408 Introduction to Convective Heat Transfer Analysis

Solution. Transition will be assumed to occur when:

l
I

Gr x = (3 g(T H - Tc )x = 108 v2
The mean air temperature is:
(50 + 10) = 30C
Tav =
2
At this temperature air, at standard ambient pressure, has the following properties: (3 = 0.0033K-1 v
6

= 16 x io- m h

Hence, transition is assumed to occur when:

0.0033 x 9.81 x (50 - lO)x3 =

10

s (16 x 10-6)2

From which it follows that transition occurs when: x = 0.2704 m

Therefore, transition will occur at a distance of 0.2704 m from the bottom of the plate.
Available analyses of turbulent natural convection mostly rely in some way on the
assumption that the turbulence structure is similar to that which exists in turbulent forced
convection, see [96] to [105]. In fact, the buoyancy forces influence the turbulence and the
direct use of empirical information obtained from studies of forced convection to the
analysis of natural convection is not always appropriate. This will be discussed further in
Chapter 9. Here, however, a discussion of one of the earliest analyses of turbulent natural
convective boundary layer flow on a flat plate will be presented. This analysis involves
assumptions that are typical of those used in the majority of available analyses of turbulent
natural convection.
This analysis is based on the use of the momentum and energy integral equations
which for natural convective flow over a vertical plate are:

d [ (1;

[ar

(8.164)

dx Jo u2dy = ~g Jo (T - Ti)dy - ~
and:

s. [J,~

-et(T - Ti)dy] =

s-.

(8.165)

d x 0 pep
These equations are the same as for forced convection except for the presence of the
integrated buoyancy force term on the right-hand side of Eq. (8.164).
An overbar here will not be used to denote time-averaged values of the variables, all
variables used in the present section being time-averaged.
In using these equations, the forms of the velocity and temperature profiles in the
boundary layei' are assumed. Now, in turbulent forced convective boundary layer flows it
has been found that the velocity profile is well described by:

CHAPTER 8:

Natural Convection 409

(8. 166)
where:
v
7J =

(K 167)

8 being the local boundary layer thickness and u1 being the local free-stream velocity; n
is an integer with a value of near 7.
Equation (8.166) cannot be directly applied to natural convective boundary layer
flows because in such flows the velocity is zero at the outer edge of the boundary layer.
However, Eq. (8.166) should give a good description of the velocity distribution near the
wall. It is therefore assumed that in a turbulent natural convective boundary layer:
U

~ = 1J ii (1 - 1J )2

(8.168)

where u 1 is a characteristic velocity for the near wall flow. It will have a value that is
close to the maximum velocity in the boundary layer. Eq. (8.168) satisfies the boundary
conditions:
At y = 0: u = 0 At

y = l>: u = 0 au
At y = l>: .- = 0 ay

and ensures that the velocity distribution near the wall (i.e .. for small values of 1J) is
effectively described by Eq. (8.166).
The form of the temperature profile must also be assumed. It will be assumed that
the velocity and temperature boundary layers have the same thickness, 8. This is a
relatively good assumption in turbulent boundary layer flows. Now, in turbulent forced
convective boundary layer flows it has been found that the temperature profile is well
described by:

(8.169)
where T1 is the free-stream temperature and Tw is the wall temperature. This equation
satisfies the boundary conditions:
At y = 0: T = T; At
y=

8: T = Ti

these boundary conditions applying in both forced and natural convective boundary
layer flows. Eq.~.169) is really only expected to describe the temperature distribution
near the wall in natural convective flows but because it does satisfy the boundary
conditiens it will be assumed here to apply over the whole boundary layer.

410 Introduction to Convective Heat Transfer Analysis

Now, Eqs. (8.164) and (8.165) can be written as:

l

[ f I ( u )2

d{
dx\uf8

])

Jo~ d71 ={3g(Tw-tf1)0J

(T

- T1

t:

T. .... -Ti d71-; (8.170)

and:
(8.171)

If the following are then defined:

Ii =

(u

)(

T - T1 )

f,

01 (

:J

d11 =

(8.172)

01 .,, l (l - .,, )4

(8.1i3)

d.,,
1

(T-T
il
71i(l - TJ) (1 - TJ1i)d71
1

(8.174)

/3 = - dTJ =
Ii = dy = (1 - 71i)d71
O Ut T; - T1
O

o Tc T,

r-

The values of these integrals can be determined for any chosen value of n.
as:
With the integrals defined in this way, Eqs. (8.170) and (8.171) can be written

d 2tIi -d (uiu) = /if3g(Tw - Ti)5 - x

and:

