Dotpoint Hscchem

HSC CHEMISTRY
Marilyn Schell
Margaret Hogan
Science Press 2007

First published 2007
Reprinted 2007 (twice), 2008, 2009
Science Press
Private Bag 7023 Marrickville NSW 1475 Australia
Tel: (02) 9516 1122 Fax: (02) 9550 1915
sales@sciencepress.com.au
www.sciencepress.com.au
All rights reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
or otherwise, without the prior permission of
Science Press. ABN 98 000 073 861
Contents
Introduction
Verbs to Watch
vi
Dot Points
Production of Materials
vii
The Acidic Environment
ix
Chemical Monitoring and Management
xi
Industrial Chemistry
xiii
Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation
xv
Questions
45
101
157
207
Answers
251
273
299
325
345
Appendix
Data Sheet
361
Periodic Table
362
Science Press
Dot Point HSC Chemistry
iii
Contents
Notes
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Science Press
Contents
iv
Introduction
What the book includes
,QWKLVERRN\RXZLOOQGW\SLFDOH[DPLQDWLRQTXHVWLRQVDQGDQVZHUVIRUHDFKGRWSRLQWLQWKH%RDUGRI6WXGLHV
syllabus for the following topics in the Year 12 Chemistry course:
3URGXFWLRQRI0DWHULDOV
7KH$FLGLF(QYLURQPHQW
&KHPLFDO0RQLWRULQJDQG0DQDJHPHQW
,QGXVWULDO&KHPLVWU\
6KLSZUHFNV&RUURVLRQDQG&RQVHUYDWLRQ
Also included are typical experimental results for students to analyse if the third column of the syllabus indicates
WKDWVWXGHQWVVKRXOGFDUU\RXWUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQV
Format of the book
The book has been formatted in the following way:
1. Main topic statement (column 1 of syllabus)
1.1etc Syllabus requirement from columns 2 and 3.
1RWHWKDWWKHQXPEHULQJRIWKHVHUHTXLUHPHQWVLVWKHDXWKRUVFKRLFHDQGKDVEHHQXVHGWRPDNHUHIHUHQFLQJ
TXHVWLRQVDQGDQVZHUVFOHDUHU7KHLQGLYLGXDOUHTXLUHPHQWVDUHQRWQXPEHUHGLQWKHV\OODEXVWKH\DUHVLPSO\
EXOOHWHGKHQFHRXUXVHRIGRWSRLQWVZKHQZHUHIHUWRWKHP
1.1.1 )LUVWW\SLFDOTXHVWLRQZKLFKFRXOGEHDVNHGLQDQH[DPLQDWLRQIRUWKLVV\OODEXV

UHTXLUHPHQW
1.1.2 6HFRQGW\SLFDOTXHVWLRQZKLFKFRXOGEHDVNHGLQDQH[DPLQDWLRQIRUWKLVV\OODEXV

UHTXLUHPHQWHWF
7KHQXPEHURIOLQHVSURYLGHGIRUHDFKDQVZHUJLYHVDQLQGLFDWLRQRIKRZPDQ\PDUNVWKHTXHVWLRQPLJKWEH
worth in an examination. As a rough rule, every two lines of answer might be worth one mark. Note that in
PDQ\DQVZHUVWKUHHOLQHVKDYHEHHQSURYLGHGDVWKHDPRXQWRIZULWLQJUHTXLUHGH[FHHGVWZROLQHVEXWWKH
chemistry involved is worth only one mark.
How to use the book
&RPSOHWLQJDOOTXHVWLRQVZLOOSURYLGH\RXZLWKDVXPPDU\RIDOOWKHZRUN\RXQHHGWRNQRZIURPWKHV\OODEXV
You may have done work in addition to this with your teacher as extension work. Obviously this is not covered,
but you may need to know this additional work for your school exams.
:KHQZRUNLQJWKURXJKWKHTXHVWLRQVZULWHWKHDQVZHUV\RXKDYHWRORRNXSLQDGLIIHUHQWFRORXUWRWKRVH\RX
NQRZZLWKRXWKDYLQJWRUHVHDUFKWKHZRUN7KLVZLOOSURYLGH\RXZLWKDTXLFNUHIHUHQFHWRZRUN\RXVKRXOG
spend more time revising later, and allow you to spend your study time more productively.
Science Press
Introduction
Verbs to Watch
account/account for
State reasons for, report on, give an account of,
narrate a series of events or transactions.
distinguish
Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or
different from, note difference between things.
analyse
Identify components and the relationships among
them, draw out and relate implications.
evaluate
Make a judgement based on criteria.
examine
,QTXLUHLQWR
apply
Use, utilise, employ in a particular situation.
explain
Relate cause and effect, make the relationship
between things evident, provide why and/or how.
appreciate
Make a judgement about the value of something.
extract
Choose relevant and/or appropriate details.
assess
0DNHDMXGJHPHQWRIYDOXHTXDOLW\RXWFRPHV
results or size.
extrapolate
Infer from what is known.
calculate
'HWHUPLQHIURPJLYHQIDFWVJXUHVRULQIRUPDWLRQ
identify
Recognise and name.
clarify
Make clear or plain.
interpret
Draw meaning from.
classify
Arrange into classes, groups or categories.
investigate
3ODQLQTXLUHLQWRDQGGUDZFRQFOXVLRQVDERXW
compare
Show how things are similar and different.
justify
Support an argument or conclusion.
construct
Make, build, put together items or arguments.
outline
Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features.
contrast
Show how things are different or opposite.
predict
Suggest what may happen based on available data.
critically (analyse/evaluate)
Add a degree or level of accuracy, depth, knowledge
DQGXQGHUVWDQGLQJORJLFTXHVWLRQLQJUHHFWLRQDQG
TXDOLW\WRDQDQDO\VLVRUHYDOXDWLRQ
propose
Put forward (a point of view, idea, argument,
suggestion etc) for consideration or action.
deduce
Draw conclusions.
recall
Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences.
GHQH
6WDWHWKHPHDQLQJRIDQGLGHQWLI\HVVHQWLDOTXDOLWLHV
recommend
Provide reasons in favour.
demonstrate
Show by example.
recount
Retell a series of events.
describe
Provide characteristics and features.
summarise
Express concisely the relevant details.
discuss
Identify issues and provide points for and against.
synthesise
Put together various elements to make a whole.
Science Press
Verbs to Watch
vi
Dot Point
Page
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Page
1.
Energy and raw materials

from fossil fuels

LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ
)
Molar heats of combustion of alkanols

1.1
Ethylene (ethene) from petroleum
3.9
Calculating molar heat of combustion
23

5HDFWLYLW\RIHWK\OHQHVGRXEOHERQG
3.10 Ethanol as a car fuel
24

)
Alkanes and alkenes with bromine water
3.11 Ethanol as an alternative fuel
25

1.4
Ethylene as a monomer
)
Fermentation of glucose
1.5
Polymers, e.g. polyethylene
3.13 Conditions for fermentation
26
1.6
Industrial production of polyethylene
3.14 Chemistry of fermentation
26
1.7
Modelling polymerisation
(TXDWLRQIRUIHUPHQWDWLRQ

1.8
Vinyl chloride and styrene as monomers
4.
Energy from redox reactions
27
1.9
Properties and uses of

polystyrene and PVC

)LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ*DOYDQLFFHOOV

Materials from biomass
11
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ3RWHQWLDO
)
difference of metals in an electrolyte

2.
2.1
Products of the petrochemical industry
11
4.3
Displacement of metals from solution
28
2.2
Development and use of a biopolymer
11
4.4
Activity of metals and displacement
28
2.3
Condensation polymers
13
4.5
Oxidation states
29
2.4
Formation of condensation polymers
13
4.6
Redox reactions in galvanic cells
30
2.5
Cellulose
a condensation polymer in biomass
14
4.7
Construction of galvanic cells
31
4.8
Components of galvanic cells
32
2.6
Cellulose a source
of commercial polymers
15
4.9
Calculations using the redox table
33

$SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ

3.
Ethanol use and manufacture
17
3.1
Dehydration of ethanol
17
3.2
Hydrolysis of ethylene
18
3.3
Modelling the dehydration

and hydrolysis of ethylene
18
3.4
Industrial production
of ethanol from sugar cane
19
3.5
Ethanol as a solvent
3.6
3.7
4.10 Chemistry and uses of batteries compared 35

$SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ

5.
Nuclear chemistry
39
5.1
Stable and radioactive isotopes
39
5.2
Recent discoveries of elements
40
5.3
Production of transuranic elements
41
5.4
Production of commercial radioisotopes
41
5.5
Detection of radiation
42
20
5.6
Radioisotopes in industry and medicine
42
Ethanol as a fuel
a renewable resource
20
5.7
Radioisotopes uses and properties
42

5DGLRLVRWRSHVEHQHWVDQGSUREOHPV

Naming alkanols
21
Answers to Production of Materials
251
Science Press
vii
Notes
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viii

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1.
Indicators
46
3.10 Calculation of pH
68

)
Natural indicators

3.11 Strong and weak acids ionisation
70
6WURQJDQGZHDNDFLGVHTXLOLEULXP

1.2
Indicators colour changes
47
3.13 Strong and weak acids calculating pH
71
1.3
Prepared indicators
47
3.14 Acids as food additives
72
1.4
Acidic, basic or neutral
49
4.
Acid/base theories
73
1.5
Acidity/basicity of household substances
50
4.1
Using secondary sources
73
1.6
Uses of indicators
51
4.2
Acidic oxides and the atmosphere
53
Development of ideas about acids and

bases Lavoisier, Davy and Arrhenius
73
2.

2[LGHVRIQRQPHWDOVDVDFLGV

%U|QVWHG/RZU\DFLGEDVHWKHRU\

2.2
Periodic Table and acidity of oxides
53
4.4
Conjugate acids and bases
76

/H&KkWHOLHUVSULQFLSOH

4.5
Conjugate acid/base pairs
76

)DFWRUVDIIHFWLQJHTXLOLEULXP

2.5
Solubility of carbon dioxide
55
)
pH of salt solutions
2.6
Calculating gas volumes
56
4.7
Explaining pH of salts
78

)
Decarbonation of a soft drink

4.8
Amphiprotic substances
79
4.9
79
Natural and industrial sources of sulfur

dioxide and nitrogen oxides
59
Neutralisation as a proton
transfer reaction
Chemical reactions that release

SO2 and NOX
2.8
7LWUDWLRQWHFKQLTXHV

60
)LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ7LWUDWLRQV

2.10 Formation and effects of acid rain
60
2.11 Evidence for changes in atmospheric

oxides of sulfur and nitrogen
61
)
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ7LWUDWLRQ
of a domestic substance using
FRPSXWHUEDVHGWHFKQRORJ\
4.13 Neutralisation in accidents
89
2.12 Industrial origins of oxides

of sulfur and nitrogen
62
4.14 Buffers
90
3.
Acids and pH

2.9
5.
(VWHULFDWLRQ
93
63
5.1
Alkanols and alkanoic acids
93
)
Using pH meters or probes

5.2
Melting and boiling points of

alkanols and alkanoic acids
95
3.2
Acids as proton donors
63

(VWHULFDWLRQ

3.3
Common acids
64
5.4
Naming esters
96
3.4
Naturally occurring acids and bases
64

8VHRIDFLGLQHVWHULFDWLRQ

3.5
The pH scale
65

5HX[LQJLQHVWHULFDWLRQ

3.6
Concentrated and dilute acids
66

3.7
Strong and weak acids
67
)
3UHSDUDWLRQRIDQHVWHUE\UHX[

,RQLFHTXDWLRQVIRUDFLGLRQLVDWLRQ

5.8
Esters occurrence, production and uses
99
3.9
Modelling acids
molecular nature and ionisation
68
5.9
Esters uses in foods and cosmetics
99
Answers to The Acidic Environment
273
Science Press
ix
Notes
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1.
The work of chemists
102
4.
Atmospheric chemistry and ozone
129
1.1
The work of chemists
102
4.1
129
1.2
Chemists roles and

chemical principles used
103
Composition and layered

structure of the atmosphere
4.2
Atmospheric pollutants
129
1.3
Collaboration between chemists
104
4.3
Ozone in the atmosphere
130
1.4
Monitoring a chemical reaction
104
4.4
Formation of coordinate covalent bonds
131
2.
Monitoring in industry
the Haber process
107
4.5
Coordinate covalent bonds

and Lewis structures
132
2.1
Industrial uses of ammonia
107
4.6
Allotropes of oxygen
132
2.2
Synthesis of ammonia
107
4.7
Oxygen allotropes properties
134
2.3
DQHTXLOLEULXPUHDFWLRQ
107
4.8
Isomers of haloalkanes
134
4.9
Modelling haloalkanes
136
2.4
an exothermic reaction
108
4.10 CFCs and halons in the atmosphere
137
Reaction rate and temperature
109
4.11 Changes in atmospheric

ozone concentrations
139
2.5

KH+DEHUSURFHVVDQG/H&KkWHOLHUV
7
principle

4.12 Destruction of atmospheric ozone
141
4.13 Problems associated with use of CFCs
142
2.7
The Haber process and pressure
110
4.14 Replacements for CFCs
143
2.8
The Haber process a balancing act
110
$SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ

2.9
Development of the Haber process

DQGLWVVLJQLFDQFH
111
5.
Monitoring the water supply
145
5.1
Ions in water
145

'HWHUPLQLQJZDWHUTXDOLW\

)LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ:DWHUWHVWLQJ

5.4
Monitoring water for heavy metals

and eutrophication
150
5.5
The local water supply
152
5.6
Effectiveness of water management
154

0LFURVFRSLFPHPEUDQHOWHUV

2.10 The Haber process and catalysts
112
2.11 Monitoring the Haber process
113
$SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ

3.
Chemical analysis
115

)LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ)ODPHWHVWV

3.2
Monitoring ions in substances we use
118
3.3
Deducing ions present from test results
119

LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ6XOIDWH
)
content of lawn fertiliser

3.5
Analysing reliability of results
122
3.6
Atomic absorption spectroscopy
124
3.7
Interpreting data from AAS analysis
126
Answers to Chemical Monitoring and

Management
299
Science Press
xi
Notes
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Science Press
xii
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Page

OHFWURO\VLVRIPROWHQDQGDTXHRXV
(
sodium chloride

4.4
Industrial production of sodium

hydroxide by electrolysis
183
4.5
The mercury, diaphragm and

membrane processes
184

5.
6DSRQLFDWLRQ
189

)LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ6DSRQLFDWLRQ
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ$QDO\VLQJDQ
)
HTXLOLEULXPUHDFWLRQ

6DSRQLFDWLRQ

5.3
Fats and oils to make soap
190
2.3
Effects of changes on
HTXLOLEULXPUHDFWLRQV
163

/DERUDWRU\DQGLQGXVWULDOVDSRQLFDWLRQ

7KHHTXLOLEULXPFRQVWDQW

)
An emulsion, properties and uses

&DOFXODWLQJWKHHTXLOLEULXPFRQVWDQW.

