A

SEMINAR REPORT
ON

POWER IN NONSINUSOIDAL
SITUATIONS
DEFINITIONS AND PHYSICAL
MEANING
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
(Power Systems)
By
GOKUL VENUGOPAL IYER
(P13PS009)
: Supervisor:
Prof. Pranav B. Darji

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

SARDAR VALLABHBHAI NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SURAT 395007

November 2014.

SURAT-395 007, GUJARAT, INDIA

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the seminar report entitled POWER IN NONSINUSOIDAL
SITUATION: DEFINITIONS AND PHYSICAL MEANING submitted by GOKUL
VENUGOPAL IYER, P13PS009 is a record of bonafide work carried out by him in partial
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (Power Systems).

Date: 22/11/2013
Place: SURAT

Prof. Pranav B. Darji

(Faculty Supervisor)
Examiners

PG In charge

Head of Department

SVNIT

SARDAR VALLABHBHAI NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First of all, I am grateful to The Almighty God for establishing me to complete this
seminar
I wish to express my sincere thanks to my project supervisor Prof. Pranav B. Darji,
Associate Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, for his valuable suggestions and
time.
I place on record, my sincere gratitude to Mr. H.R. Jariwala Sir, PG In charge, Power
Systems, for his constant encouragement.
I take this opportunity to record my sincere thanks to all the faculty members of the
Department of Electrical Engineering, for their help and encouragement.
I also place on record, my sense of gratitude to one and all who, directly or indirectly,
have lent their helping hands in this venture.

ii

GOKUL VENUGOPAL IYER

ABSTRACT
The development of efficient, high-power, semi-conductor switching devices and their
application to the control of large electrical machines and industrial processes has imposed
severe problems on the electrical utilities, particularly with respect to the measurement of
energy flow and the optimum use of transmission networks. In power systems it is not only
necessary to determine the active power but also to know the amount of reactive power in the
system. Knowledge of reactive power allows proper selection and design of compensation
devices for its control thereby reducing losses in the system.
It is well known that meters that measure energy (kWh) and active power (kW) provide
accurate measurements also under non sinusoidal or unbalanced conditions; nevertheless,
meters dedicated to apparent power (kVA) and non-active power (kVAr) measurements are
prone to significant errors when the current and voltage waveforms are distorted. The main
reason for such uncertainties stems from the inadequate power definitions that dictate the
conceptual design of such instrumentation.
The Budeanu and Fryzes model gives some insight in the definitions and components of the
reactive power in non sinusoidal situations but fall short in explaining the physical meaning
of it. This article is meant to help in understanding the physical meaning of the instantaneous
power components and its characteristic values (amplitude, frequency of oscillation and
phase) to provide a basic model for apparent power.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT............................................................................................................ii
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................... v
ACRONYMS AND SYMBOLS .............................................................................................. vi
Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1
1.1

The Budeanus model.................................................................................................. 1

1.2

The Fryze model.......................................................................................................... 2

Chapter 2 Systems with sinusoidal voltage ............................................................................... 4

2.1

Physical meaning of reactive power in sinusoidal situation ....................................... 4

2.2

Physical meaning of reactive power: Some examples ................................................ 5

Chapter 3 System with sinusoidal voltage and non sinusoidal current ...................................... 9
3.1 Reactive power definition in sinusoidal voltage and non sinusoidal current situations .. 9
3.2 Thyristorized circuits with sinusoidal voltage ............................................................... 12
Chapter 4 Systems with non sinusoidal voltage ...................................................................... 14
Chapter 5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 19
Chapter 6 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 21

iv

LIST OF FIGURES
Figures
Figure 2-1 dc Machine driven with a hypothetical shaft power Pm sin 2t .............................. 5
Figure 2-2 dc Machine coupled to a Flywheel........................................................................... 5
Figure 2-3 dc Machine coupled to a torsion bar ........................................................................ 6
Figure 2-4 dc Machine driving a Flywheel and Torsion bar ..................................................... 6
Figure 3-1 Generation of Reactive power in a circuit with a Triac controlled Resistor .......... 12

ACRONYMS AND SYMBOLS

1.

PV

Photovoltaic

2.

AC

Alternating current

3.

DC

Direct current

4.

Current

5.

Voltage

6.