'Tw

(8.175)

hdd [ui(Tw - Ti)8] = qw

x

(8.176)
pep

To proceed further, relationships for the wall shear stress,

and the wall heat

transfer rate, qw, must be assumed. It is consistent with the assumption that the flow near
the wall in a turbulent natural convective boundary layer is similar to that in a turbulent
forced convective boundary layer to assume that the expressions for 'Tw and qw that have
been found to apply in forced convection should apply in natural convection. It will
therefore be assumed here that the following apply in a natural convective boundary layer:
Tw

Tw,

0.023

~=---put
(pu181 )0.2S

i.e.:

Tw =

0.023 P0.1Su~75 . 0.25

and that:

q,,,,8

ur; - Ti) = 0.023p,c>-JJ

(p:.S

(8.177)

CHAPTER 8:

Natural Convection 411

i.e.:
(8.178)
it being assumed here that the characteristic forced velocity in these equations is the
same as that used in defining the velocity profile.
Using these equations, Eqs. (8.175) and (8.176) become:
1

0.25 1.75

and:

d2

t,

dx(u10)

Ul

=1 /if3g(Tw - Ti)8 - 0.023 p

o.~
d
~) qw
[ OTp -067 02s
h-d u1( w - T1)u = - .
x
0 23

(8.179)

)
80

.25
(8.180)

>"1

r v (Tw - T1 ~O.lS
pep

These two equations together describe the variations of 8 and u1 An inspection of the
form of these two equations indicates
that
theu1solutions
B=
Rx.
= Sx" are of the form:
(8.181)
This form of solution implies that the boundary layer can be assumed to be turbulent

from the leading edge of the surface, i.e., from x 0, or that xis measured from some
artificial origin.
Substituting Eq. (8.181) into Eqs. (8.179) and (8.180) and equating the indices of x in
the various terms gives:

2s+r-l=r
and:
2s+r-1=1.75s-0.25r
and:

s + r - 1 = 0. 15s - 0.25r
Adding s to both sides of the third equation shows that it is the same as the second
equation. Solving between the first and second equation then gives:

s = 0.5, r = 0. 7

(8.182)

Substituting these results back into the governing equations and rearranging gives:

.
1. 7S Rl, = Jif3g(T w - T1)R - 0.023v025 JtJ.25

s1.1s

and:
SJ.75
0

l.21JSR = o.023p,-

67

25

JtJ.1.5

Solving between these two equations gives:

s = [ 1. 11, + :~f]p,0.61
T1))0.s

(8.183)

[Ps<Tw -

412 Introduction to Convective Heat Tran sf er Analysis

and:

These two equations can be written as:

S = F: [/3g(T11 - Ti 1]05
and:
O.I
v2

(8.186)

R = F2[f3g(Tw -Ti)
where:

]0.5

h
Fi = [
.

and:

(8.187)

1. 711 + l.21}P,.0-67

(8.188)
Combining the results derived above then gives:

F1[/3g(Tw - Ti)]05 x05

U1 =

(8.189)

and:

(8.190)
Therefore, because Eq. (8.178) can be written as:

qwx
It follows that:

ur . _Ti) = o.023p,o.J3(u~xr5 (~)'125

Nu = ..0 023Pr
x

33 1

Fo.15
-Gr0.4
Fo.25

(8.191)
x

The present analysis therefore predicts that in turbulent boundary layer flow over a
vertical surface:
Nux
(8.192)
G~-4 = function(Pr) = A
x

If n is assumed to be 7. the above equation gives for Pr= 0.7:

Nu, = 0.0185Gr~.4

(8.193)

CHAPTER 8:

Natura) Convection 413

The mean heat transfer rate for a plate of length, L. can be obtained by noting that:

Hence. using Eq. (8.192):

fL[
Gr0.4
qw = L Jo -k(Tw - Ti)A-:- J d x
I

i.e.:

q;L

(T w - Ti )k = 1.2 Gr2.4
where GrL is the Grashof number based on the plate length. L. The mean Nusselt number
for the whole plate, Nui( = hlik) is, therefore, given by:
A

(8.194)

=-

1.2
If n is assumed to be 7. the above equation gives for Pr::::::: 0.7:

Nui = 0.0154Gr24

(8.195)

A comparison of Eq. (8.195) with some experimental results is shown in Fig. 8.37.
Quite good agreement will be seen to be obtained.
Turbulent natural convective flows can also be analyzed by numerically solv. ing the
governing equations together with some form of turbulence model. This is

Pr:o.1
100
0

Nu

10
0
1

II

FIGURE8.37
Comparison of measured and
predicted Nusselt number

10 variations for

turbulent

I~+ 7
le+ 8
le+ 9
Ra ( = GrPr) a vertical plate.

le+ 10 le+ 11

le+ 12

natural convective ftow over

414 Introduction to Convective Heat Transfer Analysis

however, hampered by the fact that manv turbulence models do not correctly describe
the effect of the buoyancy forces on the turbulence structure.
Plot the variations of boundary layer thickness, maximum velocity, and local
heat transfer rate along a 10-m high vertical plate which is maintained at a uniform surface
temperature of 50C and exposed to stagnant air at ambient pressure and a temperature of
10C. As-i.me the flow is turbulent from the leading edge.
EXAMPLE s.11.