2QO\WHPSHUDWXUHFDQFKDQJH.

)
Soap as an emulsion

$SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ

5.7
Soap structure and cleaning action
193
3.
Sulfuric acid
171
5.8
Soap as an emulsion
194
3.1
Industrial uses of sulfuric acid
171
5.9
194
3.2
Sulfuric acid ionisation
171
Anionic, cationic and

QRQLRQLFGHWHUJHQWV
3.3
Safety using sulfuric acid
171
3.4
Transport and storage of sulfuric acid
172
3.5
Extraction of sulfur
172
3.6
Indusrial production of sulfuric acid
174
3.7
Reaction conditions
production of SO2 and SO3
174

DWHVRIUHDFWLRQDQGHTXLOLEULXP
5
production of SO2 and SO3

3.9
Industrial production of H2SO4

chemistry and output
176
1.
Resources and replacements
158
1.1
A natural resource (not a fossil fuel)
158
1.2
Shrinking world resources
159

$SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ

2.
Equilibrium and the

equilibrium constant
161

LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ0RGHOOLQJDQ
)
HTXLOLEULXPUHDFWLRQ

)
Reactions of H2SO4

3.11 Reactions of H2SO4

an oxidising and dehydrating agent
178
4.
Sodium hydroxide
179

*DOYDQLFDQGHOHFWURO\WLFFHOOV

)
Electrolysis of sodium chloride

5.10 Soaps and synthetic detergents
195
5.11 Environmental impacts of

soaps and detergents
196
6.
The Solvay process
199
6.1
The Solvay process raw materials
199
6.2
Uses of sodium carbonate
199
6.3
The Solvay process

steps and chemistry
199
6.4
The Solvay process

environmental issues
201

)
The Solvay process

6.6
Calculations involving
the Solvay process
202
6.7
Location of a chemical plant using

the Solvay process
204

$SSOLHGTXHVWLRQV

Answers to Industrial Chemistry
325
Science Press
xiii
Notes
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Science Press
xiv

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Page
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Page
1.
The ocean as an electrolyte
208
4.6
Cathodic protection
232
1.1
Minerals in oceans
208
4.7
233
1.2
Electron transfer in redox reactions
208
Cathodic protection
chemistry and uses
1.3
Redox reactions occur when ions

are free to move
209
4.8
Applications of cathodic protection
234
5.
Corrosion in a sunken ship
235
, PSDFWRI*DOYDQL'DY\)DUDGD\
and electron transfer reactions

5.1
Solubility of gases
235

*DVHVGLVVROYHGLQRFHDQV

:RUNRI*DOYDQL'DY\DQG)DUDGD\

5.3
Solubility of gases and depth of oceans
237

$SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ

5.4
Temperature and corrosion rates
237
2.
Ships of metal
213

Rusting of iron
213
)
Rate of corrosion

2.1
2.2
Conditions for rusting
214
5.6
Predicting corrosion rates at depth
239

)
Corrosion of iron and steel

$SSOLHGTXHVWLRQ

6.
Corrosion at depth
241
2.4
Composition and properties of steel
218

Composition, properties and uses

of a range of steels
219
LUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ5DWHRI
)
corrosion and acidity

2.5
6.2
Acidity and corrosion rates
242
2.6
Iron and steel in ships
219
6.3
Corrosion at depth
243
2.7
Corrosion of active and

passivating metals
220

6XOIDWHUHGXFLQJEDFWHULDDQGFRUURVLRQ

7.
Electrolytic cells
221
Salvage, conservation and

restoration of artefacts
245
3.
3.1
Electrolysis anode and

cathode reactions
221
7.1
Artefacts from shipwrecks are saturated
245
7.2
Factors affecting electrolysis
224
Evaporation of a saturated
solution from artefacts
245
3.2

)
Rate of electcrolysis

7.3
Electrolysis to remove salts

from artefacts
246
4.
Corrosion in a marine environment
227
7.4
History of ship construction

materials used
227
Electrolysis to clean and stabilise

metal artefacts
247
4.1
7.5
)
Corrosion rate of metals and alloys

Chemical procedures to clean,

preserve and stabilise artefacts
247

7.6
Protection of metal hulls
228
RHVWRUDWLRQWHFKQLTXHVXVHG
in Australian projects

4.3

)
Prevention of corrosion

Answers to Shipwrecks, Corrosion and

Conservation
345
4.5
Using the redox table

to predict corrosion
231

Science Press
xv
Notes
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Science Press
xvi
DOT POINT
Science Press
1. Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as ethylene, for the production of
other substances.
1.1
Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some of the fractions from the
UHQLQJRISHWUROHXP
1.1.1
Describe the composition of petroleum.
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1.1.2
When petroleum undergoes distillation, fractions are produced. Identify some of these.
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1.1.3
D
'HQHIUDFWLRQDOGLVWLOODWLRQ
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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(b)
Use a diagram to show the industrial process of fractional distillation of petroleum.
(c)
Use a diagram to show the process of fractional distillation in the school laboratory.
Science Press
1.1.4
(a)
Identify the IUPAC name for ethylene.
(b)
Construct the structural formula for ethylene.
(c)
Outline the main source of ethylene.
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1.1.5
Ethene is produced by the cracking of petroleum fractions. Describe the process of cracking.
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1.2
Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond, is readily transformed
into many useful products.
1.2.1
Complete the following:
Ethylene (ethene) belongs to a homologous group of hydrocarbons called ........................................ .

All alkenes have a ........................................ bond as their functional group. This is called a covalent
bond because the carbon atoms ........................................ electrons. It is called a double bond because
the ........................................ atoms share ........................................ pairs of ........................................ .
1.2.2
(a)
Complete the following table to summarise the differences between the three series of
hydrocarbons, alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.
Homologous series
General formula
Functional group
Alkane
CnH2n
CC
Science Press
(b)
1.2.3
Write molecular formulas for:

(i) ethane
.......................................................................................
(ii) ethene
.......................................................................................
(iii) ethyne
.......................................................................................
Ethane and ethene (ethylene) are both hydrocarbons, and they share a number of properties.
7KH\ERWKKDYHVPDOOQRQSRODUPROHFXOHVZLWKZHDNGLVSHUVLRQIRUFHVEHWZHHQWKHLU
molecules, they are both relatively insoluble in water, have low melting and boiling points
and they both burn readily in air or oxygen. Despite these similarities, ethene is used much
more extensively in industry than ethane. Account for this difference in use.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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1.2.4
Alkanes such as ethane undergo substitution reactions.
(a)
What is meant by a substitution reaction?
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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E
8VHDQHTXDWLRQWRVKRZDQH[DPSOHRIDVXEVWLWXWLRQUHDFWLRQ
1.2.5
Alkenes such as ethene (ethylene) undergo addition reactions.
(a)
What is meant by an addition reaction?
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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Science Press

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appropriate alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in bromine water.
1.3.1
Describe the test you would use to distinguish an alkane such as ethane from an alkene such
DVHWKHQHHWK\OHQH7KLVVKRXOGLQFOXGHWHVWUHVXOWVDQGHTXDWLRQV
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1.3.2
'XULQJ\RXUFRXUVH\RXSODQQHGDQGSHUIRUPHGDUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQWRFRPSDUHWKH
reactivities of appropriate alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in bromine water.
(a)
Identify the chemicals you used and justify their choice.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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(b)
Explain one safety precaution necessary when carrying out this experiment.
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1.4
Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made.
1.4.1
D
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'HQHSRO\PHUDQGLGHQWLI\WKUHHH[DPSOHVRISRO\PHUV
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c)
Identify the term used to describe the process by which monomers are converted to a polymer.
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Science Press
1.4.2
-XVWLI\WKHFODVVLFDWLRQRIHWK\OHQHHWKHQHDVDPRQRPHU
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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1.5
1.4.3
Classify each of the following as either a monomer or a polymer.
(a)
starch .............................................................................
(b)
glucose
(c)
ethylene (ethene) ....................................................
(d)
polyethylene
.........................................................................
.............................................................
Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this term.
1.5.1
'HQHZKDWLVPHDQWE\DQDGGLWLRQSRO\PHU
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
1.5.2
(a)
Identify the monomer used to manufacture the polymer called polyethylene.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
1.6
E
8VHDQHTXDWLRQWRVKRZWKDWSRO\HWK\OHQHLVDQDGGLWLRQSRO\PHU
(c)
Draw the structural formula for a part of a polyethylene molecule showing three monomer
units joined together.
Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a commercially and

industrially important polymer.
1.6.1
Justify the statement that polyethylene is a commercially important polymer.
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Science Press
1.6.2
Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene.
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1.6.3
(a)
Explain what is meant by a free radical.
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...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Explain how the formation of an ethene free radical assists in the formation of a polymer.
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1.6.4
(a)
Identify the type of catalyst used in the industrial production of polyethylene.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Describe the effect of this catalyst on the polymerisation process.
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1.6.5
8VHDRZFKDUWWRVKRZWKHLQGXVWULDOSURGXFWLRQRISRO\HWK\OHQHIURPHWK\OHQH
Science Press
1.6.6
, QLQGXVWULDOSURFHVVHVVXFKDVSRO\PHULVDWLRQTXDOLW\FRQWUROLVFDUULHGRXW,GHQWLI\WKUHH
factors that would need to be continually monitored and explain why this process is important
in the production of polyethylene.
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1.6.7
During the production of polyethylene it is important to monitor temperature of the reaction

vessel. Explain.
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1.7
Analyse information from secondary sources such as computer simulations, molecular model
kits or multimedia resources to model the polymerisation process.
1.7.1
Describe how you modelled the polymerisation process in class.
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YLQ\OFKORULGH
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by both their systematic and common names.
1.8.1
Complete the following table to summarise information about the monomers vinyl chloride
and styrene.
Common name
of monomer
Systematic name
of monomer
Formula of
monomer
Name of
polymer
Vinyl chloride
Styrene
(Vinyl benzene)
Science Press
1.9
Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in terms of their properties.
1.9.1
Use the following table to summarise some uses of the polymers made from the monomers
vinyl chloride and styrene.
Name of polymer
Structure of polymer
Uses
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Polystyrene
1.9.2
Complete the following table to link the uses of the different forms of the polymers shown to
properties that allow them to be used in these ways.
Name of
polymer
Use
PVC
Flooring and carpet

backing
PVC
Sheets for roofs and

skylights
Polyethylene
Natural gas pipes

Coating steel pipes
Polyethylene
Plastic bags and

Food containers
Polyethylene
Sheathing for wire

cables used for
phone and TV
Polystyrene
Disposable foam
cups
Polystyrene
Surfboards
Property that determines this use
Science Press
1.9.3
Assess the impact of the development of the production of polymers on society and on the
environment.
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Science Press
10
2. Some scientists research the extraction of materials from biomass to reduce our
dependence on fossil fuels.
2.1
Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently obtained from the
petrochemical industry.
2.1.1
What is meant by the petrochemical industry?
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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2.1.2
Identify 10 chemicals presently produced by the petrochemical industry.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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2.1.3
Discuss the need for alternative sources of compounds presently manufactured by the
petrochemical industry.
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2.2
Use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary sources and analyse progress
in the recent development and use of a named biopolymer. This analysis should name the
VSHFLFHQ]\PHVXVHGRURUJDQLVPXVHGWRV\QWKHVLVHWKHPDWHULDODQGDQHYDOXDWLRQRIWKHXVH
or potential use of the polymer produced related to its properties.
2.2.1
'HQHWKHWHUPELRSRO\PHU
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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2.2.2
(a)
Identify a biopolymer which is produced commercially.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Describe the structure of this polymer.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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Science Press
11
(c)
Identify and give the formula of the monomer(s) used to manufacture this named biopolymer.
(d)
Identify the source of the monomer(s).
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2.2.3
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D
1DPHWKHVSHFLFHQ]\PHVRURUJDQLVPVXVHGWRV\QWKHVLVHWKLVELRSRO\PHU
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Analyse progress in the development of this biopolymer.
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(c)
Identify uses of this biopolymer.
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(d)
Identify properties of this biopolymer.
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(e)
Choose one use of this biopolymer and relate this use to its properties.
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Science Press
12
(f)
Analyse progress in the uses of this biopolymer.
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2.3
Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer.

2.3.1
Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer and identify three examples.
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2.4
Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed.

2.4.1
8VHDQHTXDWLRQWRVKRZWKHIRUPDWLRQRIDFRQGHQVDWLRQSRO\PHU
2.4.2
Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
2.4.3
Compare condensation and addition reactions.

Condensation reactions
Addition reactions
Both involve .................................................... joining to form a long chain molecule.

