NUCLEAR

ENERGY

 Nuclear power is produced by controlled (i.e.,

non-explosive) nuclear reactions.
Commercial and utility plants currently use
nuclear fission reactions to heat water to
produce steam, which is then used to generate
electricity.

 In 2009, 1314% of the world's electricity came from

nuclear power. Also, more than 150 naval vessels
using nuclear propulsion have been built.

Radioactivity
The phenomenon of spontaneous and
continuous emission of powerful invisible
radiations by the disintegration of an
element or a substance, which affect the
photographic plate, is called natural
radioactivity.
Radioactive decay is the process by
which an unstable atomic nucleus loses
energy by emitting ionizing particles
(ionizing radiation).

 Alpha rays carried a positive charge,

beta rays carried a negative charge,
and gamma rays were neutral.
Alpha particles were much more
massive than beta particles.
an atomic nucleus emits an alpha
particle, into an atom with a mass
number 4 less and atomic number 2
less. For example:
23892U 23490Th + 42He

 Beta decay 13755Cs 13756Ba + e + e (beta

minus decay)
Positron emission is a type of beta decay,
sometimes referred to as "beta plus"(+).
2211Na 2210Ne + e+ + e (beta plus decay).
116C 115B + e+ + e + 0.96 MeV

Mass defect
During the nuclear fission reaction, the actual
mass of an isotope of an element (M) formed is
slightly less than the sum of the masses of the
protons, neutrons and electrons (M). This
difference of mass is known as mass defect m.
The loss of mass during the formation of the
nucleus of the isotope.

m = M-M
M-calculated mass of the isotope
M-Actual at.mass as determined experimentally

Binding energy
The energy required to disassemble a nucleus into
the same number of free unbound neutrons and
protons.
The energy released when constituent nucleons
(protons and neutrons) combine to form a nucleus
is also called the binding energy.
Loss of mass during the formation of the nucleus
from nucleons is converted into energy.
Greater the binding energy greater will be the
stability of the nucleus

 The binding energy of nuclei of

intermediate elements with mass no. 50
to 150 are higher than those of the lighter
or heavier elements
For Ex. Iron mass no. = 56 has much
higher B.E
So the heavier or lighter elements having
lower B.E split or fuss into nuclei of
intermediate elements
The Binding energy of He, C and O2 are
high , hence they possess high nuclear
stability

NUCLEAR FISSION

The process of splitting a heavy
nucleus ( by bombarding the
nucleus with projectiles ) into
lighter nuclei with simultaneous
liberation of a huge amount of
energy .

 When 92U235 is bombarded by slow moving

neutrons and is split into smaller nuclei with two
or more neutrons with enormous amount of
energy

92U

235+

1
0n

----


92U

236

----
 56Ba140 +36Kr93 +3 0n1+ energy
--
 55 Cs144 +37 Rb90 +2 0n1+energy
--
 55 Xe144 +37 Sr90 +2 0n1+ energy

BY-PRODUCTS PRODUCED :

Photons ( in the form of gamma rays ) .

Free neutrons and other sub-atomic particles .

A Nuclear Fission reaction .

unstable
NEUTRON
236
92U

235
U
92

140
56Ba

93
36Kr

144
54Xe

90
38Sr

37Rb

90
55Cs

144

m = 0.207 amu
E = 200 MeV .


The energy released is in accordance with Einsteins

mass-energy relation , E= mc2 .
m = atomic mass unit (a m u)
1 a m u = 1.6605 x 1027 kg.
c = velocity of light = 2.9979 x 108m/sec
E = 1.6605 x 10-27x (2.9979 x 108)2 = 1.4924 x 1010 J.
Nuclear energy is always expressed in electron Volts.
Efficiency of Nuclear Energy
Amount of energy released by 1 kg of coal is just 6.0 k w h
Amount of energy released by 1 kg of uranium = 2 x 107k w h
This is equivalent to the amount of energy obtained from 3000 tons
of coal.
Energy obtained from 1Kg U = Energy got from 3x 10 6 Kg of coal

NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTION

If the nuclear fission reaction is self
propagated due to the emission of
multiplied number of neutrons in
each fission reaction.

A chain reaction can be controlled , if the number of

neutrons produced is restricted to 1 ( the remaining
neutrons are absorbed ) . This kind of Controlled chain
reaction takes place in Nuclear reactors .

235
U
92

235
U
92

235
U
92

235
U
92

Critical mass
The minimum amount of fissionable material required
to continue the nuclear reaction.
The critical mass of U235 lies between 1 Kg to 100 kg.
The mass of fissionable material is more than the
critical mass, it is called super-critical mass
The mass of fissionable material is less than the critical
mass, it is called sub-critical mass
super-critical mass and sub-critical mass may hinder
the propagation of the nuclear chain reaction.

