Theoretical and

Actual Combustion
Process

ME372
Instructor: Jesse Adams
March 27, 2001
By: Chun Lee

Introduction
What a simplified world it would be if everything ran according to how it
theoretically should all of the time. But unfortunately the combustion of a fuel does not
always combust like it theoretically should on paper.

There are many factors that

influence these results and some ways in which we can overcome these factors to produce
the theoretical result. Understanding the way certain fuels combust, knowing what the
result of the combustion will be, and being able to calculate the amount of products you
get out of the combustion has become very important in many aspects of mechanical
engineering. Many new inventions and ideas are developed from the knowledge of this
information. These inventions and ideas can be very useful since fuel combustion is
involved in peoples everyday lives; everything from airplanes to automobiles uses a type
of combustion of different types of fuels.

Complete & Incomplete Combustion

The main difference between the theoretical and actual combustion of fuel is that
in a theoretical combustion process the process is complete, while in an actual
combustion process the process is incomplete. A complete process means that all of the
combustible components of a fuel are burned to completion as seen in the following
example1:
C2H6 +

9
O2 2CO2 + 3H2O +O2
2

In an incomplete process the combustion products contains unburned fuel or components

such as carbon, di-hydrogen, CO, and OH1:
C2H6 + 5O2 2CO2 + 2H2O +O2 + 2OH

Reasons for Incompletion

There are many contributing reasons to why a combustion process becomes
incomplete in an actual case. One of the easiest reasons to see is that a lack of
oxygen leaves some of the fuel left unburned.

But also incompletion can be

attributed to insufficient mixing in the combustion chamber due to the short time
intervals in which these combustions are occurring. Another cause for incompletion
is because of a process called hydrogen
bonding. Hydrogen bonding is a process
in which chemical bonds form between
molecules containing a hydrogen atom
bonded to a strongly electronegative
atom (an atom that attracts electrons).
Because the electronegative atom pulls
the electron from the hydrogen atom, the
atoms form a very polar molecule,
meaning

one

end

is

negatively

charged and the other end is

positively charged. Hydrogen bonds

Figure 1: Picture showing liquid oxygen being

run through a magnetic field, showing its
electronegativity

form between these molecules because the negative ends of the molecules are
attracted to the positive ends of other molecules, and vice versa2. In combustion

process oxygen would be the electronegative atom since it needs 2 electrons to gain
an octet in its outer electron orbit.
Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry is a basic theoretical analyzation process in which the assumption
is made that the minimum amount of air is needed for the complete combustion of the
fuel being analyzed, which is also known as theoretical air. When the assumption is
made that the fuel is burned with theoretical air, it means that the process is complete or
chemically correct and that there are no uncombined oxygen atoms present in the
resultant gas.
Stoichiometry is one of the most widely used methods for determining the
empirical formula of an unknown compound. Most widely used for compounds that
contains carbon. In combustion analysis, an accurately known mass of a compound is
burned in a stream of oxygen gas. All of the carbon in the sample is converted to carbon
dioxide and all of the hydrogen is converted to water. The most important feature in this
analysis is that atoms of each element involved in the reaction are conserved.
Every carbon atom in the original sample ends up in a CO2 molecule
Every hydrogen atom in the original sample ends up in an H2O molecule
Remember: all the mass of the original sample must be accounted for.
Heres an example of problem that uses Stoichiometry to find out what the theoretical
amount of products that the combustion reaction gives off, so that one can design an
combustion engine that can get rid of or reuse these products3:
One kmol of octane (C8H18) is burned with air that contains 20 kmol of O2.
Assuming the products contain only CO2, H2O, O2, and N2, determine the mole
number of each gas in the products and the air-furl ratio for this combustion
process.

Solution:
The amount of fuel and the amount of oxygen in the air are given. The amount
of the products and the AF is to be determined.
Assumptions

The combustion products contain CO2, H2O, O2, and N2 only.