No double bonds necessary
No small molecule produced
Science Press
13
2.5
Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a condensation polymer

found as a major component of biomass.
2.5.1
(a)
Describe the structure of glucose. Include a diagram in your answer.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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(b)
Describe the structure of cellulose. Include a diagram in your answer.
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(c)
Explain why cellulose is a condensation polymer.
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2.5.2
Cellulose is a condensation polymer found in biomass. Outline the importance of

this compound.
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Science Press
14

, GHQWLI\WKDWFHOOXORVHFRQWDLQVWKHEDVLFFDUERQFKDLQVWUXFWXUHVQHHGHGWREXLOGSHWURFKHPLFDOV
and discuss its potential as a raw material.
2.6.1
Explain why cellulose is a suitable raw material for the production of petrochemicals.
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2.6.2
Discuss the potential of cellulose as a raw material in the manufacture of petrochemicals.
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Science Press
15
2.7
Applied question.
2.7.1
Ethene is a starting point for the petrochemical industry. At the present time, ethene is
produced from petroleum, however in the future it may be produced from cellulose in
biomass. Compare and evaluate these two methods of ethene production.
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Science Press
16
3. Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available from renewable resources such
as plants.
3.1
Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a catalyst in this
process and the catalyst used.
3.1.1
(a)
Write the structural formula of ethanol.
E
-XVWLI\WKHFODVVLFDWLRQRIHWKDQRODVDQDONDQRO
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3.1.2
(a)
What is meant by a dehydration reaction?
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
E
&RQVWXFWDQHTXDWLRQWRLOOXVWUDWHWKHGHK\GUDWLRQRIHWKDQROWRHWK\OHQH
(c)
Describe the dehydration of ethanol.
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3.1.3
Outline a reason for the use of a catalyst in the dehydration of ethanol.
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Science Press
17
3.2
Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of ethanol and identify the
need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used.
3.2.1
:ULWHDPROHFXODUHTXDWLRQWRVKRZWKHDGGLWLRQRIZDWHUWRHWK\OHQHWRSURGXFHHWKDQRO
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3.2.2
Describe the addition of water to ethylene to produce ethanol.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3.3
Process information from secondary sources such as molecular model kits, digital technologies
RUFRPSXWHUVLPXODWLRQVWRPRGHO
WKHGHK\GUDWLRQRIHWKDQRO
WKHDGGLWLRQRIZDWHUWRHWK\OHQH
3.3.1
Use structural formulas to model the following reactions:
(a)
dehydration of ethanol
(b)
addition of water to ethylene
3.3.2
Describe how you modelled one of the following reactions:

WKHGHK\GUDWLRQRIHWKDQRO
WKHDGGLWLRQRIZDWHUWRHWK\OHQH
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Science Press
18
3.4
Process information from secondary sources to summarise the processes involved in the
industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane.
3.4.1
Outline the processes involved in the industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane.
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3.4.2
7KHIROORZLQJRZFKDUWVXPPDULVHVWKHLQGXVWULDOSURGXFWLRQRIHWKDQROIURPELRPDVV
organic biomass
crush and grind
dilute acid,
e.g. HCl
hydrolyse
Process A
more acid
solid residue
filtrate
hydrolyse
sugars in
acid solution
Ca(OH)2 to
neutralise acid
Process A
solid residue,
e.g. (CaSO4)
sugar solution
yeast or
bacteria
Process B
ethanol mixture
carbon dioxide
Process C
by-products
and wastes
ethanol
Identify the processes that occur at:

A
......................................................................................
......................................................................................
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Science Press
19

HVFULEHDQGDFFRXQWIRUWKHPDQ\XVHVRIHWKDQRODVDVROYHQWIRUSRODUDQGQRQSRODU
'
substances.
3.5.1
(a)
Identify the type of bonding within a molecule of ethanol.
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...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Explain why ethanol is a polar molecule.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c)
Identify the intermolecular forces between molecules of ethanol.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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(d)
Use a diagram to show a hydrogen bond between atoms in adjacent ethanol molecules.
3.5.2
Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for polar and
QRQSRODUVXEVWDQFHV
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3.6
Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a renewable resource.
3.6.1
Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel.
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3.6.2
-XVWLI\WKHFODVVLFDWLRQRIHWKDQRODVDUHQHZDEOHUHVRXUFH
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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3.6.3
Distinguish between the terms renew, reuse and recycle.
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,GHQWLI\WKH,83$&QRPHQFODWXUHIRUVWUDLJKWFKDLQHGDONDQROVIURP&WR&
3.7.1
D
&RPSOHWHWKHIROORZLQJWDEOHWRUHYLVHWKHVWUXFWXUHDQGQRPHQFODWXUHRIWKHUVWHLJKW
alkanols.
Name of alkanol
Molecular formula
Structural formula
Methanol
HO
H
H
Propanol
C4H9OH
Pentanol
Hexanol
C7H15OH
Octanol
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(b)
Show the structural formulas of:

L KH[DQRO

LL SURSDQRO
, GHQWLI\GDWDVRXUFHVFKRRVHUHVRXUFHVDQGSHUIRUPDUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQWRGHWHUPLQHDQG
compare heats of combustion of at least three liquid alkanols per gram and per mole.
3.8.1
D
,GHQWLI\WKHWKUHHOLTXLGDOFRKROV\RXXVHGZKHQSHUIRUPLQJDUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQWR
determine and compare heats of combustion of alkanols.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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(b)
Use a labelled diagram to show the method you used.
(c)
Comment on the accuracy of your results.
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(d)
Suggest ways you could improve the accuracy of your results.
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(e)
Explain one safety precaution you applied when carrying out this experiment.
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'
UVWKDQGGDWD
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3.9.1
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
3.9.2
The following table shows the heats of combustion for a number of fuels.
(a)
Complete the following table by calculating the heat of combustion in kJ g1 for each of the
fuels shown.
Fuel
Hydrogen
Coke (carbon)
Formula
Heat of combustion
(kJ/mole)
H2
285
393
Methane
CH4
890
Ethane
C2H6
1560
Propane
C3H8
2220
Methanol
CH3OH
727
Ethanol
C2H5OH
1367
(b)
Heat of combustion
(kJ/gram)
Identify the fuel that would produce the most heat by the combustion of 1 g of fuel.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c)
Consider which has the lower heat of combustion, ethanol or methanol. Using this
information, which would be more expensive to use as a fuel?
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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3.9.3
JURXSRI<HDUVWXGHQWVSHUIRUPHGDUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQRIWKHKHDWRIFRPEXVWLRQRI
$
ethanol. They burned ethanol in a spirit burner, and used it to heat 100 mL of water, as shown
in the diagram below.
thermometer
lid
container
water
wick
fuel, e.g. ethanol

in spirit burner
The results they obtained were:

Initial temperature of 100 mL water = 22.6C
Final temperature of 100 mL water = 35.9C
Initial mass of spirit burner + ethanol = 235.56 g
Final mass of spirit burner + ethanol = 234.23 g
6SHFLFKHDWRIZDWHU 3 J kg1.1

Use these results to calculate the experimental molar heat of combustion of ethanol.
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3.10
Process information from secondary sources to summarise the use of ethanol as an alternative
car fuel, evaluating the success of current usage.
3.10.1 Describe and evaluate the use of ethanol as a fuel in cars.
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3.10.2 Identify one secondary source you used to obtain this information and evaluate the validity of
the information obtained from this source.
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3.11
Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of its use.
3.11.1 Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of its use.
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ROYHSUREOHPVSODQDQGSHUIRUPDUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQWRFDUU\RXWWKHIHUPHQWDWLRQRI
6
glucose and monitor mass changes.
3.12.1 '
HVFULEHWKHUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQ\RXFDUULHGRXWWRIHUPHQWJOXFRVHDQGPRQLWRU
mass changes.
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3.12.2
D
:ULWHDQHTXDWLRQIRUWKHIHUPHQWDWLRQRIJOXFRVH
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Identify a potential problem in the fermentation of glucose and outline the method you used
to overcome this problem.
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(c)
Explain any mass changes that occur during fermentation.
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3.13
Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted.

3.13.1 Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted.
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3.14
Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process.

3.14.1 Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process.
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3.15
Present information from secondary sources by writing a balanced equation for the
fermentation of glucose to ethanol.
3.15.1 :ULWHDEDODQFHGHTXDWLRQIRUWKHIHUPHQWDWLRQRIJOXFRVHWRHWKDQRO
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4. Oxidation-reduction reactions are increasingly important as a source of energy.

HUIRUPDUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQWRLGHQWLI\WKHFRQGLWLRQVXQGHUZKLFKDJDOYDQLFFHOO
3
is produced.
4.1.1
Identify the conditions under which a galvanic cell is produced.
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4.1.2
(a)
Describe a galvanic cell that you set up.
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(b)
Identify any observations you made.
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HUIRUPDUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQDQGJDWKHUUVWKDQGLQIRUPDWLRQWRPHDVXUHWKHGLIIHUHQFH
3
in potential of different combinations of metals in an electrolyte solution.
4.2.1
XULQJWKLVWRSLF\RXSHUIRUPHGDUVWKDQGLQYHVWLJDWLRQLQZKLFK\RXPHDVXUHGWKH
'
difference in potential of different combinations of metals in an electrolyte solution.
(a)
Identify two combinations of metals that you used in this investigation.
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(b)
Identify the electrolytes you used.
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27
(c)
For one of the pairs of metals used, draw a labelled diagram to show how you performed the
experiment.
(d)
Outline one possible source of error in this investigation and describe how you could
overcome this.
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(e)
Outline one safety issue involved in the carrying out of this experiment and describe how you
would handle this issue.
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I
HVFULEHZKDW\RXXVHGDVDVDOWEULGJHDQGLQGLFDWHWKHGLUHFWLRQRIRZRILRQVRYHUWKLV
'
salt bridge.
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4.3
Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of electrons.

4.3.1
Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of electrons.
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4.4
Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by other metals to the
relative activity of metals.
4.4.1
Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by other metals to
the relative activity of metals.
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4.4.2
List the following metals in order of activity from most active to least active:
iron, magnesium, sodium, silver, zinc, lead, aluminium, calcium, copper.
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4.4.3
(a)
A series of solutions is set up and pieces of metal are placed in each solution as shown in the
table below. Complete the table to show where displacement reactions will occur.
Solution
Metal added
Calcium chloride
Zinc
Zinc chloride
Calcium
Lead chloride
Magnesium
Lead chloride
Silver
(b)
Any displacement reaction
Which would cause the more vigorous displacement reaction, placing magnesium metal in
zinc nitrate or in silver nitrate solution? Explain.
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(c)
A piece of zinc is placed into a copper sulfate solution. The copper sulfate loses its blue
colour, copper is deposited on the bottom of the beaker and the zinc disappears. What can
you deduce about the relative reactivity of copper and zinc?
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4.5
Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or gain of electrons.
4.5.1
Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or gain of
electrons. (Hint: Show the connection between an increase or decrease in oxidation state
and the processes of oxidation and reduction.)
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4.5.2
State the rules for working out oxidation states/numbers.
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4.6
4.5.3
Identify the oxidation states of the following:
(a)
Iron in FeSO4
..................................................................
(b)
Iron in FeCl3
....................................................................
(c)
Iron metal
(d)
Oxygen in CO2
(e)
The nitrate ion NO3 .......................................................
I
0DQJDQHVHLQ.0Q24
..........................................................................
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...............................................
Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions.

4.6.1
What is meant by a galvanic cell?
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4.6.2
'HQHWKHWHUPV
(a)
oxidation
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(b)
reduction
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(c)
redox reaction
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(d)
oxidant
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(e)
reductant
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4.6.3
Explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions.
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2XWOLQHWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIJDOYDQLFFHOOVDQGWUDFHWKHGLUHFWLRQRIHOHFWURQRZ
4.7.1
Outline the construction of galvanic cells.
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4.7.2
D
'HVFULEHWKHGLUHFWLRQRIHOHFWURQRZLQDJDOYDQLFFHOO
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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(b)
Add arrows to show:

L WKHRZRIHOHFWURQVLQWKHIROORZLQJJDOYDQLFFHOO
(ii) the movement of ions in the salt bridge
zinc
anode
copper
cathode
Cu2+(aq)
electrolyte,
e.g. ZnSO4
salt bridge electrolyte,

e.g. CuSO4
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'HQHWKHWHUPVDQRGHFDWKRGHHOHFWURGHDQGHOHFWURO\WHWRGHVFULEHJDOYDQLFFHOOV
4.8.1
'HQHWKHIROORZLQJWHUPV
(a)
electrode
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...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
electrolyte
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(c)
anode
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(d)
cathode
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4.8.2
(a)
Identify the purpose of galvanic cells in society today.
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E
,QWHUPVRIR[LGDWLRQUHGXFWLRQH[SODLQWKHSXUSRVHRIVHSDUDWLQJWKHUHDFWLRQVLQWRWZRKDOIFHOOV
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4.9
Solve problems and analyse information to calculate the potential E requirement of named
electrochemical processes using tables of standard potentials and half equations.
4.9.1
(a)
What is meant by a standard reduction potential?
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E
'HQHDVWDQGDUGK\GURJHQKDOIFHOO,QFOXGHDGLDJUDPLQ\RXUDQVZHU
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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F
,GHQWLI\WKHLQVWUXPHQWXVHGWRPHDVXUHWKHSRWHQWLDOGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWZRKDOIFHOOV
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
4.9.2
(a)
What is meant by the redox table?
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...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Complete the following prose passage to describe the redox table.

In the redox table, forward reactions are written as ................................................................. reactions.
The higher the reduction potential the more easily the species is .............................................................. .
Oxidations are shown by .................................................................. the reactions and changing the sign.
Oxidising agents are on the .................................................................. side of the table, and they
increase in strength as you move .................................................................. the table.
The strongest oxidising agent is .................................................................. . Fluorine is most likely
to accept .................................................................. from another species, thus causing the oxidation
of that species.
Reducing agents are found on the right side of the table, the strongest reducing agent is at
the .................................................................. of the table.
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33
Potassium and barium are the strongest reducing agents, so they are the metals most likely
to .................................................................. electrons to another species, thus causing that species
to be .................................................................. .
A metal higher in the redox series will displace a metal .................................................................. from
a solution of its ions.
All metals above hydrogen will displace ............................................................. from a solution of its ions.
A reducing agent will react with an .................................................................. agent lower in the table.
4.9.3
8VHWKHUHGR[WDEOHLQWKHEDFNRIWKLVERRNWRDQVZHUWKHTXHVWLRQVEHORZ
(a)
What is the reduction potential for Fe2+ + 2e U Fe(s)?
(b)
Convert the following reduction reactions to oxidation reactions:

(i) Al3+ + 3e UAl(s)
1.68 V
(ii) Cu2+ + 2e U Cu(s)
+0.34 V
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(c)
An iron electrode is placed in a beaker of aluminium sulfate solution. Another iron electrode
LVSODFHGLQFRSSHUVXOIDWHVROXWLRQ:ULWHHTXDWLRQVWRVKRZLQZKLFKEHDNHUDUHGR[UHDFWLRQ
is occurring.
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(d)
A galvanic cell is set up containing a copper electrode in copper sulfate solution connected to
a zinc electrode in zinc sulfate solution.
Calculate the E potential for this cell if standard conditions apply.
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DWKHUDQGSUHVHQWLQIRUPDWLRQRQWKHVWUXFWXUHDQGFKHPLVWU\RIDGU\FHOORUOHDGDFLGFHOO
*
DQGHYDOXDWHLWLQFRPSDULVRQWRRQHRIWKHIROORZLQJ
EXWWRQFHOO
IXHOFHOO
YDQDGLXPUHGR[FHOO
OLWKLXPFHOO
OLTXLGMXQFWLRQSKRWRYROWDLFGHYLFHHJWKH*UDW]HOFHOO
LQWHUPVRI
FKHPLVWU\
FRVWDQGSUDFWLFDOLW\
LPSDFWRQVRFLHW\
HQYLURQPHQWDOLPSDFW
4.10.1
(a)
Draw a diagram of either a dry cell OR a lead acid cell and describe its chemistry.
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(b)
Draw a diagram of either a button cell, fuel cell, vanadium redox cell, lithium cell OR a
OLTXLGMXQFWLRQSKRWRYROWDLFGHYLFHHJWKH*UDW]HOFHOODQGGHVFULEHLWVFKHPLVWU\
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4.10.2 )RUWKHWZRFHOOVFKRVHQLQ4XHVWLRQFRPSOHWHWKHIROORZLQJWDEOHWRFRPSDUHWKHP
Dry cell or lead acid cell
Button cell, fuel cell, vanadium redox

cell, lithium cell, OR Gratzel cell
Cost and practicality
Impact on society
Environmental impact
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36
4.10.3 $VVHVVDGU\FHOORUDOHDGDFLGFHOOLQFRPSDULVRQWRRQHRIWKHIROORZLQJ
EXWWRQFHOO
IXHOFHOO
YDQDGLXPUHGR[FHOO
OLWKLXPFHOO
OLTXLGMXQFWLRQSKRWRYROWDLFGHYLFHHJWKH*UDW]HOFHOO
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4.11
Applied question.
4.11.1 During the 19th and 20th centuries, fossil fuels were our main source of energy. However,
there are problems with the use of these fuels today. It seems likely that renewable resources
RIHQHUJ\DQGR[LGDWLRQUHGXFWLRQUHDFWLRQVZLOOEHFRPHLQFUHDVLQJO\LPSRUWDQWLQWKHVW
century as sources of energy.
Discuss this statement.
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38
5. Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials.

