a DC motor A, P and Z are constant

E
b/

thus, it shows speed is directly proportional to back emf and inversely proportional to the flux per pole.
Substitution the value of Eb

(V- IaRa )

= V- IaRa

Therefore, the factors controlling the speed of the dc machine are:

I) Applied voltage, V

II) Armature resistance, Ra

III) Flux per pole,

Speed Control Methods Of DC Motor

Speed Control Of Shunt Motor
1. Flux Control Method
It is seen that speed of the motor is inversely proportional to flux. Thus by
decreasing flux speed can be increased and vice versa.
To control the flux, a rheostat is added in series with the field winding, as
shown in the circuit diagram. Adding more resistance in series with field
winding will increase the speed, as it will decrease the flux, thus, only speed above rated speed can be
achieved with this method. Field current is relatively small and hence I2R loss is small, hence this method is
quiet efficient. Though speed can be increased by reducing flux with this method, it puts a limit to maximum
speed as weakening of flux beyond the limit will adversely affect the commutation.

2. Armature Control Method

Speed of the motor is directly proportional to the back emf Eb and Eb = V- IaRa.
let, load torque is kept constant thus Ia is constant for constant flux. Then, if
supply voltage V and armature current Ia are constant Eb will decrease if
additional resistance is added in series with the armature resistance Ra. Thus
if we add resistance in series with armature, Eb decreases and hence speed
decreases, thus, speed below rated speed can be achieved with this
method. Greater the resistance in series with armature, greater the decrease in speed.

3. Voltage Control Method

A) Multiple voltage control:

In this method the, shunt filed is connected to a fixed exciting voltage, and

armature is supplied with different voltages. Voltage across armature is changed with the help of a suitable
switchgear. The speed is approximately proportional to the voltage across the armature.
B) Ward-Leonard System:
This system is used where very sensitive speed control of
motor is required (e.g electric excavators, elevators etc.) The
arrangement of this system is as required in the figure beside.
M2 is

the

motor

whose

speed

control

is

required.

M1 may be any AC motor or DC motor with constant speed.

G is the generator directly coupled to M1.
In this method the output from the generator G is fed to the
armature of the motor M2 whose speed is to be controlled. The output voltage of the generator G can be varied
from zero to its maximum value, and hence the armature voltage of the motor M2 is varied very smoothly.
Hence very smooth speed control of motor can be obtained by this method.

Speed Control Of Series Motor

1. Flux Control Method
A) Field

divertor :

veritable

resistance

is

connected parallel to the series field as shown in fig

(a). This variable resistor is called as divertor, as
desired amount of current can be diverted through
this resistor and hence current through field coil can
be decreased. Hence flux can be decreased to
desired amount and speed can be increased.
B) Armature divertor: Divertor is connected across
the armature as in fig (b).
For a given constant load torque, if armature current
is reduced then flux must increase.
As, Ta Ia
This will result in increase in current taken from the
supply and hence flux

will increase and

subsequently speed of the motor will decrease.

C) Tapped field control: As shown in fig (c) field coil is tapped dividing number of turns. Thus we can select
different value of by selecting different number of turns.
D) Paralleling field coils:
In this method, several speeds can be obtained by regrouping coils as shown in fig (d).

2. Variable Resistance In Series With Armature

By introducing resistance in series with armature, voltage across the armature can be reduced. And hence,
speed reduces in proportion with it.

3. Series-Parallel Control
This system is widely used in electric traction, where two or more mechanically coupled series motors are
employed. For low speeds, motors are joined in series, and for higher speeds motors are joined in parallel.
When in series, the motors have the same current passing through them, although voltage across each motor
is divided. When in parallel, voltage across each motor is same although current gets divided.

2. 4 Point Starter:

The main difference between a 3 point starter and a 4 point starter is that the no voltage coil is not
connected in series with field coil. The field gets directly connected to the supply, as the lever moves touching
the brass arc. The no voltage coil (or Hold on coil) is connected with a current limiting resistance Rh. This
arrangement ensures that any change of current in the shunt field does not affect the current through hold on
coil at all. This means that electromagnet pull of the hold-on coil will always be sufficient so that the spring does
not
This

1.

unnecessarily
starter

is

used

restore
where

field

DC

the
current

is

lever
to

be

to

adjusted

series

the
by

means

off
of

motor

position.
field

rheostat.

starter:

Construction of DC series motor starters is very basic as shown in the figure. A start arm is simply
moved towards right to start the motor. Thus at first maximum resistance is connected in series with
the

armature

and

then

gradually

decreased

as

the

start

arm

moves

The no load release coil holds the start arm to the run position and leaves it at no load.

ELECTRICAL BRAKING

towards

right.

A running motor may be brought to rest quickly by either mechanical braking or electrical braking. The
mechanical breaking is applied by means of mechanical break shoes. Hence the smoothness of mechanical
breaking is dependent on the surface and physical condition of brakes. Smooth breaking of a motor can be
achieved
by electric
breaking.

Electric Breaking
The electric breaking of a DC motor is of three types, (i) Rheostatic or dynamic braking, (ii) Plugging or
reverse current braking and (iii) Regenerative breaking.

(i) Rheostatic or dynamic breaking:

In case of DC shunt motors, armature is disconnected from the supply and a rheostat (variable resistor) is
connected across it. The field winding is left connected across the supply. Obviously, now armature is driven by
the inertia and hence machine starts acting as a generator. Thus the machine will now feed the current to the
connected rheostat and heat will dissipate at the rate of I2R. Breaking effect is controlled by varying the
resistance

connected

across

the

armature.

In case of DC series motor, motor is disconnected from the supply and field connections are reversed and a
rheostat is connected in series. The field connections are reversed to make sure that the current through field
winding

(ii)

will

flow

Plugging

in

the

or

same

Reverse

direction

current

as

before.

breaking:

In this method, armature connections are reversed and hence motor tends to run in opposite direction. Due to
reversal of the armature terminals, applied voltage V and back emf Eb starts acting in the same direction and
hence the total armature current exceeds. To limit this armature current a variable resistor is connected across
the

armature.

This

is

similar

for

both

series

and

shunt

wound

methods.

Plugging gives greater breaking torque as compared to rheostatic breaking. This method is generally used in
controlling

(iii)

elevators,

machine

tools,

Regenerative

printing

presses

etc.

breaking:

Regenerative breaking is used where, load on the motor has very high inertia (e.g in electric trains). When
applied voltage to the motor is reduced to less than back emf Eb, obviously armature current Ia will get
reversed, and hence armature torque is reversed. Thus speed falls. As generated emf is greater than applied
voltage (machine is acting as a DC generator), power will be returned to the line, this action is called as
regeneration. Speed keeps falling, back emf Eb also falls until it becomes lower than applied voltage and
direction of armature current again becomes opposite to Eb.