MPPT

Maximum Power Point Trackers

7.

VSI

Voltage Source Inverters

8.

FB

Full Bridge

9.

HB

Half Bridge

10.

Diodes

11.

Power switch

12.

PWM

Pulse Width Modulation

13.

Capacitance

14.

HERIC

Highly Efficient Reliable Inverter Concept.

15.

THD

Total Harmonic Distortion

16.

PF

Power Factor level

17.

Inductance

18.

CG-PV

Parasitic capacitance

19.

Lf

Filter inductance

20.

Cf

Filter capacitance

vi

Chapter 1

Introduction
In 1888 the first reference was made to the fact that the oscillations of power between the
alternating source and the load is due to the difference in the phase of the voltage and the
current. The explanation to this was given by Stanley and Shalenberger which with minor
modifications is still found in standards.
The definitions of apparent power S, active power P and reactive power Q in sinusoidal
situations is widely accepted by the electrical engineering community without reservations.
The instrumentation used in the industry for the measurement of power is based on the same.
Load flow studies and energy management program depend on models where P jQ is the
complex variable on which the economical optimization is based.
Today the increased use of static power converters and adjustable speed drives has led to
creation of conditions prone to distortion of voltage waveform. While the effects of non
sinusoidal waveforms on the power delivery were clearly indicated in early researches, the
engineering community has not reached a consensus yet for a universally accepted definition
for the power in electrical system under non sinusoidal situations. Today two major models
dominate the approach to the definitions and components of reactive power. They are,
i.

The Budeanu model which is sanctioned by the ANSI/IEEE Standard 100-1977.

ii.

The Fryze model which is influenced by the International Electrical Commission.

1.1 The Budeanus model

The active power in non sinusoidal, but periodic conditions can be defined as,

P Pn Vn I n cos n
n

(1)

Where Vn and I n are the rms values of the voltage and current harmonics of the order n, and

n is the phase difference between them. Therefore, it makes sense in defining the reactive
power by,

Q Qn Vn I n sin n
n

(2)

which is proposed Budeanu. However this equation does not satisfy the power triangle
equation S 2 P 2 Q 2 . It was then found that,
2

S V I Vn I n cos n Vn I n sin n
n
n
n
n

2
n

2
n

(3)

Therefore a quantity named Distortion power, D, was added by Budeanu according to

D2 S 2 P2 Q2

(4)

S 2 P2 Q2 D2

(5)

which yields equation

The distortion power mainly consists of cross-products of voltage and current harmonics of
different orders and will be reduced to zero if the harmonics are reduced to zero, i.e. at
sinusoidal conditions.

1.2 The Fryze model

The reactive power defined by Fryze is based on a time domain analysis. The first part, ia, is a
current of the same wave-shape and phase angle as the voltage, and has an amplitude such
that IaV is equal to the active power. The second part of the current is just a residual term
named ir. The two currents will then be determined by the equations

ia
and

P
u
V2

ir i ia

(6)
(7)

The reason for this division is that the current ia is the current of a purely resistive load that,
for the same voltage, would develop the same power as the load measured on. That is, if i r
can be compensated, the source will see a purely resistive load and the power factor will be
equal to unity. It can easily be shown that ia and ir are orthogonal and then the rms-values can
be determined by
I 2 I a2 I r2

(8)

In fact,(6) gives the only possible amplitude of ia if it should be orthogonal to the residual
term ir and have the same wave shape as u. The apparent power can then be obtained as the
product of the rms current and the rms voltage:

S 2 V 2 I 2 V 2 ( I a2 I r2 ) P2 Q2

(9)

Fryze uses Pb instead of Q in his reactive power definition. In other literature reactive power
according his definition is often denoted by QF and named "fictitious power".
2

Many articles in journals of speciality and conferences have tried to produce a practical
model acceptable to both the utility and the end user of electricity. This article is meant to
help understand the physical meaning of the instantaneous power component and relate the
characteristic values of these components (amplitude, phase and frequency) to basic model of
apparent power. This study has two parts: First reviews the energetical factors in systems
with sinusoidal voltage. In the second part, the method of analysis for sinusoidal system is
extended to non sinusoidal voltage situations.