5.1
Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions under which a
nucleus is unstable.
5.1.1
D
'HQHLVRWRSH
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(b)
Distinguish between a stable and a radioactive isotope.
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(c)
Describe the conditions under which the nucleus of atoms is unstable.
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5.1.2
Complete the following table to compare alpha, beta and gamma radiation.
Alpha radiation
Structure
Beta radiation
Particles
Consist of
Charge
Electron from the nucleus

+2
Ionising ability
Penetration
Gamma radiation
Fair
Poor (2-10 cm in air)
Deection in
electric eld
Towards positive plate
Science Press
39
5.1.3
Label the three types of radiation shown in the following diagram as alpha, beta or gamma
radiation.
negatively charged field
radioactive
source
positively charged field
5.1.4
(a)
Describe radioactive decay.
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:KDWLVPHDQWE\WKHKDOIOLIHRIDUDGLRDFWLYHLVRWRSH"
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5.2
Process information from secondary sources to describe recent discoveries of elements.

5.2.1
Describe recent discoveries of elements.
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5.2.2
Identify two recently discovered elements and outline their method of production.
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40
5.3
Describe how transuranic elements are produced.

5.3.1
(a)
What is meant by a transuranic element?
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5.4
Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced.

5.4.1
(a)
Identify some commercial radioisotopes.
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(b)
Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced.
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5.5
Identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect radiation.

5.5.1
Identify instruments that can be used to detect radiation.
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5.5.2
For two of the instruments named above, outline the processes involved.
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LQLQGXVWU\
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5.6.1
(a)
Identify one use of a named radioisotope in industry.
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(b)
Identify one use of a named radioisotope in medicine.
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5.7
Describe the way in which the above named industrial and medical radioisotopes are used and
explain their use in terms of their chemical properties.
5.7.1
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(a)
industrial radioisotope
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(b)
medical radioisotope
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Science Press
42
5.7.2
RURQHRIWKHUDGLRLVRWRSHVGHVFULEHGLQ4XHVWLRQH[SODLQLWVXVHLQWHUPVRI
)
its properties.
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8
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5.8.1
$QDO\VHEHQHWVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHXVHRIUDGLRDFWLYHLVRWRSHVLQLGHQWLHGLQGXVWULHV
and medicine.
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5.8.2
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$
and medicine.
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Notes
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44
DOT POINT
Answers
Science Press
249
Answers
Notes
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Answers
250
1.1.1
Petroleum consists of crude oil and natural gas. Petroleum contains a mixture of up to 300 hydrocarbons, as well as sulfur and
nitrogen compounds.
&UXGHRLOOLTXLGSHWUROHXPFRQWDLQVPDLQO\DONDQHVDQGDONHQHVIURP&WRDERXW&
DWXUDOJDVLVDPL[WXUHRIPHWKDQHHWKDQHSURSDQHDQGEXWDQHDQGVPDOOHUDPRXQWVRIRWKHU

1
DONDQHV,WPD\DOVRFRQWDLQQLWURJHQZDWHUYDSRXUFDUERQGLR[LGHDQGWUDFHVRIK\GURJHQVXOGH
1.1.2
Various, e.g. gases; petroleum ether; gasoline (petrol); kerosene; diesel; gas oil; lubrication oil and wax; bitumen
1.1.3
(a)
Process used to separate a mixture such as petroleum into its components, depending on the components having
different boiling points.
(b)
light gases
gasoline
fractionating
column
naptha
kerosene
gas oil
lubricating oils
residue
hot crude oil
(c)
thermometer
condenser
fractional
distillation
column
water
out
water
bath
water
in
hotplate
mixture with porous pot
1.1.4
(a)
Ethene
(b)
H
H
(c)
C=C
H
H
Petroleum and natural gas. In Europe and Japan, ethylene (ethene) is obtained from petroleum by fractional
distillation to produce fractions, followed by the cracking of some of the fractions.
In Australia and the USA, where natural gas is more readily available, we mostly pipe natural gas directly from its
source and crack the ethane, propane and butane to obtain ethylene (ethene).
Science Press
251
1.1.5
Cracking is a process in which molecules of carbon compounds are broken down into smaller molecules with the help of heat
and/or catalysts.
,QRUJDQLFFDWDO\VWVVXFKDVDOXPLQDVLOLFDJHODUHXVHGLQWKHFUDFNLQJSURFHVV
Examples of cracking are:
C2H6J&2H4(g) + H2(g)
C8H18O&2H4(g) + C2H6(g)
1.2.1
alkenes, C=C , share, carbon, two, electrons
1.2.2
(a)
Homologous series
(b)
General formula
Functional group
Alkane
CnH2n+2
CC
Alkene
CnH2n
C=C
Alkyne
CnH2n2
CC
(i)
C2H6
(ii)
C2H4
(iii)
C2H2
1.2.3
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FDUERQFDUERQERQG7KHGRXEOHERQG& &LVPXFKPRUHUHDFWLYHWKDQWKHVLQJOH&&ERQG
1.2.4
(a)
A reaction in which an atom is substituted for another already in the molecule, e.g. a hydrogen atom may be replaced
ZLWKDKDORJHQDWRP/LJKWHQHUJ\LVUHTXLUHG
(b)
Various, e.g.
H H
H H
A double bond is broken, and other atoms, or group of atoms, are added into the molecule.
H H
C H + H2
H
-
H C - C- H
H C
-
(b)
(a)
H - C - C- H + HCl
-
1.2.5
light
H - C - C- H + Cl2
H Cl
H H
H H
-
C H + Cl2
H C - C- H
H C
H H
H
-
(c)
Cl Cl
1.3.1
7RDVDPSOHRIWKHK\GURFDUERQDGGEURPLQHZDWHUZKLFKLVDUHGEURZQFRORXUDQGVHHLILWUHDFWV
An alkene, such as ethene, will undergo an addition reaction, even in the dark, and the bromine water will change from
UHGEURZQWRFRORXUOHVVYHU\TXLFNO\Note: You must always state colour changes from to ...; it is not enough to say the
bromine water decolourises.)
An alkane, such as ethane, will undergo a substitution reaction with bromine water, but this reaction is very slow and only
occurs in the presence of light. This reaction may take several hours, or even days, to complete.
Br2(g) + H2O(l) U+2%UDT++DT%UDT
H C C H
H C C H + HOBr
OR
Br Br
H H
-
H H
H C - C- H
-
+ Br2
C C
H-
H H
H-
Alkene
Br OH
Alkane
-
H H
H - C - C - H + HOBr
H H
light
H H
H - C - C - H + H2O
Br H
Science Press
252
1.3.2
D
9DULRXV\RXSUREDEO\XVHGF\FORKH[DQHDQGF\FORKH[HQHEHFDXVHWKH\DUHFRORXUOHVVDQGOLTXLGDWURRP
temperature. This allows you to readily see colour changes.
E
9DULRXVHJ<RXPXVWFDUU\RXWWKLVH[SHULPHQWLQDIXPHFXSERDUGXVLQJYHU\VPDOOTXDQWLWLHVRIFKHPLFDOVDQG
wearing protective clothing including gloves and safety glasses.
These precautions are to avoid bromine water, cyclohexane and cyclohexene from coming into contact with the skin
and eyes or being inhaled.
Such precautions are essential as bromine water is toxic by all routes of exposure. It is a skin irritant, vapour irritant
and it is corrosive.
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1.4.1
(a)
A monomer is a small molecule, such as ethylene (ethene). Many monomer molecules can be joined together to form a
long chain molecule called a polymer.
(b)
A polymer is a large molecule consisting of a large number of identical small molecules (monomers) joined together,
for example plastics, rubber, synthetic textiles, starch, cellulose, protein and DNA in our genes.
(c)
Polymerisation.
1.4.2
Ethene is a small molecule. Many ethene molecules can be joined together to form a polymer such as polyethylene.
1.4.3
Monomers b, c Polymers a, d
1.5.1
A long chain molecule that can be formed from an addition reaction involving many molecules of one or more monomers with double bonds.
1.5.2
(a)
Ethylene (ethene)
(b)
ethylene
polyethylene
(ethene)
nCH2=CH2
catalyst
(where n is a large number)
(polyethene)
(CH2CH2)n
(c)
-
H H H H H H
-
C - C- C - C- C - CH H H H H H
1.6.1
Various in your answer you should include the following points:
HVFULEHVRPHFRPPHUFLDOXVHVRISRO\HWK\OHQHDQGOLQNWKHVHXVHVWRLWVSURSHUWLHVHJ3RO\HWK\OHQHLVXVHGIRUPLON
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bottles, detergent containers, food containers and garbage bins. It can be used for these purposes as it is insoluble in
water, inert, lightweight (low density), tough and strong.
[SODLQHJ7KHVHSURGXFWVPXVWEHVWURQJVRWKH\GRQRWEUHDNHDVLO\LQHUWVRWKH\GRQRWGLVVROYHLQRUUHDFWZLWK
(
their contents; and light for ease of transport.
- XVWLI\WKHLPSRUWDQFHHJ7KXVSRO\HWK\OHQHLVLPSRUWDQWFRPPHUFLDOO\EHFDXVHLWVSURSHUWLHVPDNHLWVXLWDEOHIRUD
wide range of commercial uses.
1.6.2
Initiation A chemical called an initiator starts (initiates) the reaction by opening the double bond of an ethylene (ethene)
monomer. This forms an ethylene (ethene) free radical.
Propagation The monomers join, to form a chain.
Termination When free radical ethylene (ethene) chains combine, a complete polyethylene (polyethene) molecule is formed
and the process stops (it is terminated).
1.6.3
1.6.4
(a)
A species with an unpaired outer shell electron.
(b)
A free radical is very reactive because of the presence of an unpaired outer shell electron. Free radical ethene
molecules readily join together.
D
7UDQVLWLRQPHWDOFDWDO\VWVDOVRFDOOHG=HLJOHU1DWWDFDWDO\VWV
(b)
Affects the rate of reaction and allows the process to be carried out at a lower temperature and pressure.
7KHVHFDWDO\VWVFDQDOVRDIIHFWWKHDUUDQJHPHQWRIXQLWVDWWDFKHGWRWKHPDLQFKDLQDQGWKXVWKHSRO\PHUV
physical properties such as density and stability to heat.
Science Press
253
1.6.5
initiation
breaks
double
bonds
monomers
ethene free radicals
propagation
monomers
join
long chain molecules
complete polymer
termination
1.6.6
Factors Various, e.g. molecular weight, density, type and amount of additives and purity of the product.
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FRPSRVLWLRQDQGDEVHQFHRILPSXULWLHVVRWKDWFXVWRPHUVZLOOIHHOFRQGHQWWKDWWKHSRO\HWK\OHQHZLOODOZD\VKDYHWKHVDPH
properties and so they will continue to purchase the product.
1.6.7
The reaction is exothermic, so heat is constantly being released. This heat may make the polymer decompose as it is formed,
decreasing the yield.
1.7.1
Various, e.g. you might have made models of ethene molecules, then broken the double bonds and joined them together.
1.8.1
Common name of monomer
Vinyl chloride
Systematic name of monomer
Formula of monomer
Chloroethene
H
H
Styrene
(Vinyl benzene)
Ethenylbenzene
H
H
C=C
Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
C=C
Name of polymer
Cl
Polystyrene
H
C6H5
1.9.1
Name of polymer
Structure of polymer
Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
H H
C C
H Cl
Polystyrene
Uses Various, e.g.