Solution. The following integrals arise in the approximate solution for turbulent natural
convective boundary layer flow over a flat plate discussed above:

('

Ii=

IJ =

Jo (1-11

11

)d11

fo1 ,.,io - 11) (1 - 11!>d11

2

These integrals are easily evaluated for any chosen value of the index, n. It will here be
assumed that:
n=1
and in this case:
1,

= 0.10972, Ii = 0.125, h = 0.052723

. The following functions of these integrals and of the Prandtl number were also defined
in the analysis:
I
F-

lo.5
2
l -

and:

[
1.711 + l.21JPr'l67

F2 = [~~r-8[1.7/i + l.2/]P-IJ.67rl
l.2hPr'167 .
Ii
Because air flow is being considered it will be assumed that Pr = 0. 7. In this case. using
the values of the integrals given above, the following are obtained:
F1 = 0.72856, F2 = 0.57408
The analysis then gives:
u1

= F1[f3g(T.
. - T1)]

5 x05

qwx
F0.75
kT - T) = 0.023p,.0.33_1 -Gro.4
wl
p<,!.25
2

CHAPTER 8:

Natural Convection 415

The mean air temperature in the boundary layer is:

I
Tm = (50 + lO) = 3ooc 1
At this temperature, air at standard ambient pressure has the following properties: f3 =
2

0.0033 K-1 v = 16 x 10-0 m /s, k = 0.02638 W/m-K

Hence:
Ut =

62

0. 72856(0.0033 X 9.81 X (50 - lQ)]O.S x0

Q.8292x05

1
[

- ( 16 x 1 o- )
0. 7 B - 0.57408 0.0033 x .Sl x (SO_ IO)

a. 7
x - 0.04882x

Q'--~~~~~-'--~~~~~~

5
.x-m

10 FIGURE

E8.lla

0.3 ------~-------...,

0.
2

0-m
0. l

0.0 L--------L------~
5
. 0
x-m

1
0

FIGURE E8.llb

416 Introduction to Convective Heat Transfer Analysis

~0
0
q-Wlm~

10
0

o'--~~~~~....L..-~~~~~~

10 FIGURE ES.Uc

5
x-m

and:
q .. x

0 T"'8 0 75

0.02638 x (50 - 10) ;::::: 0.023 x 0. 7o.33 x . - "'. 56 ,, x 0.0033 x 9.8 l x (50 - 10)x3

i.e.:

0.)74080-.

r.,j

( 16 x 10~6).!

qw ::::: 148.8x02
The variations of ui, S, and qw with x as given by these equations is shown in Figs. ES.11 a, ES. I
I b, and E8. l 1 c respectively.

8.12
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Some of the more commonly used methods of obtaining solutions to problems involving
natural convective flow have been discussed in this chapter. Attention has been given to
laminar natural convective flows over the outside of bodies. to laminar natural convection
through vertical open-ended channels, to laminar natural convection in a rectangular
enclosure, and to turbulent natural convective boundary layer flow; Solutions to the
boundary layer forms of the governing equations and to the full governing equations have
been discussed.

PROBLEMS
8.1. A vertical isospermal flat plate with a surface temperature of 50C is exposed to stag nant
air at 20C and standard ambient pressure. Plot the velocity and temperature profiles.in the
boundary layer at distances of 15, 30, and 45 cm from the leading edge.

CHAPTER 8;

Natural Convection 417

8.2. A 0.3-m vertical plate is maintained at a surface temperature of 65C and is exposed to
stagnant air at a temperature of l5C and standard ambient pressure. Compare the natural
convective heat transfer rate from this plate with that which would result from forcing air
over the plate at a velocity equal to the maximum velocity that occurs in the natural
convective boundary layer.

8.3. Compare the neat-transfer coefficients for laminar forced and free convection over vertical
flat plates. Develop an approximate relation between the Reynolds and Grashof numbers
such that the heat-transfer coefficients for pure forced convection and pure free
convection are equal.

8.4. A 0.2-m square vertical plate is heated to 400C and placed in room air at 25C. Calculate
the heat loss from one side of the plate.
8.S. A vertical plate 10 cm high is immersed in a stagnant fluid. The plate is maintained at a
temperature of 5QC and the fluid temperature is 10C. Determine the average heat
transfer coefficient for this situation if the fluid is:
( i) air at standard atmospheric pressure
(ii) air at 0.01 x standard atmospheric pressure
(iii) water
8.6. Plot the free-convection boundary-layer thickness along a 0.3-m high vertical plate which

socc

is maintained at a uniform surface temperature of

and exposed to stagnant air at
ambient pressure and a temperature of I 0C. Assume the flow remains laminar.
8.7. Using the similarity solution results. derive an expression for the maximum velocity in the
natural convective boundary layer on a vertical flat plate. At what position in the
boundary layer does this maximum velocity occur?