Chapter 2

Systems with sinusoidal voltage

In

sinusoidal

systems,

voltage

and

current

are

defined

as

v 2V sin t and

i 2I sin(t ) respectively. The resolution of current into active (in phase) and reactive

(quadrature) current leads to two distinctive components of the instantaneous power.

where

p vi p p pq

(10)

p p P(1 cos 2t ); P VI cos

(11)

pq Q sin 2t ; Q VI sin

(12)

P is the active power or also called the effective or real power. The component p p has the
average value of P and it pulsates in unidirectional manner between 0 to 2P.
The component pq is an oscillation of power at double supply frequency. The component
transfers energy back and forth between the sources and the linear loads. The amplitude of
oscillation of pq is the reactive power Q .
It is necessary to use the terms received and delivered to designate the flow direction of
reactive power. The time average of the energy transferred by pq is zero. The oscillations in
pq are caused by the property of the capacitors and inductors to store the energy in form of

electric and magnetic field respectively.

2.1 Physical meaning of reactive power in sinusoidal situation

To understand the physical meaning of reactive power we consider a lossless synchronous
generator supplying a single phase linear inductor and capacitor. Since no resistive elements
are included the electrical power pq is only taken into account. The instantaneous
mechanical power delivered by the prime mover is

pm p q J
where J =moment of inertia
= mechanical angular velocity

pq p =instantaneous electrical power.

d
dt

(13)

Since the system is assumed lossless pm = 0, (once the rotor is brought to synchronous speed
the steam to turbine can be cut) and (13) can be written as,

Q sin 2t J

d
dt

(14)

The angular velocity will oscillate around a synchronous value with an excursion of . The
maximum kinetic energy delivered or received is obtained from (14)
J 2 / 2 Q /

(15)

This equation emphasizes the energetical meaning of the reactive power as a value
proportional with maximum energy transferred back and forth between prime mover and
load.
If a perfectly balanced three-phase purely reactive load is supplied by a p-poles alternator the
mechanical torque developed by the prime mover has the equation

T Q

P
sin 2t sin 2(t 2 / 3) sin 2(t 2 / 3) 0
2

Here Q is the reactive power flowing in one phase. This result shows that under balanced
conditions the alternators do not deliver/receive kinetic energy under steady state operation.
The oscillations in pq takes place among the three reactive loads via the inductive coupling
of the armature and field windings.

2.2 Physical meaning of reactive power: Some examples

Figure 2-1 dc Machine driven with a hypothetical shaft power Pm sin 2t

Figure 2-2 dc Machine coupled to a Flywheel

Figure 2-3 dc Machine coupled to a torsion bar

Figure 2-4 dc Machine driving a Flywheel and Torsion bar

Figure 2-1 to Figure 2-4 gives set of examples that will reinforce the physical meaning of the
instantaneous rate of energy transfer pq . Figure 2-1 shows a hypothetical dc machine is
coupled with a prime mover which delivers mechanical power pm' Pm sin 2t . Assuming the
dc machine to be lossless,

v k ; m sin t; m

2V
k

(16)

The mechanical power,

pm' T vi

(17)

T ki

(18)

From (16) and (17) the torque is

where T-torque in N-m.

The current supplied by source v obtained from (16) and (17) is

pm'
P sin 2t 2 Pm cos t
m

k k m sin t
k m

(19)

And the instantaneous rate of energy transfer becomes

pq vi k i

2 2VPm
sin t cos t Pm sin 2t
k m

Thus Q Pm . This result tells us that we are dealing with a pendulum where the energy is
changed back and forth between the prime mover delivering pm' and the kinetic energy

stored in the masses turning with the alternators shaft. The amplitude of this instantaneous
power is Q .
To illustrate further the physical meaning of this concept the power source pm' is replaced by
with a flywheel, Figure 2-2, or a torsion bar, Figure 2-3, or a combination, Figure 2-4.
In general case, Figure 2-4, the torque is

T ki J

d
K dt
dt

(20)

Substituting (16) in (20) yields

K
J
i 2V 2 2 cos t
k
k

(21)

This is electrically equivalent to the parallel combination of inductor (Le) and capacitor (Ce),

J
k2
hence Ce 2 and Le
. The expression for pq obtained from (16) and (21) shows that
k
K
the amplitude of the oscillation of power is
K
J
Q V 2 2 2 WJ WK
k
k