Containers, blister packaging, vegetable oil
bottles, electrical insulation, pipes and hoses,
vinyl ooring, records, outdoor furniture,
videos and credit cards
H H
C C
Fruit boxes, clothes hangers, packing foam,

foam egg cartons, meat trays, compact disc
and audiocassette cases, plastic cutlery, toys,
surfboards and hot drink cups
H C6H5 n
1.9.2
Name of
polymer
Use
Property that determines this use
PVC
Flooring and carpet backing
Soft and pliable

Low static electricity
Fire and water resistant
PVC
Sheets for roofs and

skylights
Rigid and strong

Will not dissolve in water or let water through
Polyethylene
Natural gas pipes

Coating steel pipes
Strong, insoluble in water

High resistance to chemical corrosion
Polyethylene
Plastic bags and food

containers
High tensile strength

Transparent or translucent
Soft and exible
Insoluble in water
Low reactivity with food
Low density
Polyethylene
Sheathing for wire cables

used for phone and TV
Electrical insulator
Flexible
Insoluble in water
Polystyrene
Disposable foam cups
Relatively cheap
Low density and keep their shape
Heat insulator
Not chemically active
Polystyrene
Surfboards
Cheap
Low density
Rigid
Not chemically active
Science Press
254
1.9.3
Various. In your answer you should include the following:
, GHQWLI\DWOHDVWWKUHHPDQXIDFWXUHGSRO\PHUVE\QDPHDQGVWDWHWKHIRUPXODRIHDFKHJSRO\HWK\OHQHSRO\VW\UHQH
and polyvinyl chloride.
XWOLQHWKHPDQXIDFWXUHRIWKHVHSRO\PHUVLGHQWLI\WKHPRQRPHUVXVHGLQHDFKFDVHDQGLGHQWLI\WKHVWHSVLQWKH
2
production process initiation, polymerisation and termination.
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people, e.g.
Plastic cups are cheaper, less dense and safer than those made of glass. If they break, they are less likely to cause
damage especially to children. The use of plastic containers also helps to conserve beach sand as this is used in glass
production. If they are made from a polymer which can be recycled, then they are also environmentally friendly. Early
plastics could not be recycled which caused problems with their disposal and led to accumulation of wastes.
The development of polymers has also led to the production of cheap, disposable articles suitable for medical uses,
e.g. tubing and syringes. The use of these can greatly decrease the spread of infection among society, but has increased
the problems of waste disposal. Recently, the development of biodegradable polymers has helped to decrease the
problem of waste disposal.
RXFRXOGDOVRLQFOXGHSUREOHPVLQWKHPDQXIDFWXUHRISRO\PHUVDQGWKHQHHGIRUSUHFDXWLRQVWREHWDNHQZKHQ
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producing these chemicals, e.g.
Vinyl chloride is the monomer used to manufacture PVC. This chemical irritates the eyes, skin and respiratory tract,
causes liver damage and may be carcinogenic. It is highly toxic to marine life. Workers in industries using vinyl
FKORULGHVKRXOGZHDUSURWHFWLYHFORWKLQJDQGH\HSURWHFWLRQKDYHPDVNVDYDLODEOHLQFDVHRIOHDNVFKHFNIUHTXHQWO\
for leaks so as to avoid contamination of air or water. Some workers were affected adversely before the dangers of
using these chemicals were realised.
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7
FRQVLVWHQWZLWKWKHHYLGHQFH\RXKDYHSUHVHQWHGDVPRVWO\IDYRXUDEOHRUXQIDYRXUDEOH<RXVKRXOGDOVRTXDOLI\WKH
impact, e.g. has it had a slight impact or a huge impact on society and has it had a slight impact or a huge impact on
the environment.
2.1.1
Industries that produce or use compounds which come from petroleum, e.g. production and use of fossil fuels, production of
polymers, lubricating oils.
2.1.2
Various, e.g. petrol, aviation fuel, diesel, candle wax, road tar, ethene, polyethylene, polyvinylchloride, kerosene, lubricating
oils, synthetic fabrics.
2.1.3
Various, e.g. in your answer you should include the following:
'HQHSHWURFKHPLFDOLQGXVWU\
,GHQWLI\DYDULHW\RIFKHPLFDOVSURGXFHGE\WKHSHWURFKHPLFDOLQGXVWU\DQGWKHLUXVHV
3RLQWRXWWKDWWKHSHWUROHXPLQGXVWU\LVEDVHGRQWKHXVHRIIRVVLOIXHOVZKLFKDUHQRQUHQHZDEOHDQGPRVWDUHOLNHO\WR
run out within the next 100 years, some much sooner.
LVFXVVWKHHIIHFWVRQRXUOLYHVLIZHFDQQRORQJHUSURGXFHVRPHRIWKHFKHPLFDOVZHFXUUHQWO\PDNHXVLQJIRVVLO
'
fuels and petroleum.
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2.2.1
ELRSRO\PHULVDQDWXUDOO\RFFXUULQJORQJFKDLQFKHPLFDOPDGHRIUHSHDWLQJPRQRPHUXQLWV%LRSRO\PHUVDUHPDGHIURP
$
UHQHZDEOHUHVRXUFHVXVXDOO\SODQWVRUPLFURRUJDQLVPV([DPSOHVRIELRSRO\PHUVDUHFHOOXORVHVWDUFKFRWWRQSURWHLQVDQG
gluten.
Science Press
255
2.2.2
(a)
Various, e.g. Biopol
(b)
Biopol LVDSRO\K\GUR[\DONDQRDWH3+$,WLVDFRSRO\PHUDVLWFRQVLVWVRIWZRPRQRPHUVK\GUR[\EXW\UDWHDQG

K\GUR[\YDOHUDWH
F
K\GUR[\EXW\UDWH
DQG
K\GUR[\YDOHUDWH
CH3
CH2 O
CH3 O
HO
CH C
CH2 OH
HO
CH C
CH2 OH
(d)
They occur naturally in bacteria such as Azobacter and Pseudomonas.
(a)
Bacteria, e.g. Alcaligenes eutrophus.
(b)
The polymer is presently produced industrially by bacteria (especially Alcaligenes eutrophus) growing in tanks with a
FDUERQEDVHGIRRGVRXUFH7KHSRO\PHULVWKHQLVRODWHGDQGSXULHG
HFHQWO\DWWHPSWVWRSURGXFHWKHSRO\PHUPRUHHFRQRPLFDOO\KDYHXVHGJHQHWLFHQJLQHHULQJWHFKQLTXHVDQH[DPSOH
5
RIELRWHFKQRORJ\*HQHWLFDOO\HQJLQHHUHGEDFWHULDVXFKDVE. coli, can be used to produce PHA. The advantages are
faster growth, better yields, easier recovery and the production of less extra waste biomass. Also cheaper substrates
can be used to grow the bacteria, e.g. whey, molasses and agricultural wastes.
HQHWLFDOO\HQJLQHHULQJSODQWVVXFKDVFUHVVDQGSRWDWRHVFDQDOVREHPDGHWRSURGXFHELRGHJUDGDEOHSODVWLFVUDWKHU
*
than storing starch.
2.2.3
Although these biopolymers are at present more expensive to produce than conventional plastics, they have the
advantage of being biodegradable, thus allowing better waste management, and of being made from renewable
crops rather than fossil fuels. The use of transgenic plants is expected to lower costs so this polymer becomes price
FRPSHWLWLYHZLWKWUDGLWLRQDOSHWUROHXPSURGXFHGSRO\PHUV
(c)
Various, e.g. a carrier for slow release of insecticides, herbicides or fertilisers; disposable containers for shampoo and
cosmetics, and disposable items such as razors, rubbish bags, disposable nappies, fast food utensils and plastic plates.
(d)
Similar to those of polypropylene, e.g. insoluble in water, permeable to oxygen, resistant to UV light, acids and bases,
soluble in chlorinated hydrocarbons, high melting point, high tensile strength and more dense than water. It is also
QRQWR[LFELRFRPSDWLEOHDQGELRGHJUDGDEOH
(e)
Various, e.g. medical applications such as the production of surgical pins and sutures.
URSHUWLHVHJKLJKWHQVLOHVWUHQJWKLQVROXEOHLQZDWHUQRQWR[LFELRGHJUDGDEOHLWVSURGXFWVGHFRPSRVHQDWXUDOO\
3
and no surgery is needed to remove them) and it is biocompatible (the body does not react to this polymer or reject it
as a foreign object).
(f)
Uses of Biopol are varied, and more are continually being found. As it is biodegradable and biocompatible, it is
increasingly used for medical applications and the production of items which previously presented a disposal problem.
For medical applications, where biodegradability and biocompatability are important properties, there is often no
IRVVLOIXHOEDVHGDOWHUQDWLYH
2.3.1
A long chain compound formed when monomer molecules join together, forming a polymer, and releasing a small molecule
such as water. Examples are cellulose, nylon, polyester, cotton, cellophane, dacron.
2.4.1
Various, e.g.
CH2OH
O OH HO
HO
OH
OH
2.4.2
OH
OH
O OH HO
CH2OH
CH2OH
O OH HO
OH
OH
CH2OH
O
OH
OH
O OH
CH2OH
etc
O
OH
OH
OH
O
OH
CH2OH
O
O
OH
O
CH2OH
OH
section of a cellulose molecule
OH
O
OH
3H2O
O O
CH2OH
Small monomer molecules each release one or more atoms and the molecules join at that point. The released atoms combine
to form a new compound. For example, in the formation of cellulose, an H and an OH, released from adjoining monomers,
combine to form a molecule of water.
Science Press
256
2.4.3
Condensation reactions
Addition reactions
Both involve monomers joining to form a long chain molecule.
2.5.1
No double bonds necessary.
Monomer has double bond which breaks during polymerisation.
Polymer forms and also another small molecule.
No small molecule produced.
D
*OXFRVHPROHFXODUIRUPXOD&6H12O6) is a ring structure. Five carbon atoms and one oxygen atom form the ring and
OH and H groups protrude above and below the ring. It also has a CH2 group out of the ring. In solution the ring can
open, forming a straight chain structure.
1 CHO
6 CH2OH
5
O
H
OH
2 CHOH
OH
H1
H
HO
3 CHOH
4 CHOH
H
OH
H1
OH
HO
5 CHOH
H
OH
Bglucose ring
6 CH2OH
5
O
H
OH
Aglucose ring
6 CH2OH
Open chain structure
(b)
Cellulose is a very long polymer containing about 2000 to 8000 glucose molecules in long chains. These glucose
molecules are strongly linked together by covalent bonds. Hydrogen bonding between the chains makes cellulose
chains linear, rigid, strong and resistant to chemical attack.
CH2OH
O
OH
OH
O
CH2OH
O
OH
O
O
OH
OH
O
OH
O
CH2OH
OH
Section of a cellulose molecule
OH
O O
CH2OH
F
0RQRPHUVMRLQWRJHWKHUZLWKRXWWKHEUHDNLQJRIDGRXEOHERQGIRUPLQJFHOOXORVHDQGDZDWHUPROHFXOH6HHHTXDWLRQ
IRU4XHVWLRQ
2.5.2
Cellulose is a polymer of the sugar glucose. It makes up the cell walls of plants and is the most abundant carbohydrate on
Earth. Cellulose is the main component of biomass and thus is a potentially important raw material for the production of
synthetic polymers.
2.6.1
3HWURFKHPLFDOVDUHFDUERQEDVHGFRPSRXQGVVRVXEVWDQFHVXVHGWRPDQXIDFWXUHSHWURFKHPLFDOVPXVWDOVREHFDUERQEDVHG
Also, being a major component of biomass, cellulose is a readily available renewable raw material for the production of
petrochemicals.
2.6.2
Your answer should include the following points:
&HOOXORVHLVDFDUERQEDVHGFRPSRXQGDVDUHSHWURFKHPLFDOV
&HOOXORVHLVUHDGLO\DYDLODEOH,WLVRQHRIWKHPDLQFRPSRQHQWVRIELRPDVV
%LRPDVVLVRUJDQLFPDWWHUSURGXFHGIURPSODQWV
KHXVHRIIRRGFURSVWRPDNHSRO\PHUVSUHVHQWVHWKLFDOSUREOHPVDVWKHUHDUHSHRSOHVWDUYLQJLQPDQ\SDUWV
7
of the world.
RWHQWLDOO\XVHIXOELRPDVVLQFOXGHVWKHZDVWHSODQWPDWWHUIURPDJULFXOWXUDOSURGXFWVVXFKDVVXJDUFDQHDQGFRUQ
3
FURSVZDVWHIURPIRUHVWU\VXFKDVVDZGXVWDQGZRRGFKLSDQGVHZDJH1RUPDOO\VXFKZDVWHVDUHGLIFXOWWRGLVSRVH
of, so using them to make substances such as polymers is desirable.
XPXSHJ&HOOXORVHKDVKXJHSRWHQWLDOLQWKHPDQXIDFWXUHRISHWURFKHPLFDOVDVLWLVUHDGLO\DYDLODEOHLQKXJH
6
amounts and can be converted to petrochemicals thus reducing our reliance on petroleum. This is important as
petroleum supplies are running out.
Science Press
257
2.7.1
Various. Your answer should include the following:

Describe the production of ethene by the fractional distillation of petroleum and then the cracking of fractions.
Include equations for cracking, e.g. C16H 34(l) catalyst
heaat C8H16(l) + C8H18(l)

and C8H16(l) catalyst
heat C 2H 4(g) + C6H12(l)

Describe the composition of cellulose as consisting of chains of glucose monomers. Include formulas.
Describe the manufacture of ethene by:

K\GURO\VLVRIFHOOXORVHWRJOXFRVH
IHUPHQWDWLRQRIJOXFRVHWRSURGXFHHWKDQRO
GLVWLOODWLRQRIWKHIHUPHQWDWLRQPL[WXUHWRSURGXFHHWKDQRO
GHK\GUDWLRQRIHWKDQROXVLQJFRQFHQWUDWHGVXOIXULFDFLGDVDFDWDO\VWWRIRUPHWKHQH
yeast
Include equations, e.g. C6H12O 6(aq) enzymes
2C 2H 5OH(aq) + 2CO 2(g)
C 2H 5OH(aq) Hconc.
SO C2H 4(g) + H 2O(g)

2
Explain that cellulose is a renewable resource which is obtained from plant cell walls. If crops are used to manufacture ethanol
then it could be argued that these would be better used to feed people. However, it is also abundant in waste biomass, the plant
PDWHULDOOHIWRYHUDIWHUWKHFURSHJFRUQRUVXJDUKDVEHHQUHPRYHG+RZHYHUSHWUROHXPLVDQRQUHQHZDEOHIRVVLOIXHODQG
its supplies will eventually run out.
Explain that at the present time it is more cost effective to produce ethene from petroleum, however, as petroleum supplies
are reduced this will become more expensive. The cost of producing ethanol is relatively high at the present time as the
GLVWLOODWLRQVWHSUHTXLUHVDODUJHLQSXWRIHQHUJ\$VWHFKQRORJ\LPSURYHVDQGVRODUFHOOVEHFRPHPRUHHIFLHQWWKLVSURFHVV
will become less expensive.
Make a value judgement, e.g.
At present, the preferred method of manufacturing ethene is from petroleum. However, as the cost of its manufacture from
cellulose decreases this will become a viable alternative.
<RXUHYDOXDWLRQVKRXOGUHHFW\RXUYLHZVEXWLWPXVWPDWFK\RXUGLVFXVVLRQSRLQWV
3.1.1
(a)
-
H H
H C - C- OH
-
H H
E
(WKDQROLVDQDONDQROEHFDXVHLWWVWKHIROORZLQJGHVFULSWLRQRIDONDQROV
,WVIRUPXOD&2H52+WVWKHJHQHUDOIRUPXOD52+ZKHUH5VWDQGVIRUDVDWXUDWHGFDUERQFKDLQZLWK

formula CnH2n+1.
,WFRQWDLQVWKHIXQFWLRQDO2+K\GUR[\OJURXS
3.1.2
(a)
A reaction in which a molecule of water is released as one product.
(b)
H
C OH
-
(c)
H
-
conc.
H2SO4
180oC
H
H
C=C
+
H
H
H2O
A molecule of water is removed (dehydration). A hydrogen atom and an OH group are removed from adjacent carbon
atoms to form a water molecule. To do this the ethanol is heated to between 100 and 200C with concentrated sulfuric
acid used as a catalyst.
3.1.3
The catalyst, concentrated sulfuric acid, speeds up the reaction.
3.2.1
C2H4(g) + H2O(l) C2H5OH(l)
3.2.2
Water is added to ethylene (ethene), using dilute sulfuric acid as a catalyst.
Science Press
258
dehydration of ethanol
-
H H
H C C OH
-
H H
180C
C=C
addition of water to ethylene (ethene)