8.8. Two vertical flat plates held at a uniform surface temperature of at 40C are placed in a
tank of water which is at a temperature of 20C. If the plates are 10 cm high. estimate the
minimum spacing between the plates if there is to be no interference between the
boundary layers on the two plates.
8.9. A vertical fl.at plate is maintained at a uniform surface temperature and is exposed to air at
standard ambient pressure. At a distance of IO cm from the leading edge of the plate the
boundary layer thickness is 2 cm. Estimate the thickness of the boundary layer at a
distance of 25 cm from the leading edge. Assume a laminar boundary layer flow.

8.JO. Consider laminar free-convective flow over a vertical flat plate at whose surface the heat
transfer rate per unit area, q....,, is constant. Show that a similarity solution to the twodimensional laminar boundary layer equations can be derived for this case.
8.11. It will be seen from the results given by the similarity solution that the velocities are very
low in natural convective boundary layers in fluids with high Prandtl numbers. In such
circumstances, the inertia terms (i.e., the convective terms) in the momentum equation
are negligible and the boundary layer momentum equation for a vertical surface
effectively is:

.)a2u
(p ay2 + /3g(T - Ti) = O

418 Introduction to Convective Heat Transfer Analysis

i.e .. there is a balance between the buoyancy and the viscous forces. If the following are
assumed:
uxla

Raf- = F'(71)
and:

where:
-n - YR 114 .,

-a
Rax being the Rayleigh number based on xx..t i.e.:
Ra, = fJ g(T - Ti )x3 = Gr xPr Va

the prime. of course, again denotes differentiation with respect to 71, show that the
boundary layer equations give:

+ G = 0 G11
+ ~FG' = 0 4
F'"

with boundary conditions:

At 11 = 0 : F' = 0

At 71 = 0 : F = 0
At 11 = 0: G = I

For large 11 : F' - 0

For large 1J : G - 0
Show from these results that this solution indicates that

Nu, = function(Rax)
i.e . show that at large values of the Prandtl number the local Nusselt number depends
only on the local Rayleigh number and not separately on the Prandtl number and the
local Grashof number.

8.12. A 30-cm high vertical plate has a surface temperature that varies linearly from l 5C at
the lower edge to 45C at the upper edge. This plate is exposed to air at l 5C and
ambient pressure. Use the computer program for natural convective boundary layer flow
to determine how the local heat transfer rate varies with distance up the plate from the
lower edge.
8.13. Use the computer program for two-dimensional laminar free convective flow to find the
Nusselt n~mber variation along a vertical plate whose surface temperature varies in such
a way ~at T w - T,., is equal to IGC over the lower half of the plate and equal to 30"C over
the upper half of the plate.

CHAPTER 8:

Natural Convection 419

8.14. when the density variation with temperature of water is considered. a maximum is fo*nd to
occur near 4C as indicated schematically in the following figure.

Density,
p

0C
4C
Temperature

FIGURE P8.14

Near this point of maximum density, the density is approximately given by:
Pmax - p = A(T - 4)2

where A is a constant. Modify the program for solving the boundary layer equation for
natural convective flow discussed in this text to apply to this situation. In this case
define:
fJ = _T_-_4 Tw -4

T w being the uniform wall temperature which is between 0C and 4C.

8.15. Air flows by natural convection through the channel formed between 2 20-cm high plates
kept at a temperature of 50C. If the distance between the 2 plates is 3 cm and if the
ambient air temperature is 20C. find the rate of heat transfer from the 2 plates to the air
and the mean velocity of the air through the channel.
8.16. Consider the. natural convective flow of air at I 0C though a plane vertical channel with
isothermal walls whose temperature is 40C and whose height is 10 cm. Determine how
the mean heat transfer rate from the heated walls varies with the gap between the walls.
8.17. Consider heat transfer across an air-filled inclined square enclosure with one wall heated
to a uniform temperature and the parallel wall cooled to a uniform temperature with the
remaining two walls being perfectly conducting. The wall temperature and enclosure size
are such that the Rayleigh number based on the enclosure size and on the difference
between the temperatures of the hot and cold walls is I OS. Examine the effect of the
angle of the heated wall to the vertical on the heat transfer rate by numerically solving
the governing equations. Consider angles of inclination to the vertical of between + 60
and -60.
8.18. When the density variation with temperature of water is considered, a maximum is found
to occur near 4C as discussed in Problem 8.14. Near this point of maximum, densitv is
approximately given by:
Pmu - p = A(T - 4)2

420 Introduction to Convective Heat Transfer Analysis

where A is a constant. Modify the. no gram for solving for the natural convective flow in
!

