Compression Ignition Engine

2103471 Internal Combustion Engine

Diesel Fuel
Effect of aromatics and cetane number
 Combustion in CI Engine
In a CI engine the fuel is sprayed directly into the cylinder and the fuel-air
mixture ignites spontaneously.

These photos are taken in a RCM under CI engine conditions with swirl air flow

1 cm
0.4 ms after ignition 3.2 ms after ignition

3.2 ms after ignition Late in combustion process

 Combustion Characteristic
Combustion occurs throughout the chamber over a range of equivalence
ratios dictated by the fuel-air mixing before and during the combustion phase.

In general most of the combustion occurs under very rich conditions within the
head of the jet, this produces a considerable amount of solid carbon (soot).
 Compression ratio limitations in CI engine

• The higher the combustion pressure, the higher the sealing pressure.
• The higher the sealing pressure, the higher the friction loss.
• The higher the compression ratio, the higher the combustion
pressure, sealing pressure, and friction loss.
Advantages and disadvantages of diesel engines

Advantages Disadvantages
• Fuel Economy • Noise
• Durability • Weight
• Low HC • High NOx
• Low CO • High PM
• High torque • Low speed
• Reliability • Low air utilization
• Low fuel cost • High engine cost
• Low maintenance • Low exhaust
cost temperature
 Diesel Combustion Process
Diesel Ignition Flame Front Propagation
• Spontaneous combustion (auto ignition) due to
temperature increase of reactants.
• Ignition triggered by compression heating of
fuel-air mixture.
• Ignition initiated at random point in combustion
chamber
• Fast combustion process
• Less complete combustion process
The Four stroke Diesel Operation
DI and IDI Combustion chamber designs
• Important Combustion
Bowl dimensions

• Straight-sided
Mexican hat Bowl
Features of Combustion Bowl Designs
CI combustion cycle
P-crank angle and P-volume diagram
Valve timing events
 In Cylinder Measurements

This graph shows the fuel injection flow rate, net heat release rate and
cylinder pressure for a direct injection CI engine.

Start of injection
Start of combustion
End of injection
Heat release diagram of CI combustion
 Combustion in CI Engine

The combustion process proceeds by the following stages:

Ignition delay (ab) - fuel is injected directly into the cylinder towards the end of
the compression stroke. The liquid fuel atomizes into small drops and
penetrates into the combustion chamber. The fuel vaporizes and mixes with
the high-temperature high-pressure air.

Premixed combustion phase (bc) – combustion of the fuel which has mixed
with the air to within the flammability limits (air at high-temperature and high-
pressure) during the ignition delay period occurs rapidly in a few crank angles.

Mixing controlled combustion phase (cd) – after premixed gas consumed, the
burning rate is controlled by the rate at which mixture becomes available for
burning. The rate of burning is controlled in this phase primarily by the fuel-air
mixing process.

Late combustion phase (de) – heat release may proceed at a lower rate well
into the expansion stroke (no additional fuel injected during this phase).
Combustion of any unburned liquid fuel and soot is responsible for this.
 Four Stages of Combustion in CI Engines

Start of End of
injection injecction

-20 -10 TC 10 20 30
Combustion steps in DI diesel engine
 Ignition Delay

Ignition delay is defined as the time (or crank angle interval) from when the
fuel injection starts to the onset of combustion.

Both physical and chemical processes must take place before a significant
fraction of the chemical energy of the injected liquid is released.

Physical processes are fuel spray atomization, evaporation and mixing of fuel
vapour with cylinder air.

Good atomization requires high fuel-injection pressure, small injector hole

diam., optimum fuel viscosity, high cylinder pressure (large divergence angle).

Rate of vaporization of the fuel droplets depends on droplet diameter, velocity,

fuel volatility, pressure and temperature of the air.

Chemical processes similar to that described for autoignition phenomenon

in premixed fuel-air, only more complex since heterogeneous reactions
(reactions occurring on the liquid fuel drop surface) also occur.
 Fuel Ignition Quality

The ignition characteristics of the fuel affect the ignition delay.

The ignition quality of a fuel is defined by its cetane number CN.

For low cetane fuels the ignition delay is long and most of the fuel is injected
before autoignition and rapidly burns, under extreme cases this produces an
audible knocking sound referred to as “diesel knock”.