H
dilute
acid
H H
H C - C- OH
-
C=C
H H
(b)
conc.
H2SO4
(a)
3.3.1
3.3.2
Various, e.g. computer simulations or using a molecular model kit. Describe how you did this.
3.4.1
Ethanol can be produced by fermenting sugar in soluble forms such as sucrose and molasses from sugar cane, and fructose
IURPFRUQSODQWV,IFHOOXORVHLVSUHVHQWLWQHHGVWREHUVWK\GURO\VHGWRJOXFRVH
The sugars are fermented by enzymes produced by fungi such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
ERXWRIWKHVXJDUSURGXFHGIURPSODQWPDWWHULVLQWKHIRUPRIxylose, a sugar that cannot be fermented by fungi. To

$
overcome this problem, genetically engineered E. coli bacteria are now being used instead of fungi as they can ferment both
glucose and xylose.
After fermentation the ethanol must be separated from the reaction mixture by distillation.
3.4.2
A Filtering, B Fermentation, C Distillation.
3.5.1
(a)
Covalent bonds.
(b)
Covalent bonds within the molecule are polar and do not balance each other out. Oxygen is more electronegative than
carbon or hydrogen atoms, so a dipole forms.
F
'LVSHUVLRQ9DQGHU:DDOVIRUFHVGLSROHGLSROHIRUFHVDQGK\GURJHQERQGV
(d)
H
H
C -H
HO
C -OH
-
H
-
H
= hydrogen bond
3.5.2
(WKDQROLVDVROYHQWIRUERWKSRODUDQGQRQSRODUVXEVWDQFHV,WLVXVHGDVDVROYHQWLQPHGLFLQHVHJFRXJKPL[WXUHVDQGLQ
many industrial processes, e.g. the production of perfumes, varnishes, adhesives and plastics. Ethanol is polar, so it is able to
GLVVROYHSRODUVXEVWDQFHVE\IRUPLQJGLSROHGLSROHIRUFHVRUK\GURJHQERQGVZLWKWKHP,WVFDUERQFKDLQDOORZVLWWRERQG
ZLWKDQGGLVVROYHQRQSRODUVXEVWDQFHV
Ethanol is very useful in dissolving substances that are not soluble in water and hence allowing these substances to become
VROXEOHLQZDWHUHWKDQROPL[WXUHV7KLVDOORZVPHGLFLQHVWKDWDUHQRWZDWHUVROXEOHWREHWDNHQDVDOLTXLG
3.6.1
Ethanol readily undergoes relatively complete combustion, in air or oxygen, releasing 1367 kJ of energy per mole of
ethanol burned.
C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)
WKDQROLVPDLQO\XVHGDVDIXHOWRVXSSOHPHQWSHWUROVXSSOLHV,WLVPL[HGZLWKSHWUROXVXDOO\ZLWKQRPRUHWKDQHWKDQRO
(
to avoid engine damage.
3.6.2
Ethanol is a renewable resource because it is mainly produced by the fermentation of plant matter, such as the residues from
the production of corn and sugar cane. More crops can be grown to make more ethanol and replace that which is used.
3.6.3
Renew able to grow more and replace that which was used.
Reuse and recycle use a substance again, e.g. melt down aluminium cans and recast them to use again. Note that you cannot
reuse or recycle a fuel.
Science Press
259
3.7.1
(a)
Name
Molecular formula
Structural formula
CH3OH
H
-
Methanol
C OH
H
C2H5OH
H H
-
Ethanol
H C C OH
-
H H
C3H7OH
H H
C
C OH
-
Propanol
H H H
H H
H H
-
C4H9OH
Butanol
H C C C C OH
-
H H H H
H H
H H H
-
C5H11OH
Pentanol
H C C C C C OH
-
H H H H H
H H H
H
-
H H
C6H13OH
Hexanol
H C C C C C C OH
-
H H H H H H
-
H H
H H H
H H
C7H15OH
Heptanol
H C C C C C C C OH
-
H H H H H H H
H
H H H H H H H
-
C8H17OH
Octanol
H C C C C C C C C OH
-
H H H H H H H
OH H
-
H OH H H H
-
LL SURSDQROSURSDQRO
-
L KH[DQROKH[DQRO
H - C - C - C- H
H - C - C - C - C- C - C- H
H H
E
H H H H H H
Science Press
260
3.8.1
D
9DULRXVHJHWKDQROPHWKDQROSURSDQROSURSDQRO
(b)
Various, e.g.
thermometer
container
water
wick
fuel, e.g. ethanol

in spirit burner
(c)
This experimental design provides extremely inaccurate results due to the large loss of heat to the environment hence it
is not suitable for measuring the actual heat of combustion. However, it can be used to compare heats of combustion of
different alkanols as they will all have the same order of inaccuracy as long as they are measured in exactly the same way.
G
5HGXFHORVVRIKHDWWRWKHHQYLURQPHQWHJ8VHDPHWDOFDQUDWKHUWKDQDDVNDVWKLVZLOOFRQGXFWWKHKHDWWRWKHZDWHU
PRUHHIFLHQWO\LQVXODWHWKHFDQUHGXFHWKHJDSEHWZHHQWKHDPHDQGZDWHUFRQWDLQHUHQVXUHR[\JHQVXSSO\LVVXIFLHQW
WRDOORZIRUFRPSOHWHFRPEXVWLRQRIWKHDONDQROHQFORVHHTXLSPHQWWRSURWHFWIURPGUDXJKWVXVHDOLGRQWKHDVNRUFDQ
H
DULRXV$ONDQROVUHSUHVHQWDUHKD]DUGVR\RXVKRXOGKDYHDQH[WLQJXLVKHUKDQG\WRTXLFNO\SXWRXWDQ\UHVLIDQ
9
accident occurs. Check the school safety package for instructions regarding each of the alkanols you used and describe
JHQHUDOVDIHW\SURFHGXUHVDVZHOODVDQ\VSHFLFIRUHDFKIXHO8VHVDIHW\JRJJOHVWRSURWHFWH\HV
3.9.1
Molar heat of combustion is the heat energy, in joules or kilojoules, released by the combustion of 1 mole of a fuel.
3.9.2
(a)
Fuel
Formula
Heat of combustion
(kJ/mole)
Heat of combustion
(kJ/gram)
Hydrogen
H2
285
142.5
Coke (carbon)
393
32.8
Methane
CH4
890
55.6
Ethane
C2H6
1560
51.9
Propane
C3H8
2220
50.5
Methanol
CH3OH
727
22.7
Ethanol
C2H5OH
1367
29.7
(b)
Hydrogen
(c)
Methanol has the lower heat of combustion. Therefore methanol releases less energy per gram burnt than ethanol.
Thus methanol would be more expensive to use as a fuel.
3.9.3
193 kJ mol1
3.10.1
Various, e.g.
Ethanol is mainly used, mixed with petrol, as a fuel to supplement petrol supplies.
Brazil and the United States use ethanol as a supplement to reduce the purchase of foreign oil supplies and to reduce pollution
levels.
,QWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVHWKDQROLVPDQXIDFWXUHGPDLQO\E\IHUPHQWDWLRQRIFRUQDQGVXJDUFDQHUHVLGXHVDQGVDOHVRIHWKDQRO
JDVROLQHEOHQGVPDNHXSDERXWRIWKHWRWDOJDVROLQHIXHOVDOHVSHU\HDU
Sugar cane and wheat have been fermented in Australia to produce ethanol. However, in Australia there is increasing
acceptance of ethanol/petrol blends, e.g. E10.
The large scale production of ethanol is generally considered an uneconomic proposition, mainly because of the huge cost
RIGLVWLOODWLRQDQGWKHGLIFXOW\RIUHPRYLQJDOOZDWHUIURPWKHDOFRKRO+RZHYHUUHFHQWLQFUHDVHVLQIXHOSULFHVKDYHPDGH
the use of ethanol as a supplement to petrol more attractive. It would be expected that, in the future, as the price of petrol
increases, ethanol/petrol blends will be more widely valued and used in Australia.
Science Press
261
3.10.2
Various, e.g. you may have used information from websites set up by the government, a petrol company, an ethanol
manufacturer or an organisation such as the NRMA.
To assess the validity of this source of information, you would need to consider how reputable it is, e.g. is it a government
source or an established university. If the source is an environmental organisation or a petrol company or a company
manufacturing ethanol, then the information needs to be viewed as possibly biased. A range of different sources is essential to
compare the information obtained. The internet site should provide evidence for the reader to evaluate.
3.11.1
7RDQVZHUWKLVTXHVWLRQIXOO\\RXVKRXOGLQFOXGHWKHIROORZLQJ
6WDWHGHVFULEH$1'H[SODLQDWOHDVWWKUHHDGYDQWDJHV$1'GLVDGYDQWDJHVRIHWKDQRODVDIXHOVHHEHORZ
,QFOXGHHTXDWLRQVZKHUHYHUSRVVLEOH
DNHDQDVVHVVPHQWEDVHGRQWKHSRLQWV\RXKDYHLQFOXGHG$Q\DVVHVVPHQWLVFRUUHFWDVORQJDVLWLVEDVHGRQIDFWV,I
0
you say ethanol has huge potential as a fuel, you must have described more advantages than disadvantages. Consider:
Does ethanol have huge potential or little potential? Can it be used alone or only as an extender?
+HUHDUHVRPHH[DPSOHVRIZKDWLVPHDQWE\VWDWHGHVFULEHDQGH[SODLQ
Advantages of using ethanol:

Statement
Ethanol is produced from a renewable
source (unlike fossil fuels).
Description
Ethanol is produced by the fermentation of
biomass whereas other fuels are produced from
petroleum.
Explanation
Ethanol is produced by fermenting biomass this
comes from plants which are renewable as they
can be grown to replace the ones used.
Fermentation is by fungi such as the yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae and genetically
engineered E. coli bacteria.
Ethanol burns more completely/

cleanly than fossil fuels.
Carbon dioxide neutral
C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)

Toxic carbon monoxide is reduced by 25-30%.
The oxygen in the ethanol molecule ensures

that less oxygen is needed to allow complete
combustion of the fuel.
Little or no carbon is produced so less is deposited

in the car and spark plugs last longer.
Ethanol is an excellent solvent, dissolving deposits

built up in the engine.
Net CO2 stays constant. The amount of CO2 used

to produce crops for ethanol production = CO2
produced when ethanol burns.
Carbon dioxide is produced when ethanol burns.

CO2 used in photosynthesis to make crops that will
later be converted to ethanol.
2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g) C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g)
10% ethanol can be safely added to

petrol.
Ethanol acts as a petrol extender without damage

to engines.
No engine modication needed if only 10% added.

Makes petrol supplies last longer.
Disadvantages of using ethanol:

Statement
Description
Explanation
Ethanol has a lower heat of

1
combustion (29.7 kJ g ) than petrol
1
(47.9 kJ g ).
Combustion of ethanol produces less energy than

combustion of same amount of octane.
Car can travel further with the same amount

of octane than ethanol thus ethanol is more
expensive.
Existing car engines need to be

modied if > 10% ethanol used in fuel.
It is difcult to remove all water during distillation

of fermented biomass.
Water causes corrosion of engines and fuel lines.
Large areas of land needed.
Land is needed to grow crops to make ethanol.
This is a problem because land is also needed

to grow food crops and removal of forests is not
acceptable on ecological grounds.
(Note: Ethanol can now be produced from waste
left over from food crops which removes this
objection and means that it could be listed as an
advantage it gets rid of wastes from crops such
as sugar cane without having to burn off.)
Lots of energy is used in production

of ethanol.
Ethanol has to be distilled from the fermentation

mix.
This is a problem because distillation is energy

intensive energy is obtained by burning fossil
fuels and also costs are high, making ethanol
expensive.
Science Press
262
3.12.1
Various. Your answer should include a description of:
WKHHTXLSPHQW\RXXVHGXVHDGLDJUDP
PDNLQJXSRIWKHJOXFRVHVROXWLRQ
VWHULOLVDWLRQRIWKHHTXLSPHQW
KRZORQJWKHPL[WXUHZDVDOORZHGWRUHDFWDQGXQGHUZKDWFRQGLWLRQV
PDVVFKDQJHVDQGKRZ\RXPHDVXUHGWKHP
GLVWLOODWLRQWRVHSDUDWHWKHDOFRKROSURGXFHGIURPWKHUHDFWLRQPL[WXUHLQFOXGHDGLDJUDP
KRZ\RXSURYHGWKDWDOFRKROZDVSURGXFHG
<RXVKRXOGDOVRLQFOXGHDODEHOOHGGLDJUDPRI\RXUHTXLSPHQW
3.12.2
(a)
by yeast
C6H12O6DT fermentation
2C2H52+DT&22(g)
(b)
Various, e.g.
(QVXULQJDOOHTXLSPHQWLVVWHULOHWREHJLQZLWKVRRWKHURUJDQLVPVGRQRWJURZLQWKHVXJDUVROXWLRQ
GHVFULEHKRZ\RXVWHULOLVHWKHHTXLSPHQW
'LIFXOW\RIGLVWLOOLQJDOFRKROSURGXFHGDVVRPHZDWHUERQGVWRWKHDOFRKROPROHFXOHV
7KHSUREOHPRIWKHDOFRKROSURGXFHGNLOOLQJ\HDVWFHOOVZKHQFRQFHQWUDWLRQRIDOFRKROUHDFKHVDERXW
so alcohol must be removed as it forms.
1HHGWRPDLQWDLQDFRQVWDQWWHPSHUDWXUHDV\HDVWJURZVEHVWDW&DQGGLHVLIWKHPHGLXPLVWRRKRW
(c)
Mass of reacting vessel and contents decreases as carbon dioxide gas is produced and this escapes from the container.
3.13.1
Maintain at a temperature of 37&RUDVQHDUDVSRVVLEOHUHPRYHDOFRKRODVLWLVSURGXFHGHQVXUHDOOHTXLSPHQWLVVWHULOH

before starting. Also to produce ethanol, respiration needs to be anaerobic so oxygen needs to be excluded as far as possible,
e.g. you may have boiled the water before starting to reduce the dissolved oxygen content.
3.14.1
Yeast cells (a fungus) grow in the sugar solution and produce ethanol and carbon dioxide as products under anaerobic
FRQGLWLRQV(Q]\PHUHDFWLRQVDUHLQYROYHGVRFRQGLWLRQVVXLWDEOHIRUWKHHQ]\PHVDUHUHTXLUHGHJWHPSHUDWXUHRIC.
7KLVSURFHVVLQYROYHVPDQ\VWHSVEXWFDQEHVXPPDULVHGE\WKHHTXDWLRQ
by yeast
2C2H52+DT&22(g)
3.15.1
by yeast
2C2H52+DT&22(g)
4.1.1
7ZRKDOIFHOOVDUHQHHGHGHDFKFRQWDLQLQJDQHOHFWURGHLQDQHOHFWURO\WHVROXWLRQ
$ZLUHFRQQHFWVWKHWZRHOHFWURGHVWRDOORZWKHHOHFWURQVSURGXFHGWRRZIURPRQHWRWKHRWKHU
,IWKHWZRVROXWLRQVDUHLQVHSDUDWHFRQWDLQHUVDVDOWEULGJHFRQQHFWVWKHPWRPDLQWDLQWKH EDODQFHRIFKDUJH
KHVDOWEULGJHLVVDWXUDWHGZLWKDVXEVWDQFHVXFKDVSRWDVVLXPQLWUDWHWKDWDOORZVLRQVWRRZIURPRQHFRQWDLQHUWR
7
the other but does not react with any ions in the solutions.
4.1.2
(a)
Various, e.g.
We took two beakers.
In one we put a solution of zinc sulfate with a strip of zinc (zinc electrode) in it.
In the other we put a copper sulfate solution and a strip of copper (copper electrode).
We connected the two electrodes to a wire and voltmeter.
:HVRDNHGDVWULSRIOWHUSDSHULQSRWDVVLXPQLWUDWHDQGSODFHGWKLVVRLWVHQGVGLSSHGLQWRWKHWZRVROXWLRQV
(b)
Various, e.g. A voltage was observed on the voltmeter.