an enclosure to apply to this situation. C1onsider the case of a vertical square enclosure
with perfectly conducting top and bottom walls whose cold wall is at 0C and determine
how the dimensionless hot wall temperature affects the mean Nusselt number. LT se a constant
suitably modified Rayleigh number based on the difference between the temperatures of the
ho: .ind cold walls of io'. Define:

8 = _T_-_..+ TH -Tc
8.19. The discussion of free convective flows given in this chapter has implicitly been concerned
with flows that arise due to the presence of temperature gradients in a fluid acted on by
gravity. Free convective flows can be caused by the presence of temperature gradients in a
fluid acted upon by centrifugal forces. Consider a 5-cm high plane fin kept at a uniform
temperature of 60C and exposed to air at 20C. This fin is part of a rotating electrical
machine and the center of the fin is rotating on a radius of 0.5 mat a speed of 600 rpm.
Estimate the mean heat transfer rate from the plate assuming that the air to which the plate is
exposed is rotating with the machine.

8.20. Plot the variations of boundary layer thickness and local heat transfer rate along a 2-m high
vertical plate which is maintained at a uniform surface temperature of 60C and exposed to
stagnant air at ambient pressure and a temperature of 20C assuming that (i) the fl.ow is
laminar from the leading edge and (ii) the flow is turbulent from the leading edge.

8.21. A vertical isothermal flat plate with a surface temperature of 20C is exposed to stagnant
water at I 0C. Find the distance from the bottom of the plate at which transition to
turbulence can be expected to occur.

8.22. A wide vertical plate 1 m high is immersed in a stagnant air which has a temperature of 30C.

so~c.

The plate is maintained at a uniform temperature of

Plot the variation of average heat
transfer rate from plate with air pressure for air pressures between 0.1 and 10 times standard
atmospheric pressure.

REFERENCES
l. Ede. A.J .. "Advances in Natural Convection", Adi.: Hear Transfer. Vol. ..+. pp. 1-64. 1967.
2. Gebhart, B., Heat Transfer, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1970.
3. Jaluria, Y., Natural Convection Heat and Mass Transfer, Pergamon Press, New York, 1980.
4. Raithby, G.D. and Hollands, K.G.T., "Natural Convection". in Handbook of Heat Transfer
Fundamentals, 2nd ed., Rohsenow, W.M .. Hartnett, J.P .. and Ganie, E.N .. Eds., McGrawHill,
New York. 1985.
5. Gebhart, B .. Jaluria, Y., Mahajan. R.L., and Sarnmakia, B., Buoyancy-Induced Flows and
Transport, Hemisphere Pub1., Washington, DC. 1988.
6. Gray, D.D. and Giorgini. A .. 'The Validity of the Boussinesq Approximation for Liquids and
Gases", ln~d. Heat Mass Transfer, Vol. 19, pp. 545-551, 1976.
7. Lefevre, E.J., "Laminar Free Convection from a Vertical Plane Surface", Proc. Ninth Int.
Conga Appl. Mech., Brussels, Vol. 4, p. 168, 1956.

CHAPTER 9

Combined Convection

9.1
INTRODUCTION
The buoyancy forces that arise as the result of the temperature differences and which
cause the fluid flow in free convection also exist when there is a forced flow. The
effects of these buoyancy forces are, however, usually negligible when there is a forced
flow. In some cases, however, these buoyancy forces do have a significant influence on
the flow and consequently on the heat transfer rate. In such cases, the flow about the
body is a combination or mixture of forced and free convection as indicated in Fig. 9 .1
and such flows are referred to as combined or mixed forced and free (or natural)
convection.
Such combined convective flows are normally associated with low forced velocities. They can occur, for example, in some electronic cooling situations and in some
heat exchangers.

9.2
GOVERNING PARAMETERs
Consider combined convective flow over a series of geometrically identical bodies as
indicated in Fig. 9.2. In such a case, as discussed in Chapter 1, the mean heat transfer
coefficient, h, will depend on:
The conductivity, k, of the fluid with which the body is exchanging heat.
The viscosity~, of the fluid with which the body is exchanging heat.
The specific heat, c P of the fluid with which the body is exchanging heat.
426

CHAPTER 9:

Forced
Flow

Combined Convection 427

Forced Convection

Free Convection

Forced
Aow

Combined Convection

FIGURE9.l
Combined convective flow.

t
"'> Direction of

FIGURE9.2

---

t..,...~ Forced Flow

..

Flow situation considered.

The density, p, of the fluid with which the body is exchanging heat.
The size of the body as specified by some characteristic dimension, t.
The magnitude of the forced fluid velocity, U, relative to the body.
The buoyancyforce parameter, f3 g(T ~ - T f ).
The angle, </J, between the direction of the forced velocity and the direction of the
graviS)' vector, i.e., between the direction of the forced velocity and the direction in
which the buoyancy forces act (see Fig. 9.3).