For high cetane fuels the ignition delay is short and very little fuel is injected
before autoignition, the heat release rate is controlled by the rate of fuel
injection and fuel-air mixing – smoother engine operation.
 Cetane Number

The method used to determine the ignition quality in terms of CN is analogous

to that used for determining the antiknock quality using the ON.

The cetane number scale is defined by blends of two pure hydrocarbon

reference fuels.

By definition, isocetane (heptamethylnonane, HMN) has a cetane number of

15 and cetane (n-hexadecane, C16H34) has a value of 100.

In the original procedures α-methylnaphtalene (C11H10) with a cetane number

of zero represented the bottom of the scale. This has since been replaced by
HMN which is a more stable compound.

The higher the CN the better the ignition quality, i.e., shorter ignition delay.

The cetane number is given by:

CN = (% hexadecane) + 0.15 (% HMN)

 Cetane Number Measurement

The method developed to measure CN uses a standardized single-cylinder

engine with variable compression ratio

The operating condition is:

Inlet temperature (oC) 65.6

Speed (rpm) 900
Spark advance (oBTC) 13
Coolant temperature (oC) 100
Injection pressure (MPa) 10.3

With the engine running at these conditions on the test fuel, the compression
ratio is varied until combustion starts at TC, ignition delay period of 13o.

The above procedure is repeated using blends of cetane and HMN. The blend
that gives a 13o ignition delay with the same compression ratio is used to
calculate the test fuel cetane number.
 Cetane vs Octane Number

The octane number and cetane number of a fuel are inversely correlated.

Cetane motor method octane number

Cetane number

Gasoline is a poor diesel fuel and vice versa.

 Factors Affecting Ignition Delay

Injection timing – At normal engine conditions the minimum delay occurs

with the start of injection at about 10-15 BTC.

The increase in the delay time with earlier or later injection timing occurs
because of the air temperature and pressure during the delay period.

Injection quantity – For a CI engine the air is not throttled so the load is varied
by changing the amount of fuel injected.

Increasing the load (bmep) increases the residual gas and wall temperature
which results in a higher charge temperature at injection which translates to
a decrease in the ignition delay.

Intake air temperature and pressure – an increase in ether will result in a

decrease in the ignition delay, an increase in the compression ratio has the
same effect.
Factors Affecting Ignition Delay

(gauge)
 CI Engine Types
Two basic categories of CI engines:

i) Direct-injection – have a single open combustion chamber into which fuel

is injected directly

ii) Indirect-injection – chamber is divided into two regions and the fuel is
injected into the “prechamber” which is connected to the main chamber via a
nozzle, or one or more orifices.

• For very-large engines (stationary power generation) which operate at low

engine speeds the time available for mixing is long so a direct injection
quiescent chamber type is used (open or shallow bowl in piston).

• As engine size decreases and engine speed increases, increasing amounts

of swirl are used to achieve fuel-air mixing (deep bowl in piston)

• For small high-speed engines used in automobiles chamber swirl is not

sufficient, indirect injection is used where high swirl or turbulence is generated
in the pre-chamber during compression and products/fuel blowdown and mix
with main chamber air.
 Types of CI Engines

Glow plug

Orifice
-plate

Direct injection: Direct injection:

quiescent chamber swirl in chamber Indirect injection: turbulent
and swirl pre-chamber
DI and IDI Combustion chamber designs
• Important Combustion
Bowl dimensions

• Straight-sided
Mexican hat Bowl
Features of Combustion Bowl Designs
Direct Injection Direct Injection Direct Injection Indirect injection
quiescent chamber multi-hole nozzle single-hole nozzle swirl pre-chamber
swirl in chamber swirl in chamber
 General characteristics of DI and IDI Engines

• Combustion Characteristics differences

Combustion Characteristics differences
DI Characteristics IDI
Higher Peak combustion pressure Lower
Higher Peak Combustion temp Lower
Harsher Combustion severity Harsh
Higher Rate of pressure rise Lower
Higher Noise harshness Lower
Lower Heat rejection Higher
Higher Fuel economy Lower
Higher Fuel system pressure Lower
Heavier Engine structure Lighter