(22)

J 2m
V
J CeV 2
2
k
2

WJ

where

K m2
V
2
WK
K
Le I
2
k
2

are the maximum energies stored in the flywheel and spring respectively in the process of
mechanical pendulation.
The definition of Q as the amplitude of an instantaneous rate of energy transfer with average
energy transfer nil can be extended to any type of energy conversion. Consider for example a
time-varying resistor with a conductance
g t g cos t

(23)

The current supplied by the source is i gv 2Vg cos t and the instantaneous power
pq V 2 g sin 2t

with the amplitude Q = V2g as a measure of the reactive power. The energy supplied by the
source is stored in the form of thermal energy in a heat sink when g 0 0 t / 2 and
returned from the heat sink to the source g 0 / 2 t and the resistor generates

electric energy. It is difficult to find such a resistor in nature; nevertheless this example paves
the road for the next paragraphs where more realistic time-varying devices are considered.

Chapter 3

System with sinusoidal voltage

and non sinusoidal current
3.1 Reactive power definition in sinusoidal voltage and non sinusoidal current
situations
The sinusoidal voltage is defined as v 2V sin t and the non sinusoidal current as
i 2 I h sin(ht h ) where h 1 and is an integer.

The instantaneous power in this case is

p vi pq pD1h pB1h

where
pD1h QD1h Fc (1, h) ; pB1h QB1h Fs (1, h)

(24)

and Fc (1, h), Fs (1, h) are the functions

Fc (1, h) cos[(h 1)t ] cos[(h 1)t ]

(25)

Fs (1, h) sin[(h 1)t ] sin[(h 1)t ]

(26)

The instantaneous power components pD1h and pB1h are non sinusoidal oscillations which are
composed of two elementary sinusoidal oscillations of equal amplitudes at the frequencies

(h 1) f . The amplitude of these elementary oscillations

QD1h VI h cos h and QB1h VI h sin h

The two elementary components of Q1h are in quadrature

Q12h QD2 1h QB21h

(27)

Since QD1h , QB1h can take both positive and negative values, it is possible to designate four
quadrant flow direction to the elementary reactive power Q1h .It is worth noting that making
h=1, pB1h oscillation becomes of the form (12) encountered in sinusoidal current case.

To investigate the nature of pD1h and pB1h we will address the case of time varying resistor
having conductance
g G1 G3 (1 2 cos 2t )

(28)

This particular load yields a current with a fundamental and a third harmonic.
i vg 2 I1 sin t 2 I 3 sin 3t

(29)

I1 VG1; I 3 VG3

(30)

where

and the instantaneous power p p p pq ,

where

p p P(1 cos 2t )
pq V 2G3 Fc (1,3)

(31)

Comparing (31) with (24) results in Q QD13 V 2G3 0 , i.e. delivered. The non sinusoidal
oscillation of pq are caused by the time varying conductance G3 (1 2 cos 2t ) which can be
viewed as a reversible electro-thermal energy converter similar to resistor by (23) in parallel
with a constant resistor of conductance G1.
The practical implication of the time varying resistor for filtering application is evident when
we analyze a simple but realistic non linear resistor with the i-v characteristics

i Av3 2 2 AV 3 sin 3 t
2 I1' sin t 2 I 3' sin 3t

(32)

where

I1' 3AV 3 / 2 ;

I3' I1' / 3

(33)

Comparing (29) with (32) results that a non linear resistor can be viewed as a time varying
element. Moreover, by adjusting G3 AV 3 / 2 , the third harmonic generated by the non linear
resistor can be cancelled by the third harmonic produced by the time varying resistor (28).
In a similar way the reactive power of type pB1h is produced when a non linear inductor is
energized. For example assuming the flux current characteristics ai1/3 and keeping in
mind that

vdt ( 2V / ) cos t
i 2 I1 cos t 2 I3 cos3t

10

(34)

3
I1 (V / a )3 ;
2

I 3 I1 / 3

The instantaneous power in this case is

pq Q1 sin 2t QB13 Fs (3,1)