428 Introduction to Convective Heat Transfer Analysis

~ '

Forced

~tit Flow

Buoyancy

Heated
Body

Forces

~~

~
,

O = : ~1 l0 Opposing Flow

Forced

Flow

FIGURE 9.J
Angle between direction of forced
flow and thar of the buoyancy force.

ip = 0, Assisting Flow

It is assumed, therefore. that:

h = function[k, u,

Cp.

p,

e. u, {3g(Tw - T1), </>]

which can be written as:

(9.1
)
(9.2)

where .f is some function.

There are, thus, nine dimensional variables involved in this type of convection.
As a result. there are five dimensionless variables involved in describing combined
convective heat transfer. Since the angle, </>. is dimensionless, these dimensionless
variables are:
1T1 = !

hU k) = Nu, the Nusselt number .

.

7T2 = (

rr3 =

U (pl l = ( U f h ) = Re, the Reynolds number

{3g(T~- - T0)p2(3/.2 = /3g(T" - T(,)f3/v2 =Gr. the Grashofnumber 1T 4 = {c p J k) =

Pr. the Prandtl number
1T5

<I>

! S = Separation

i
Forced

Flow

r r r r r ,~
,
A~isting Flow

Point

,/

FIGURE9.4
Opposing Flow

Assisting and opposing

combined convective flow.

Therefore. in combined convection. in general

(9.J)

functionuvn, Re, Gr. Pr. <Pl = 0

which can be rewritten as
Nu = functinn(Re. Gr, Pr. dJ)

When the angle cf> is 0, the forced flow is in the same direction JS the buoyancy
forces. In this case. the flow is referred to as "aiding" or assisting" combined
convective flow. When <f> is 180, the forced flow is in the opposite direction to the
buoyancy forces. In this case the flow is referred to as "opposing" combined convective
flow. The flows in these two cases can be very differentparticularly if the flow involves
significant regions of separated flow. In assisting flow, the buoyancy forces tend to
delay the separation. i.e., to move the separation point rearward on the body whereas in
opposing flow they tend to move the separation point forward on the body. This is
illustrated in Fig. 9 .4.
The effect of the flow direction on the flow field in mixed convection is further
illustrated by the experimental results given in Fig. 9.5. This figure essentially shows

Assisting

Horizontal Cross-Flow

Opposing

Forced

FIGURE 9.5
Effect of flow direction on the temperature field around a heated
cylinder. (From Krause, J.R. ... An Interferometric Study of
Mixed Convection from a Horizontal Cylinder to a Cross
Flow of Air", M.E.Sc. Thesis, The University of Western
Ontario. London. Ontario. Canada. 1985. By

430 Introduction to Convective Heat Transfer Analysis

the distribution of the isotherms (lines of constant temperature! near a heated cylinder in
a vertically upward. a vertically downward, apd a horizontal air flow under such
conditions that the buoyancy forces are important. i.e .. in combined convective flow.
For comparison. the isotherms in an effectively forced convective flow are also shown.

9.3
GOVERNING EQUATIONS
Attention will initially be restricted to two-dimensional steady laminar flow. The
Boussinesq assumptions will again be used and, consistent with this assumption,
dissipation effects will be neglected. The governing equations. expressed in Cartesian
coordinates, are then [ 1]:
Continuity:
(9.5)
x-momentum:

au au
u-+v-

ax
y-momentum:

ap

az u )

-p iix + v /ix2 + ay2 + f3g(T - Ti )cos<b

(9.6
)

av

av av u- - _I ap
+vax ay

Energy:

(a2 u
(a2v

a2v)

(9.7)

p Jy +,v ax2 + ay2 + f3g(T - Ti)sin<b

(9.8
)

In these equations, pis the pressure relative to the local ambient pressure and. as
before, q, is the angle between the direction of the forced velocity and the direction of
the buoyancy forces as defined in Fig. 9.3. The x-axis is in the direction of the
undisturbed forced flow.
The boundary layer forms of the governing equations given above can be derived
in the same way as in forced convection. The resultant equations are:

"'au+ av =

ax ay

(9.9)

a2u
au au u- - 1 dp
- - p d x -+- v a y2 + f3 g( T - T 1 ) cos <b
+vax ay
2

st

u ax + v

et ( k

)a T

(9.10)

(9.11)

a y = pc P a y2

where, as in forced convection, d pld x is the pressure gradient in the free-stream which
is imposed on the boundary layer.