No
Mass of U-235 < Critical mass

chain reaction

Mass of U-235 > Critical mass

Reaction continues

NUCLEAR
FUSION

 NUCLEAR FUSION is the process by which

multiple atomic nucleus join together to form a
heavier nucleus. It is accompanied by the release of
energy .

2 + H3  He4 + n1 +E
H
1
1
2
0

CHARACTERISTICS :
Requires high temperature
( about 106 K ) .
Reaction cannot be controlled .
No radioactive emission occurs .

D-T fuel cycle

 D-D fuel cycle

2H + 2H 3He+ 1H + E
P-11B fuel cycle
(proton)/boron reaction:
1H + 11B 3 4He + E

 It is a device used to carry out Fission chain reaction

in a controlled rate , so that the energy released can
be used for peaceful purposes.

MAIN PARTS OF A REACTOR :

1. Reactor core
1. Fuel rods
2. Control rods
3. Moderators
4. Coolants
2. Reflector
3. Pressure Vessel
4. Shielding
5. Heat Exchanger
6. Turbine

Reactor core
This is where the actual fission reaction occurs . It consists of
fuel elements , control rods , neutron moderators and coolant.
FUEL :: Natural Uranium (or) Enriched Uranium , U-235
obtained by the fission of Th-232 , Pu-239 obtained from U238 .
CONTROL RODS : They readily absorb neutrons and so they are
used to maintain the neutron release as 1 . It is used to start as well
as stop the nuclear reactor . Ex : cadmium , hafnium , boron .

 MODERATOR : Used to slow down the fast neutrons ,

owing to a controlled fission reaction . Ex : Graphite ,
beryllium and Heavy water .
COOLANTS : Used to remove the heat produced . It
should have high thermal capacity and low viscosity .
Ex : ordinary water , Heavy water , liquid metals ,
organic liquids and gases .
In LIGHT WATER NUCLEAR POWER PLANT both
the moderator and coolant are ordinary water

Reflector
Prevents the leakage of neutrons from the
surface of the core .
It should have low absorption coefficient for
neutrons , high resistance to oxidation and
high radiation stability .
Made of the same material as that of
moderator .

Pressure Vessel

Encloses the core and reflector .

Holes at the top are used to insert or pull out the
control rods .
It should withstand pressure as high as 200kg/cm2 .
It provides entrance and exit passage for coolants .

Heat - Exchanger
Heat from the reactor core is transferred by the heatexchanger to boil water and produce steam ( 400kg/cm2 ) .

Turbine
The steam generated is used to operate a turbine which
in turn generates electricity .

Shielding
Protects the workers from radioactive radiations .
Generally , concrete and steel are used as shields .
Thermal shield :: It is 50 to 60 mm thick and made
of iron or steel . Absorbs gamma rays and prevents the
adjacent walls from becoming hot . It is cooled by the
circulation of water .
Biological shield :: It is a few decimeters thick and
is made of concrete . It surrounds the thermal shield .

Light water nuclear reactor

The light water reactor or LWR is a type of
thermal reactor that uses light water as a
coolant and neutron moderator (water, H2O)
as opposed to heavy water as a
coolant/moderator

Water cooled reactor

Two types
1. Pressurized water reactor (PWR)
2. Boiling water reactor (BWR)

Pressurized water reactor (PWR)

A primary characteristic of PWRs, the pressure
vessel use a pressurizer.
During normal operation, the pressurizer is
connected to the primary reactor pressure vessel
(RPV) maintains the pressure to keep the liquids
what used as coolent and moderator (WATER) in
the liquid state itself by using the high pressure
developed in the pressurizer
A pressurizer is partially filled with water, and a
steam bubble is maintained above the water level
by heating the water with submerged heaters is
used to control the pressure in the pressure vessel.

 This arrangement also provides a means of

pressure control for the reactor by increasing or
decreasing the steam pressure in the pressurizer
using the pressurizer heaters.
Pressurizers may be isolated from reactor pressure
vessel during special maintenance or tests.

Boiling water reactor (BWR)

BWRs are characterized by boiling water
around the fuel rods in the lower portion of
primary reactor pressure vessel.
During normal operation, pressure control is
accomplished by controlling the amount of
steam flowing from the reactor pressure vessel
to the turbine.

Boiling Water Reactor

In the boiling water reactor the same water loop
serves as moderator, coolant for the core, and steam
source for the turbine.
In the boiling water reactor (BWR), the water which
passes over the reactor core to act as moderator and
coolant is also the steam source for the turbine.
The disadvantage of this is that any fuel leak might
make the water radioactive and that radioactivity
would reach the turbine and the rest of the loop.