If the salt bridge was not used, or if it was not in both solutions, there was no voltage (as the circuit is not complete).
Mention if gas is produced, an electrode wore away or a substance was deposited on an electrode.
Science Press
263
4.2.1
(a)
Various, e.g. magnesium and copper or copper and iron.
(b)
Various, e.g. for Mg and Cu you might have used magnesium sulfate for the Mg electrode and CuSO4 for the Cu electrode.
(c)
Various, e.g.
e
e
V
copper
electrode
magnesium
electrode
salt bridge
MgSO4 solution
(d)
CuSO4 solution
Various, e.g. salt bridge could dry out keep it moist.

Make sure salt bridge is immersed in both solutions.
(e)
Various, e.g. spilling or splashing of chemicals describe their toxicity if relevant.

Wear safety goggles and protective clothing to protect the eyes and skin from splashes of chemicals. Wash hands
thoroughly after using chemicals.
I
9DULRXVHJIROGHGOWHUSDSHURUDH[LEOHWXEHOOHGZLWKDEVRUEHQWSDSHUVRDNHGLQDVROXWLRQVXFKDVSRWDVVLXP

nitrate, with one end dipping into each electrolyte. Positive ions (cations) move to the cathode and negative ions
(anions) move to the anode.
4.3.1
Active metals will displace less active metal ions from solution; for example, zinc metal will displace copper ions from
solution of copper sulfate.
Zinc releases electrons from its outer shell, forming zinc ions and going into solution.
The electrons are accepted by the copper ions (in solution) so they become solid copper atoms.
:HFDQVKRZWKLVE\ZULWLQJWZRKDOIHTXDWLRQVDQGWKHQDGGLQJWKHPWRVHHWKHIXOOUHDFWLRQ
Zn (s) Zn2+ + 2e
Cu2+ + 2e Cu(s)
Cu2+DT=QV Zn2+DT&XV
4.4.1
Active metals displace less active metals from solution. The greater the difference in activity between the two metals, the
more vigorous the displacement reaction.
4.4.2
Most active
Na
4.4.3
Ca
Least active
Mg
Al
Zn
Fe
Pb
Cu
Ag
(a)
Solution
Metal added
Any displacement reaction
Calcium chloride
Zinc
No reaction
Zinc chloride
Calcium
Calcium goes into solution, zinc is deposited
Lead chloride
Magnesium
Magnesium goes into solution, lead is deposited
Lead chloride
Silver
No reaction
(b)
Magnesium in silver nitrate. There is a greater difference in activity between magnesium and silver than between
magnesium and zinc.
(c)
Zinc must be more active than copper because the zinc has displaced the copper from solution.
Science Press
264
4.5.1
An increase in oxidation state occurs during oxidation.

Oxidation is the loss of electrons. For example:
Zn(s) Zn2+DTH
2I DT I2DTH
Oxidation state of zinc changes from 0 to 2; it increases.

Oxidation state of iodine changes from 1 to 0; it increases.
A decrease in oxidation state occcurs during reduction.

Reduction is the gain of electrons. For example:
Ag+DTH Ag(s)
Cl2(g) + 2e 2Cl DT
Oxidation state of silver changes from +1 to 0; it decreases.

2[LGDWLRQVWDWHRIFKORULQHFKDQJHVIURPWRLWGHFUHDVHV
4.5.2
8QFRPELQHGHOHPHQWVKDYHDQR[LGDWLRQVWDWHRIHJ1D +2 = 0).
,RQVKDYHDQR[LGDWLRQVWDWHHTXDOWRWKHFKDUJHRQWKHLULRQHJ1D+ = +1, S2 = 2).
2[\JHQLQFRPSRXQGVKDVDFKDUJHRILQR[LGHVDQGLQSHUR[LGHV
+\GURJHQLQFRPSRXQGVKDVDFKDUJHRIZKHQFRPELQHGZLWKQRQPHWDOVHJLQ+2S) and 1 when combined

with metals (e.g. in NaH).
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7
compound the sum is 0.
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4.5.3
(a)
+2
(b)
+3
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
+7
4.6.1
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UHDFWLRQWRWDNHSODFHLQVXFKDZD\WKDWHOHFWULFLW\LVSURGXFHG,WFRQVLVWVRIWZRKDOIFHOOVR[LGDWLRQRFFXUVLQRQHDQG
UHGXFWLRQLQWKHRWKHU(DFKKDOIFHOOFRQWDLQVDQHOHFWURGHLQDQHOHFWURO\WH
4.6.2
(a)
reaction that involves the loss of electrons
(b)
reaction that involves the gain of electrons
(c)
electron transfer reaction involving oxidation and reduction
(d)
a substance that causes oxidation and is itself reduced
(e)
a substance that causes reduction and is itself oxidised
4.6.3
, QDJDOYDQLFFHOOWKHUHDUHWZRKDOIFHOOV,QRQHKDOIFHOOWKHUHLVDVSRQWDQHRXVR[LGDWLRQUHDFWLRQDQGLQWKHRWKHUD
reduction reaction occurs. Oxidation occurs at the anode, releasing electrons. Reduction occurs at the cathode which gains
electrons. A wire connects the two electrodes so that electrons can transfer from the anode to the cathode.
4.7.1
7ZRKDOIFHOOVDUHVHWXSHDFKFRQWDLQLQJDQHOHFWURGHLQDQHOHFWURO\WHVROXWLRQ
$ZLUHFRQQHFWVWKHWZRHOHFWURGHVWRDOORZWKHHOHFWURQVSURGXFHGWRRZIURPRQHWRWKHRWKHU
A salt bridge, saturated with potassium nitrate, is set up so that it dips into both electrolytes.
Science Press
265
4.7.2
D
(OHFWURQVRZIURPWKHDQRGHZKHUHR[LGDWLRQRFFXUVWRWKHFDWKRGHZKHUHUHGXFWLRQRFFXUV
(b)
zinc
anode
copper
cathode
electrons
V
negative ions
positive
ions
electrolyte,
e.g. ZnSO4
Oxidation
Zn
Zn2+ +2e
Zn is a reductant
4.8.1
4.8.2
4.9.1
salt bridge
electrolyte,
e.g. CuSO4
Reduction
Cu
Cu2+ +2e
Cu2+ is an oxidant
(a)
A device which carries electric current into and out of a cell.
(b)
An electrolyte is a chemical that conducts electric current.
(c)
The electrode where oxidation occurs.
(d)
The electrode where reduction takes place.
(a)
To produce an electric current.
(b)
Release of electrons occurs during oxidation at the anode. These have to travel to the cathode. By having the anode
DQGFDWKRGHLQVHSDUDWHFHOOVZHFDQXVHWKHRZRIHOHFWURQVDVDVRXUFHRIHOHFWULFFXUUHQWYROWDJH
(a)
Standard reduction potential is a measure of the relative tendency of a substance to gain one or more electrons
FRPSDUHGWRWKHVWDQGDUGK\GURJHQKDOIFHOO
These are measured under standard conditions of 25C, 1 atmosphere pressure and using a 1 mol/L electrolyte
solution. The larger the E value, the greater the oxidising power of a substance.
E
$KDOIFHOOFRQWDLQLQJDVWDQGDUGK\GURJHQHOHFWURGHDVVKRZQLQWKHGLDJUDPEHORZ
H2 gas
inert
metal
e.g. Pt
1 mol L1[H+]
(c)
Voltmeter
4.9.2
(a)
The redox table is a list of standard reduction potentials (E ). A copy of this table can be found at the back of this book.
E
5HGXFWLRQUHGXFHGUHYHUVLQJOHIWGRZQXRULQHHOHFWURQVWRSJLYHXSUHGXFHGORZHUGRZQK\GURJHQR[LGLVLQJ
Science Press
266
4.9.3
(a)
0.44 volts
(b)
(i)
Al(s) U Al3+ + 3e
2+
Cu(s) U Cu + 2e
(ii)
(c)
+1.68 V
0.34 V
There is no reaction with iron in a solution of aluminium ions.

For the iron in copper sulfate solution, the reaction is as follows:
(d)
Cu2+ + 2e U Cu(s)
+0.34 V
Fe(s) U Fe2+ + 2e
+0.44 V
Cu
2+
Cu
2+
+ Fe(s) U Fe
2+
+ Cu(s)
+0.78 V
+ 2e U Cu(s)
2+
Zn(s) U Zn
(a)
= 0.78 volts
= 1.10 volts
+0.34 V
+ 2e
+0.76 V
Cu2+ + Zn(s) U Zn2+ + Cu(s)

4.10.1
+1.10 V
Various, e.g.
Diagram of lead acid cell:
H2SO4
and water
Pb anodes
PbO2 cathodes
Chemistry of lead acid cell:

Anode: lead plates
Pb Pb2+ + 2e
Cathode: lead(IV) oxide
PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e Pb2+ + 2H2O
Pb ions combine with sulfate ions and form lead sulfate.
Electrolyte: 6 mol L1 sulfuric acid
(b)
Various, e.g.
Diagram of lithium cell:
Electrolyte
Lithium
Anode contact
Seal
+
Positive electrode (mixture
used varies with type)
Separator Cathode contact/case
Chemistry of lithium cell:

Anode: lithium
Li Li+ + e
Cathode: carbon
Reaction involves silver chromate or iodine, e.g.
I2 + 2e 2I
Electrolyte: lithium iodide
Science Press
267
4.10.2
Lead acid cell
4.10.3
Lithium cell
Cost and Practicality
Expensive, but long lasting.

Used as car batteries. Practical for this purpose as they do
not need to be portable.
They can be recharged. The reactions above are reversed
by the car generator forcing current back into the battery.
They work in a wide range of temperatures.
Expensive compared to other batteries. Used in cardiac

pacemakers, cellular phones, watches , computers and
cameras.
Practical for these uses as they are long-lasting,
rechargeable and high voltage.
Lithium batteries are very light and deliver more power
(about 3 V) than dry cell and alkaline batteries (1.5 V).
Impact on society
Their development meant that cars could be started much

more easily and reliably they did not have to be cranked.
They improved the capability of people to move around and
travel long distances.
The development of these long-lasting, rechargeable,

very light batteries that produce a constant, relatively high
voltage has led to the development of medical applications
such as cardiac pacemakers which have saved lives. Their
small size and portability have allowed the development of
smaller electronic devices such as cameras, watches and
phones. These have improved our ability to communicate
over distance.
Environmental
impact
Contains concentrated sulfuric acid (about 6 mol L ) which

must be disposed of safely as it is highly corrosive.
Also lead is a toxic heavy metal so must be disposed of
carefully.
Lithium must be transported and disposed of safely to

avoid environmental damage.
Various, e.g. a dry cell versus a button cell:

Dry cellsDUHXVHIXODQGTXLWHDGHTXDWHIRUVRPHSXUSRVHVHJLQWRUFKHVWR\VDQGUDGLRV7KHGU\FHOOZDVDQLPSURYHPHQW
RYHUHDUOLHUFHOOVDVLWFRQWDLQHGQROLTXLG+RZHYHUHYHQWXDOO\WKH]LQFFDVLQJPD\EHXVHGXSDQGDOORZWKHEDWWHU\WROHDN
Also, if used continuously, ammonia may be produced and cause the cell to burst.
The button cell UHSUHVHQWVLPSURYHPHQWVLQGHVLJQDVLWDOVRFRQWDLQVQROLTXLGLWLVVPDOOHUKDVDORQJHUVKHOIOLIHDQG
provides a more constant voltage for a longer period of time. These advantages have made possible the development of small
watches, hearing aids, microphones and calculators. The reduction in size of these appliances has made them more portable
and made them available to a greater percentage of the population. Hearing aids, which were previously bulky and obvious are
now smaller and more convenient.
At present the button cell is more expensive than the dry cell however, and it usually contains the heavy metal silver so must
be disposed of carefully to prevent environmental damage. Heavy metals such as silver are toxic and they can bioaccumulate.
Overall, the button cell is superior, its small size and constant voltage making possible the developments of small electronic
devices that would not otherwise be possible. Its cost limits its use slightly, however, with time and mass production, this
should decrease.
4.11.1
Various. In your answer you should include the following:

Outline the fossil fuels used in the 19th and 20th centuries to obtain energy include coal and petroleum (oil and gas).
,QFOXGHHTXDWLRQVVKRZLQJWKHFRPEXVWLRQRIWKHVHIXHOV0HQWLRQWKHVHDUHH[RWKHUPLFUHDFWLRQV
Discuss the problems associated with the use of fossil fuels including the production of pollutants and their effects, the
greenhouse effect (CO2DQGZDWHUYDSRXUPHUFXU\SROOXWLRQDFLGUDLQ,QFOXGHHTXDWLRQVWRLOOXVWUDWHWKHVHSUREOHPV
Explain that supplies of these fuels are running out and they are not renewable.
HVFULEHVRPHUHQHZDEOHVRXUFHVRIHQHUJ\HJHWKDQRODQGWKHXVHRIELRPDVV,QFOXGHHTXDWLRQV<RXVKRXOGDOVRLQFOXGH
'
such sources as wind power and solar energy.
'HVFULEHZKDWLVPHDQWE\R[LGDWLRQUHGXFWLRQUHDFWLRQV
'HVFULEHWKHSURGXFWLRQRIHQHUJ\E\R[LGDWLRQUHGXFWLRQUHDFWLRQV
[SODLQKRZR[LGDWLRQUHGXFWLRQUHDFWLRQVDUHXVHGLQWKHWZRFHOOVWKDW\RXVWXGLHG,QFOXGHGLDJUDPVDQGLGHQWLI\WKHDQRGH
(
FDWKRGHHOHFWURO\WHR[LGDQWDQGUHGXFWDQW,QFOXGHKDOIDQGIXOOUHGR[HTXDWLRQV
Sum up your ideas is it likely that renewable resources will replace fossil fuels during this century?
5.1.1
(a)
Isotopes are forms of an element with different numbers of neutrons in the atom and thus different atomic masses.
They have the same number of protons, and the same atomic number, as they are the same element. But their mass
numbers differ.
(b)
A stable isotope does not normally disintegrate.