CHAPTER 9:

Combined Convection 431

A consideration of the orders of magnitude of the terms in the momentum equation

for boundary layer flow indicates that if u = o(u1 ), where u1 is~ characteristic free-stream
velocity, then the buoyancy force term will be important if:
G = p g(T wr - Ti )cos</>L ul

(9.12)

I
I

is of the order of magnitude, l. Here L is some characteristic dimension of the body

and T wr is a measure of the surface temperature. If G is of a significantly lower order
than one, the buoyancy force term will be negligible and forced convective flow will
exist. On the other hand, if G is of a significantly greater order of magnitude than one,
the buoyancy force effects will predominate and the flow will essentially be free
convective. Hence, combined convective flow exists when:
G = o(l)

(9.13)

G is usually termed the "buoyancy force parameter". It is a form of Richardson

number.
Now it will be noted that:

G = ({3g(Twr - T1)cosct>L3 )(~) = Gr

v2

uiL2

Re2

(9.14)

Therefore, the parameter Gr/ Re2 will be important in determining whether a

boundary layer flow can be treated as a forced convective flow or as a free convective
flow or as a combined convective flow.

9.4
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER FLOW
OVER AN ISOTHERMAL VERTICAL FLAT PLATE
The How situation being considered here is shown in Fig. 9.6.

"t Ti

T
w

=ed 1 ! 1111

Buoyancy
Force If

Tw>T1

T
w

~gFlowlf Plate
Heated

Opposing Flow If
Plate Heated

FIGURE9.6
Flow situation considered.

432 Introduction to Convective Heat Transfer Analysis

Studies of this type of flow r~e described in [2] to [14]. The
governing equations are:

au+ av = 0

ax

(9.15)

ay

au
au
au
u - + v - = 1-' -') ::!:: {3 g( T - T 1)

(9.16)

ax av
av~
st
st ( k )a2T
u ax + v ay = pc P ay2
1

(9.17)

It has been noted that because flow over flat plate is being considered. the pressure
gradient d pld x is 0. The ( +) and ( - ) signs on the buoyancy term refer to assisting and
opposing flow, respectively.
In seeking a solution to the above equations, it seems worth first investigating whether
similarity solutions can be obtained in the same way as in forced convection. Therefore, the
similarity variable used in forced convection. i.e.:

17 = Y

(9.18)

= -Re0

xx

is again introduced and it is assumed that similar velocity and temperature profiles exist in
the boundary layer, i.e., that:
~ = F'(17), T - Ti = H(17)

(9.19)

T - Ti

u1

The prime, of course, again denotes differentiation with respect to TJ.

As in forced convection. it follows from the continuity equation by using the boundary
condition TJ = 0, v = 0 that:

v I ----V-

(9.20)

- = - /-( TJF - F)
U}

2 \' XU1

Substituting this into the momentum equation and using:

(9.21)

aTJ ,,, a11 I ~1

ax = - 2x' a y = - ~ lJ x
gives the following equation:

F'F11
i.e.:

(-!!.) + [!
2x

/v(TJF1 -

F)] F" ~

2V~

x
F

.!._F,,, (~) f3g(T.,., - Ti) H

V7

,,, FF', G H - 0
+-2- x

xv

u1

ui
(9.22)

The primes. of course, denote differentiation with respect to TJ and:

Gx = f3g(Tw - Ti)x u2
I

Grx
- Re;

(9.23)

CHAP1C.R 9:

Combined Convection 433

and, as discussed before. the ( +) and ( - ) signs on the buoyancy term refer to assisting and
opposing flow. respectively.
Similarly. the energy equation gives as in forced convection:

,,

Pr ,

H - +-HF= 0 .
The boundary conditions on these equations are:
When y = 0,

(9.24)

u = 0, i.e .. when 71 = 0, F' = 0 When

y =.O. v = 0, i.e., when TJ =lo, F = O

When y = 0, T = T w i.e., when T/ = 0, H = 1 When y is

(9.25)

large, u ---+ u1, i.e .. when 71 is large, F' ---+ 1 When y is large, T --+ 11 i.e.,

when 11 is large, H

---+ 0

A consideration ofEq. (9.22) shows that because G, is a function of x, similarity

solutions do not exist, i.e., F and H cannot be expressed as functions of TJ alone.
To examine the conditions under which the buoyancy forces can be neglected,
consideration is given to the case where G, is small and the solution differs by only a small
amount from that existing in purely forced convection. If terms of the order of G .r 2 and
higher are neglected because G 1 is small, the solution will have the form:

F = Fo(11) + GxF1 (71) H

(9.26)

= Ho(TJ) + GxH1(71)

(9.27)
Here Fo and Ho are the functions that apply in purely forced convection. Substituting
these equations into Eq. (9.22) then gives, since terms of the order G, 2 are being neglected:

(9.28)
.. But the analysis of forced convective gives:

Fo" + FoFo' = o 2

(9.29)

Hence, Eq. (9.28) gives on canceling the G, in all the remaining terms:

F:"
FoFo'-- FoF{'
FiFo' +- H - 0
I + -2- + -2- + 2 - O -

(9.30)

This equation allows F1 ( 7J) to be found, the boundary conditions being: 1J = 0,