(35)

and the powers are

S 2 Q2 V 2 I 2 V 2 I12 V 2 I32 Q12 QB213

The fundamental reactive power Q1 and the elementary harmonic power QB13 are amplitudes
of totally different frequencies of oscillations and cannot be added algebraically. The
elementary reactive power QB13 caused by the nonlinear inductor can be cancelled in the
following way:
A time varying resistor is connected in parallel with the non linear inductor. The conductance
of this resistor is given as

g G1'' G3'' sin 2t

(36)

And yields a current

i 2 I p'' sin t 2 I q''1 cos t 2 I 3'' cos 3t
I p'' VG1' ;

where

I q''1 VG3'' / 2;

I q'' 3 VG3" / 2

The conductance G3" sin 2t may be thought of as an equivalent inductance Le 2 / G3'' in

parallel

with

a 3rd

harmonic current

source or a time varying

conductance

cos3t / 2sin t G3" .

This particular time varying resistor is producing the instantaneous power
pq P' (1 cos 2t ) Q1" sin 2t QB" 13 Fs (3,1)

If QB" 13 V 2G3" QB13 VI3 then the 3rd harmonic current I3 in (34) will be cancelled by the
current I 3" . This observation reinforces the usefulness of a unified theory on the nature of
reactive power.

11

3.2 Thyristorized circuits with sinusoidal voltage

Figure 3-1 Generation of Reactive power in a circuit with a Triac controlled Resistor
(a) Circuit
(b) Voltage, Current and Fundamental Current
(c) Equivalent Conductance time variation
(d) Equivalent Circuit based on eq. (37)
(e) Equivalent circuit based on eq. (38)

A triac in series with a resistor R, Figure 3-1, is triggered at t . In this circuit the
fundamental current is lagging with respect to the voltage and a fundamental reactive power
Q1 as well as harmonic reactive powers are created. This circuit is examined in the same

way as in earlier examples. This circuit has an equivalent time varying conductance
g 0 for 0 t ; t

1
G for t ; t 2
R

which can be represented by Fourier series

g G
an cos 2nt bn sin 2nt
n 1,2,3

an

sin 2n
;
n

bn

12

1 cos 2n
n

(37)

Computation of line current i vg yields

sin 2
i 2VG

2

where

Bh

1 cos 2

cos t Bh cosh t Dh sinh t

sin t
2

h 3,5,7

an an 1
;
2

Dh

bn bn 1
;
2

(38)

h 2n 1

The instantaneous power

p vi p p pQ1 pB1h pD1h

h

where

p p P(1 cos 2t );

P V 2G (sin 2 ) / 2 /

pQ1 Q1 sin 2t ;

Q1 V 2G 1 cos 2 / 2

pB1h QB1h Fs (1, h);

QB1h V 2GBh

pD1h QD1h Fc (1, h);

QD1h V 2GDh

and the function Fc (1, h) and Fs (1, h) are same as in (25) and (26).
For this purely resistive circuit there are no components able to store and return energy.
Nevertheless the equivalent circuits derived from(37), Figure. 3-1(d), or from (38), Figure 32e, show that besides a constant resistor, there are an infinite number of fictitious timevarying resistors all connected in parallel. The active power is dissipated by the constant
resistor. Each fictitious time-varying resistor has a time-average dissipated thermal energy
zero. The time-varying resistors however, are the sources of power oscillations of types pB1h
and pD1h . The fundamental reactive power is caused by a fictitious equivalent inductor,
Figure 3-1 (e), obtained in an identical manner as in(36).

13

Chapter 4

Systems with non sinusoidal

voltage
Let v 2 Vh sin ht h be the voltage and i 2 I h sin ht h be the current.
The active power is given as

P Vh I h cos h ;h h h

(39)

The active power has two components

P P1 PH
P1 V1 I1 cos 1

(40)

is the system frequency active power and

PH ph Vh I h cos h
h 1

(41)

h 1

is the harmonics active power.