An unstable isotope is said to be radioactive. It continuously emits alpha, beta and/or gamma radiation from its nucleus.
Science Press
268
(c)
The stability of isotopes is determined by the number of particles in the nucleus and also by the ratio of neutrons to
protons. For light elements, the stable neutron to proton ratio is approximately 1:1. For heavy elements the stable
neutron to proton ratio is approximately 1.5:1.
5.1.2
Alpha radiation
Beta radiation
Gamma radiation
Structure
Particles
Particles
Electromagnetic radiation
Consist of
2 protons and 2 neutrons

(same as a helium nucleus)
Electron from the nucleus
High frequency radiation
Charge
+2
Nil
Ionising ability
Good
Fair
Poor
Penetration
Poor (210 cm in air)
Fair (5 m in air, 2 mm in aluminium)
Very good (several cm of lead)
Deection in electric eld
Towards negative plate
Towards positive plate
Nil
alpha radiation
5.1.3
gamma rays
beta radiation
5.1.4
(a)
Radioactive atoms decay at random. The nucleus emits particles and/or energy in order to attain a stable structure.
7KHWLPHWDNHQIRUKDOIRIDVDPSOHRIDUDGLRLVRWRSHWRGHFD\LVFDOOHGLWVKDOIOLIH7KHGHFD\RIDUDGLRLVRWRSHLVD
nuclear, not a chemical, reaction.
E
+DOIOLIHLVWKHWLPHWDNHQIRUKDOIRIWKHDWRPVLQDVDPSOHRIDUDGLRDFWLYHHOHPHQWWRGHFD\
5.2.1
7
KHUVWHOHPHQWWRH[LVWRQO\LQWKHODERUDWRU\ZDVWHFKQHWLXPDWRPLFQXPEHUFUHDWHGLQE\ERPEDUGLQJ
PRO\EGHQXPZLWKGHXWHULXPQXFOHL'XULQJDQGDIWHU:RUOG:DU,,DQ$PHULFDQWHDPOHGE\*OHQQ6HDERUJFUHDWHGQHZ
HOHPHQWVLQDQDFFHOHUDWRULQFOXGLQJQHSWXQLXPWKHUVWHOHPHQWKHDYLHUWKDQXUDQLXPDQGSOXWRQLXPWKHHOHPHQWXVHGLQ
the atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki.
6LQFHWKHPLGVV\QWKHVLVRIHYHUKHDYLHUQHZHOHPHQWVKDVGHSHQGHGRQQHZJHQHUDWLRQVRISDUWLFOHDFFHOHUDWRUV
'XULQJWKHODVWGHFDGHDQXPEHURIQHZHOHPHQWVKDYHEHHQSURGXFHGDUWLFLDOO\HJKDVVLXP0DQ\UHFHQWGLVFRYHULHVDUH
elements that only exist for a fraction of a second.
5.2.2
Various, e.g.
(OHPHQWXQXQSHQWLXPLVRODWHGDIHZDWRPVRIWKUHHUDGLRDFWLYHLVRWRSHVLQXVLQJDF\FORWURQDQGWKHIXVLRQRI
QXFOHLRIFDOFLXPDQGDPHULFLXP1RW\HWFRQUPHGE\,83$&
243
95
Am +
243
95
Am +
48
20
287
115
Ca l
48
20
Ca l
Uup + 41n
288
115
Uup + 31n
Element 108 hassium isolated a few atoms by a nuclear reaction involving the fusion of isotopes of bismuth and iron.
Hassium is radioactive and decays very rapidly.
208
Bi +
58
Fe
265
Hs + 1n
Element 109 meiterium isolated a few atoms by the fusion of isotopes of lead and iron. Meiterium is radioactive and
decays very rapidly.
208
5.3.1
Pb +
58
Fe
266
Mt + 1n
(a)
An element heavier than uranium, e.g. neptunium, americium.
(b)
Synthesised in a nuclear reactor or an accelerator.

During the past 20 years, transuranic elements have been created in nuclear reactors and by accelerator laboratories in
WKH8QLWHG6WDWHV*HUPDQ\DQG5XVVLD0RVWRIWKHUDGLRLVRWRSHVSURGXFHGLQWKLVZD\H[LVWIRURQO\DVKRUWWLPHDV
they are radioactive and spontaneously decay.
Nuclear reactors bombard targets with neutrons produced by uranium decay. For example neptunium and americium
are produced in this way.
Accelerators bombard target atoms with positive particles such as protons or nuclei of atoms such as helium or iron.
For example, meiterium and hassium were produced in this way.
Science Press
269
(c)
Various, e.g.
In accelerators, e.g.:
Hassium produced by bombarding lead with iron.
208
Pb +
58
265
Hs + 1n
Fe
In nuclear reactors:
1HSWXQLXP] REWDLQHGE\QHXWURQERPEDUGPHQWRIXUDQLXP

238
92
U + 01 n
239
93
Np +
0
1
Americium obtained by neutron bombardment of plutonium.

239
94
5.4.1
D
Pu + 2 01 n
241
95
Am +
0
1
9DULRXVHJFREDOWVWURQWLXPLRGLQHLRGLQH
(Note: You must be able to state name and mass number.)
(b)
Commercial radioisotopes are produced by accelerators and nuclear reactors.

An accelerator is a machine that allows particles (e.g. protons, helium nuclei or other nuclei) to be accelerated to high
VSHHGDQGUHGDWQXFOHLRIDWRPVZLWKFRQWUROOHGHQHUJLHVLQRUGHUWRVWXG\QXFOHDUUHDFWLRQVRUPDNHUDGLRLVRWRSHV
Cyclotrons are accelerators.
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A nuclear reactor is a device that allows a uranium chain reaction to occur safely, releasing neutrons at a slow
and controlled rate. A target is bombarded with neutrons to produce a radioactive species with extra neutrons in the
QXFOHXVVRQXFOHDUUHDFWRUVSURGXFHQHXWURQULFKLVRWRSHVHJLRGLQHVWURQWLXPFREDOW
5.5.1
*HLJHU0OOHUWXEHEDGJHVFRQWDLQLQJSKRWRJUDSKLFOPWKHUPROXPLQHVFHQWGRVLPHWHUVFLQWLOODWLRQFRXQWHU
5.5.2
Various, e.g.
*HLJHU0OOHUWXEH
This consists of a sealed glass tube with a thin mica window at one end. The gas inside the tube, often argon, is ionised by
UDGLDWLRQHQWHULQJWKHWXEH7KLVFDXVHVDFXUUHQWWRRZWKURXJKWKHDWWDFKHGFLUFXLWZKLFKKDVDUHFRUGLQJGHYLFHLQFOXGHG7KLV
device is most effective in detecting beta particles; it can also detect alpha particles if the source is within 2 cm of the window.
Thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD)
A TLD measures the amount of gamma radiation received over a period of time. It consists of a badge that contains crystals of
an inorganic salt that absorbs the radiation.
When these chemicals are heated, the energy they have gained from radiation is released as light. The intensity of the light
emitted on heating gives a measure of the radiation the person wearing the badge has received.
5.6.1
D
9DULRXVHJ$PHULFLXPLVXVHGLQVPRNHDODUPV
E
9DULRXVHJ7HFKQHWLXPPLVXVHGLQWKHGLDJQRVLVRIGLVHDVH
5.7.1
D
PHULFLXPLVXVHGLQVPRNHDODUPVZKHUHLWHPLWVDOSKDSDUWLFOHVDQGORZHQHUJ\JDPPDUD\VWRIRUP
$
237
4
QHSWXQLXP 241
95 Am l 93 Np + 2 He
When no smoke is present, the alpha particles ionise nitrogen and oxygen in the air in the detector.
When smoke is present, the smoke absorbs the alpha particles emitted, so the rate of ionisation drops and this sets off the alarm.
E
7HFKQHWLXPPLVXVHGLQWKHGLDJQRVLVRIGLVHDVH,WLVLQMHFWHGDQGWKHORZHQHUJ\JDPPDUD\VLWHPLWVFDQEH
GHWHFWHGH[WHUQDOO\7HFKQHWLXPFDQVKRZEORRGRZDEQRUPDOLWLHVKHDUWGHIHFWVDQGWKHVL]HDQGORFDWLRQRI
cancerous growths. It can be attached to a range of biological carriers and thus can concentrate in a number of
different types of tissues and organs.
Science Press
270
5.7.2
7HFKQHWLXPPLVVXLWDEOHIRUXVHLQQXFOHDUPHGLFLQHEHFDXVHRILWVSURSHUWLHVVXFKDV
,WVVKRUWKDOIOLIHRIKRXUVWKLVLVORQJHQRXJKIRUPHGLFDOLQYHVWLJDWLRQVDQGVKRUWHQRXJKWRPLQLPLVHWKHSDWLHQWV
exposure to radiation.
,WLVUHDGLO\H[FUHWHGPLQLPXPH[SRVXUH
,WHPLWVORZHQHUJ\JDPPDUDGLDWLRQWKXVFDXVLQJPLQLPDOGDPDJHWRKHDOWK\FHOOV
, WFDQEHDWWDFKHGWRDUDQJHRIELRORJLFDOFDUULHUVDQGWKXVFDQFRQFHQWUDWHLQDQXPEHURIGLIIHUHQWW\SHVRIWLVVXHV
and organs.
, WFDQEHPDGHZKHQDQGZKHUHQHHGHGIURPPRO\EGHQXP0RLQDWUDQVSRUWDEOHJHQHUDWRU0RO\EGHQXPLV

DSURGXFWRIQXFOHDUVVLRQLQDQXFOHDUUHDFWRU
5.8.1
Various, e.g.
0DQ\UDGLRLVRWRSHVDUHXVHGLQPHGLFLQHHJFREDOWLURQDQGLRGLQH7KHLUUROHVLQFOXGHWKHGLDJQRVLVDQG

WUHDWPHQWRIGLVHDVHPRQLWRULQJWKHHIIHFWLYHQHVVRIGUXJVDQGVWHULOLVLQJPHGLFDODQGVXUJLFDOHTXLSPHQW&REDOWHPLWV
JDPPDUD\VZKLFKFDQEHXVHGWRVWHULOLVHHTXLSPHQWDQGDOVRWRNLOOFDQFHUFHOOVLQKXPDQV
DGLRLVRWRSHVSHUIRUPPDQ\XVHIXOIXQFWLRQVLQLQGXVWU\VXFKDVPHDVXULQJWKLFNQHVVRISODVWLFOPVDQGVWHHOVKHHWLQJ
5
checking the interior of solid objects for wear and cracks, analysis for forensic science and determining when containers are full.
5.8.2
One problem associated with the use of radioisotopes in industries and medicine is their effects on living cells.
5DGLDWLRQFDQDIIHFWWKHVWUXFWXUHRIHQ]\PHVVRWKH\FDQQRWDFWDVFDWDO\VWV
7KHVWUXFWXUHRIPHPEUDQHVFDQEHFKDQJHGWKXVSUHYHQWLQJWUDQVSRUWZLWKLQDQGEHWZHHQFHOOV
7KHVWUXFWXUHRI'1$PROHFXOHVFDQEHDOWHUHGVR'1$FDQQRORQJHUIXQFWLRQFRUUHFWO\
6H[FHOOVFDQEHDOWHUHGDQGWKHFKDQJHVSDVVHGRQFDXVLQJGHIHFWVLQRIIVSULQJ
Because of these harmful effects, the use of radioactive isotopes must be carefully monitored.
Another problem is with security during transport and storage of radioactive substances and wastes.
Waste disposal is also a problem. At present radioactive wastes are stored pending agreement on safe disposal.
Science Press
271
Notes
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Science Press
272

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HSC CHEMISTRY

Science Press 2007

All rights reserved. No part of this publication

The Acidic Environment

Chemical Monitoring and Management

Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation

The Acidic Environment

Chemical Monitoring and Management

Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation

The Acidic Environment

Chemical Monitoring and Management

Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation

Dot Point HSC Chemistry

Dot Point HSC Chemistry

Dot Point HSC Chemistry

Dot Point HSC Chemistry

Energy and raw materials

Ethylene (ethene) from petroleum

Calculating molar heat of combustion

3.10 Ethanol as a car fuel

3.11 Ethanol as an alternative fuel

Polymers, e.g. polyethylene

3.13 Conditions for fermentation

Industrial production of polyethylene

3.14 Chemistry of fermentation

Vinyl chloride and styrene as monomers

Energy from redox reactions

Properties and uses of

Materials from biomass

Products of the petrochemical industry

Displacement of metals from solution

Development and use of a biopolymer

Activity of metals and displacement

Formation of condensation polymers

Redox reactions in galvanic cells

Construction of galvanic cells

Components of galvanic cells

Calculations using the redox table

Ethanol use and manufacture

Modelling the dehydration

4.10 Chemistry and uses of batteries compared 35

Stable and radioactive isotopes

Recent discoveries of elements

Production of transuranic elements

Production of commercial radioisotopes

Radioisotopes in industry and medicine

Radioisotopes uses and properties

Answers to Production of Materials

Dot Point HSC Chemistry

Dot Point HSC Chemistry

The Acidic Environment

3.11 Strong and weak acids ionisation

Indicators colour changes

3.13 Strong and weak acids calculating pH

3.14 Acids as food additives

Acidic, basic or neutral

Acidity/basicity of household substances

Using secondary sources

Acidic oxides and the atmosphere

Development of ideas about acids and

Periodic Table and acidity of oxides

Conjugate acids and bases

Conjugate acid/base pairs