F~ = 0
7J = 0. F1 = 0
1J = 0, Hi = I
TJ large. F { -+ 0
7J large, H1 --+ 0

(9.31)

434 Introduction to Convective Heat Transfer Analysis

Hence, using the known variation of Fo and Ho with 77, Eq. (9.30) can be used to
solve for Fi.
Similarly, substituting Eqs. (9.26) and (9.27) into Eq. (9.24) gives when terms
2
of the order of G, and larger are neglected:
H0 '

F0 H0

H;' G

F1H0 G

FoH{ G _ O

(g )
32

P
--+
-P +--+-- +-- But the forced convection
solution
.r
,,
2 gives:
.r
,,
r
r ..
...
H0' + FoH0 = O
Pr
2

so this equation gives:

n;' + F1Hij + FoH; = 0

Pr

(9.33)

Because Fo(TJ), Ho(TJ), and F1(11) are known, this equation can be used to solve for
H1. The solution will depend on the value of Pr. Once the values of Fi and H1 have
been determined, the heat transfer rate at the wall can be found by applying Fourier's
law which gives:

i.e.:

,G

Nux

,
(9.34)

jRi; = -Ho(O) - xH1(0)

If the buoyancy forces are negligible, this equation gives:

(9.35)

N'::!_ = - H (0)
0

JRex
NuxF being the local Nusselt number in forced convection.
Dividing the above two equations then gives:
(9.36)

Nux = 1 + H{(O) G
NuxF
H0(0) .r
where Nu, is the local Nusselt number in the actual combined convective flow.
Similarly, the wall shear stress is given by:

au I
i.e.:

Tw =

/I

II

0 ../Rex

= uu, Fo ( ) + GxF1 ( )]--

ay ly=O

(9.37)

CHAP1ER

9: Combined Convection 435

If the buoyancy forces are negligible, this gives:

TwF

jii;;

= F(/(O)

puf
TwF being

the local wall shear stress in forced convection.

Dividing the above two equations then gives:
Tw =
rwF

(9.38)

l + Fi'(O) G
F0'(0) x

where Tw is the actual local wall shear stress in the combined convective flow.
A "shooting" technique can be used in solving Eq. (9.30), it being assumed that the
functions Fo and Ho are known. Basically, a type of iterative solution procedure is used
in which the value of Fi'(O) is guessed and the value of F~ at large 11 is then calculated

Fi

by numerically integrating Eq. (9.30). The value of Fi'(O) that gives = 0 at large 71 is
then iteratively determined. Once F1(TJ) is found in this way, Eq. (9.33) can be
integrated to give H1(71) and the value of H~(O) can then be determined. The solution
depends on the value of the Prandtl number, Pr. A computer program, SIMPLCOM,
that implements this procedure in a very simple, basic manner is available as discussed
in the Preface and some results given by this program are given in Fig. 9. 7.
A consideration of the results given in Fig. 9. 7 in conjunction with Eqs. (9 .35) and
(9.36) shows that the buoyancy forces increase the heat transfer rate and wall shear
stress in assisting flow and decrease these quantities in opposing flow. If it is assumed
that the effect of the buoyancy forces on the heat transfer rate can be neglected, i.e., that
the flow can be assumed to be a purely forced convective flow, when:

Nu:x _ i I < 0.01

Nu:xF
.

2
Hj(O)/H(/0)

o
0.1

FIGURE 9.7
l
Pr

10

Variation of H;(O)IH(,(0) and F;'(O)/Fo'(O)

with Prandtl number.

436 Introduction to Convective Heat Transfer Analysis

it will be seen that, according to Eq. (9.35), purely forced convection will exist if:
(9.39)
Air at a temperature of 20C flows up v vard O\Cf J wide vertical HJ-cm high flat
plate which is maintained at a uniform surface temperature of b0C. Below what velocity will
the buoyancy forces have an effect on the heat transfer rate at the trailing edge of the plate?
Ex AMPLE 9.1.

Solution. Here, the buoyancy forces will act in the same diection as the forced flow, i.e.,
assisting flow will exist. In this case. buoyancy force effects on the heat transfer rate will be
important if:

0.01
x > !H~(O)/HO(O)j

For air for which Pr = 0. 7, ttie solution discussed above gives:

Hence, in this case, buoyancy force effects will be important if:

0.0
1
0.8

i.e.:

c,

>

o, > 0.0125
Now. for a vertical plate

At the trailing edge, i.e .. the uppermost edge of the plate. .r = 10 cm = 0.1 m.
Hence, buoyancy forces will be important at the trailing edge if:
f3 '?<T.,.. ~ Ti)O. I > 0.0125
ul

i.e., if:

uf < fJg(T..., - Tt)0.1 0.0125

The mean air temperature in the boundary layer is:

= 40C
At this temperature:

fJ

= 273 + 40 = 313

I K-1