The current i is resolved in two components. Budeanu recommended the division
i ia ir

(42)

where
ia 2 ( I h cos h ) sin h
ir 2 ( I h sin h ) cos h ; h ht h

(43)

p pa pqR

(44)

The instantaneous power

where
pa P Ph cos 2 h
h 1

(V

m , n 1
m n

14

I cos m ) Fc (m, n)

m n

(45)

pqR (Vh I h sin h ) sin 2 h (Vm I n sin m )Fs (m, n)

(46)

Fs (m, n) sin( m n ) sin( m n )

(47)

Fc (m, n) cos( m n ) cos( m n )

(48)

h 1

m , n 1
m n

n nt n

m mt m ;

and Fs (m, n), Fc (m, n) are generalized forms of functions (25) and (26).
The current can be resolved in two different components in other way than(42). The first
component i p is the in- phase component, having exactly the same waveform as the distorted
voltage. Assuming a scale factor K
i p 2 K Vh sin h

and from
2

1
K

P vi p dt 2 Vh sin h dt KV 2
T 0
T 0 h

results K P / V 2 , where V

2
h

rms voltage and

i p 2( P / V 2 )Vh sin h

(49)

with an rms current I p ( P / V 2 )

2
h

P /V.

The second component, called the quadrature component, is iq i i p and can be subdivided
in two components with harmonics 900 out of phase,
iq ir iqD

where ir was defined in (43) and

P

iqD 2 I h cos h 2 Vh sin h

V

(50)

with respective rms values

IR

(I
h 1

15

sin h ) 2

(51)

I QD

I
h 1

cos h ( P / V 2 )Vh

(52)

The instantaneous power is

p p p pq p p pqR pqD

(53)

p p P P (Vh / V ) 2 cos 2 h P (VmVn / V ) 2 Fc (m, n)

(54)

where
h 1

m , n 1
m n

p qR was defined in (46) and

pqD P(Vh / V )2 Ph cos 2 h P(VmVn / V 2 ) Vm I n cos m Fc (m, n)

(55)

h 1

Comparing (55) and (45) it is seen that both the instantaneous powers p p and pa have the
same average power and oscillation frequencies. The amplitudes of oscillations are however
not same. This difference is observed due to the fact that in Budeanus definition pqD is
included in pa . Subtracting (45) from (53) gives

p p pa pqD

(56)

Realizing that p p in (53) has an identical definition as the one used in (10), where the in
phase current happens to be sinusoidal and therefore has the same waveform as the voltage,
results that pa in (44) is not the intrinsic power.
The rms current computed from (49),(51) and (52) is
2
I 2 I p2 I R2 IQD

(57)

and the apparent power resolution will be based on the equation

S 2 V 2 I 2 P2 QR2 QD2

(58)

2
2
QR2 V 2 I R2 QBh
QBmn

(59)

where

m n

2
2
2
QD2 V 2 IQD
QDh
QDmn
h

QBh Vh I h sin h

16

(60)

m n

(61)

QBmn Vm I n sin n

(62)

QDh Vh I n cosh P(Vh / V )2

(63)

QDmn Vm I n cosn PVmVn / V 2

(64)

Each of the elementary reactive power defined in(61), (62), (63), (64) are recognized as
amplitudes of the oscillations in the instantaneous power ( pq ) . From(53), (55) and (46)
results
pq QBh sin 2 h
h 1

m , n 1
m n

Bmn

Fs (m, n) QDh cos 2 h QDmn Fc (m, n)

h 1

(65)

m , n 1
mn

The total compensation of pq will lead to a unity power factor. The oscillations with the
amplitude QBh and QBmn are typical for linear or nonlinear inductors or capacitors and can be
compensated, in theory, with the help of simple shunt reactances (linear capacitors or
inductors). The terms with the oscillations of amplitude QDh and QDmn ,are typical for
nonlinear resistors or lossy nonlinear reactances and can be compensated only with the help
of time-varying impedances designed as harmonic cancellation devices or active filters.
The current division given in (42) leads to a widely accepted definition for apparent power
division
S 2 P2 QB2 D2

(66)

where

Q QBh
h 1

2
B

(67)

with QBh defined in (61) and

D2

m , n 1
m n

I Vn2 I m2 2VmVn I m I n cos( m n )

2 2
m n

(68)

Inspecting the instantaneous power p qR given in (36), one will conclude that the components
of term D cannot be recognized in the amplitudes of the oscillations, therefore no physical
meaning can be attributed to D. Only the terms QBh can be recognized in the amplitudes of the
oscillations. Moreover QB may be nil while QBh 0 and minimization of QB does not mean
a reduction of the oscillations of p qR . Thus the equation (68) is misleading giving the
17

impression that QB can be partially or totally cancelled while in reality the oscillations of
power will take place.