EMISSIONS
Lower HC Higher
Lower CO Higher
Higher NOx Lower
Lower PM Higher
 Other Types of CI Engines
• Two vs. Four stroke
• Turbocharged Vs. Naturally Aspirated
• Low speed Vs. High Speed
• Mechanically Vs. Electronically Control
• SOHC Vs. DOHC
• Off Highway Vs. On Highway
• Direct Vs. Indirect injection
 Interesting points about CI Combustion
• Combustion delay Æ lead to diesel knock
• Fuel properties - improve performance, cetane
number is measured
– High cetane number Æ low octane
• Fuel concentrated – no minimum fuel limit
• Fuel quantity can control engine
– Higher injection lead to higher engine output
– no throttle thus higher part-load efficiency than SI
engine
• Poorer mixing Æ require excess oxygen
– Minimum practical air to fuel ratio is 18:1 to 25:1
– Improving with combustion chamber design
– Lower CO than SI
– Less power than equivalent SI
Functions of the fuel injection system

Main Functions
• Injection timing control
• Injection quality control
• Proper Atomization and
Penetration
Additional Functions
• Pilot injection
• Rate shaping
• Post Injection
Effects on Injection Controls

Show effects of
• Injection timing
Effects on Injection Controls

Show effects of
• Pilot Injection and injection rate
shaping.
Effects on Injection Controls
Show effects of
• Injection timing
• Injection rate control (IRC)
• Injection Pressure
Effects on Injection Controls
Show effects of
• Injection timing
• Injection rate control (IRC)
• Injection Pressure
Characteristics of Injection pressure

Injection Pressure Vs. time

 Types of Injection Systems
• Pump-Line-Nozzle (P-L-N)
 Types of Injection Systems
• Unit Injector (UI)
 Types of Injection Systems
• Common Rail (CR)
Regulater Emissions from CI Engines
Un Regulater Emissions from CI Engines
Sources of HC
Sources of CO
Sources of NOx
 NOx Reduction Technologies

• Injection Timing Retard

• Intake Charge cooling

NOx Reduction Technologies

• Injection Timing Retard caused lower peak

combustion pressure thus lower maximum
combustion temperature that results in lower NOx.
NOx Reduction Technologies

• Effects of colder intake charge air on peak

combustion pressure.
 NOx Reduction Technologies
• Injection Pressure

• Improved Fuel economy

 NOx Reduction Technologies
• Injection Rate
Shaping

– Effects of Injection
rate shaping on rate
of pressure rise
 NOx Reduction Technologies
• Injection Rate
Shaping

– Effects of Injection rate

shaping on
combustion pressure.
 NOx Reduction Technologies
• Injection Rate
Shaping

– Effects of Injection rate

shaping and pilot quantity
on emissions.
Effects of pilot injection on combustion noise
 NOx Reduction Technologies
• Injection Rate
Shaping

– Effects of injection pilot

quantity prior to ignition
on emissions.
 NOx Reduction Technologies
• Exhaust gas recirculation
– Effects of various diluent in intake
mixture.

– Effects of EGR on intake manifold

temperature.

– Effects of EGR on NOx formation.

 NOx Reduction Technologies

Effects of Injection Timing Retard Vs. Exhaust gas

recirculation on Fuel consumption
 NOx Reduction Technologies
This method may affect PM emissions as shown below:

Effects of Injection Timing Retard Vs. Exhaust gas recirculation

on Particulate emissions and composition.
NOx Reduction Technologies
Diesel with water Emulsion may be used to control NOx.

Effects of water emulsion on NOx emissions at

various injection timing and compression ratio.
Definition of Particulate Matter
Composition of particulate emission
Sources of PM
Effects of Fuel Sulfur on PM distribution
Effects of EGR on Particle size distribution
Comparison of Nanoparticle concentration
between different combustion systems
Particulate Reduction Technologies
• Improved Air management
– turbocharger for low speed high load
conditions
– Increased ait through turbocharger
– Increased air by increasing density
through air cooling
Particulate Reduction Technologies
• Improved combustion system
– Improved PM oxidation.
– Improved mixture preparation through intake port
design (swirl port)
– Improved combustion system design
Particulate Reduction Technologies
• Improved combustion system
– Improved PM oxidation.
– Improved mixture preparation through intake port design
(swirl port)
– Improved combustion system design
 Particulate Reduction Technologies
• Improved oil control
– Through cylinder bore
honing (cross-hatch)

– Through piston ring design

Particulate Reduction Technologies
• Improved injection system
– Increased injection pressure
– Optimized injector hole size
– Reduced nozzle sac volume
– Electronic injection control
Particulate Reduction Technologies
• Rated speed optimization
– Effects of Sharp cut-off for end of injection
Particulate Reduction Technologies
• Reduction of sulfur in diesel
Technology options