18

Chapter 5

Conclusion
1. In non sinusoidal situations the apparent power can be defined from
S 2 P1 PH QF2

(69)

QF2 QB2 D 2

(70)

QF2 QR2 QD2

(71)

where

or

The definition (70) lacks physical meaning and the measured value of QB provides
useless information for the purpose of harmonic cancellation or power improvement.
2. No direction of flow can be attributed to the reactive power QF . The term QF can be
divided in a multitude of elementary reactive powers for which complex (four
quadrant) representation becomes possible. This is evident when (65) is rewritten in
the form where
pq QDh jQBh sin(2 h h )
h 1

m , n 1
mn

QDmn jQBmn Fs (m, n, )

Fs (m, n, ) sin( m n mn ) sin( m n mn )

tan mn QDmn / QBmn ;

tan h QBh / QDh

The complex representation is self explanatory. The usefulness of this complex

representation is questionable. Advanced instrumentation which will monitor
separately for each harmonic the complex elementary reactive powers may not be
practical due to the large number of significant harmonics.
3. The harmonic power PH , may be dissipated or generated by the load. Under certain
circumstances some harmonic powers are received while others are generated by the
same load. When PH is absorbed by ac motors the energy transferred by PH is
entirely converted in heat loss and no mechanical power will be produced by PH .
Significant losses due to eddy currents in transformer windings, cables and shielding

19

may be included in PH . In case of lighting and resistive heating PH represents useful

power.
It makes sense to develop wattmeters able to measure PH separately. When PH < 0
such instruments indicate to what extent the end-user is polluting the power network
with harmonics. When PH > 0 and the dominating loads are ac motors this
information may provide economical justification for the installation of filters or the
use of other mitigating techniques at the busses where PH < 0.
4. The term Q1 V1 I1 sin 1 fundamental (system frequency) reactive power, is usually
the dominant elementary reactive power component. It has a strong impact on the
voltage profile and on the rms value of the line current. It is recommended to be
measured separately from the rest of reactive power terms.
5. Based on the fact that the physical nature of power oscillations with zero transfer of
energy is the same for linear reactive loads for nonlinear and for the time-varying
loads, it is recommended to use reactive power meters which measure only QF . Such
meters are useful in situations where the impact of harmonics on the load performance
is non-consequential. For situations where the flow of powers should be closely
monitored the main power component to be measured are found in the expression
S 2 ( P1 PH )2 Q12 QH2

where QH2 QF2 Q12 .

6. The power factor improvement by means of linear capacitors at busses with distorted
voltages is not always effective due to the possibility of resonance. In the near future
the methods of harmonic cancellation will be based on active or time-varying devices
similar to static VAr compensation. The performance of such devices is not dependent
on Thevenin impedance, is immune to resonances and will not receive (sink)
harmonics generated elsewhere in the network. More important such "active filters"
are able to cancel QR as well as QD . Therefore separate monitoring of QD and QR
does not seem to offer a significant advantage.

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Chapter 6 REFERENCES
1. Mr. Roberto Gonzalez, Jesus Lopez, Pablo Sanchis, Luis Marroya,

Transformersless

Inverter for Single-Phase Photovoltaic Systems, IEEE, 2007.

2. Tamas Kerekes, Remus Teodorescu, Pedro Rodriguez, Gerardo Vazquez, Emiliano

Aldabas,A new high-efficiency single phase transformerless PV inverter topology, IEEE,
2009..
3. Eugenio Gubia, Pablo Sanchis, Alfredo Ursua, Jesus Lopez and Luis Marroyo, Ground
Currents in Single-phase Transformerless Photovoltaic Systems, published in Wiley
Interscience, May 2007

4. Martina Calais, Johana Myrzik, Ted Spooner, Vassilios G. Agelidis, Inverters for
SinglePhase Grid Connected Photovoltaic Systems- An Overview, IEEE, 2002.
5. Fritz Schimpf, Lars E. Norum, Grid Connected Converters for Photovoltaic, State of the
Art,
Ideas for Improvement of Transformerless Inverters, Nordic Workshop on Power and
Industrial Electronics, June 9-11,2008.

6. Eduardo Roman, Ricardo Alonso, Pedro Ibanez, Intelligent PV Module for Grid-Connected
PV systems, IEEE, 2006

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