Analysis
written as:

The chemical equation for this combustion process can be

C8H18 + 20(O2 + 3.76 N2) xCO2 + yH2O + zO2 + wN2

Where the terms in the parentheses represent the composition of dry air that
contains 1 kmol of O2 and x,y,z, and w represent the unknown mole numbers of
the gases in the products. These unknowns are determined by applying the mass
balance to each of the elements that is, by requiring that the total mass or mole
number of each element in the reactants be equal to that in the products.
C:

8=x

x=8

H:

18 = 2y

y=9

O:

40 = 2x + y +2z

z = 7.5

N 2:

(20)(3.76) = w

w = 75.2

Substituting yields
C8H18 + 20(O2 + 3.76 N2) 8CO2 + 9H2O + 7.5O2 + 75.2N2
Note that the coefficient 20 in the balanced equation above represents the
number of moles of oxygen not the number of moles of air. The latter is
obtained by adding 20 X 3.76 = 75.2 moles of nitrogen to the 20 moles of
oxygen, giving a total of 95.2 moles of air. The air-fuel ration (AF) is
determined by taking the ratio of the mass of the air and the mass of the fuel

AF =

Mair
( NM )air
(20 4.76kmol )(29kg / kmol )
=
=
MFuel ( NM )c + ( NM ) H 2 (8kmol )(12kg / kmol ) + (9kmol )(2kg / kmol )
= 24.2 kg air/kg fuel

That is 24.2 kg of air is used to burn each kilogram of fuel during this
combustion process.

Actual Combustion Process

In actual processes its common to use an excess amount of oxygen in the process
to increase the likely hood that all of the fuels in the combustion chamber combusts and
yields a theoretical stoichiometric amount.

The amount of air in excess is usually

expressed as percent excess air or percent theoretical air; for example two hundred

percent excess air is equal to three hundred percent of theoretical error. Heres an
example of solving an excess air problem, so that it allows a person to analyze the
amount of products that the reaction gives4:
Ethane (C2H6) is burned with 20 percent excess air during a combustion process.
Assuming complete combustion and a total pressure of 100kPa, determine (a) the air-fuel
ratio and (b) the dew-point temperature of the products.
Solution The fuel burned completely with excess air and thus the products will contain
CO2, H2O, N2, and some excess O2 only. The AF and the dew point of the products are to
be determined.
Assumptions
gases.

1 Combustion process is complete.

2 Combustion gases are ideal

Analysis The combustion equation in this case can be written as:

C2H6 + 1.2ath(O2 +3.76N2) 2CO2 + 3H2O + 0.2athO2 + (1.2 X 3.76 )athN2
where ath is the stoichiometric coefficient for air. We have automatically accounted for
the 20 percent excess air by using the factor 1.2 ath instead of ath for air. The
stoichiometric amount of oxygen (athO2) will be used to oxidize the fuel, and the
remaining excess amount (0.2athO2) will appear in the products as unused oxygen.
Notice that the coefficient of N2 is the same on both sides of the equation. You will also
notice that we did the C and H2 balance in our heads as we wrote the combustion
equation because it is so obvious. The coefficient ath is determined from the O2 balance
to be:
1.2 ath = 2 + 1.5 + 0.2 ath ath = 3.5

O 2:
Substituting gives:

C2H6 + 4.2(O2 + 3.76N2) 2CO2 + 3H2O + 0.7O2 + 15.79N2

(a) The air-fuel ratio is determined from Eq. 14-3 by taking the ratio of the mass of the air to
the mass of the fuel,

AF =

M air
M

fuel

(4.2 4.76kmol )(29kg / kmol )

(2kmol )(12kg / kmol ) + (3kmol )(2kg / kmol )

=19.3 kg air/kg fuel

That is, 19.3 kg of air is supplied for each kilogram of fuel during this combustion
process.
(b) The dew-point temperature of the products is the temperature at which the water vapor in
the products starts to condense as the products are cooled. You will recall from chapter
13 that the dew-point temperature of a gas-vapor mixture is the saturation temperature of

the water vapor corresponding to its partial pressure. Therefore, we need to determine
the partial pressure of the water vapor Pv in the products first. Assuming ideal-gas
behavior for the combustion gases, we have:

Pv = (

Nv
3kmol
)( Pprod ) =
(100kPa) = 13.96kPa
N prod
21.49kmol

Thus, Tdp = Tsat @ 13.96 kPa = 52.3C (using Table A-5)

Part B in the above example is very important because it allows an engineer to

know what temperature dew starts to form, so that he/she can know what
temperature to avoid when designing the engine.
Another way to try and increase the likelihood that an actual process
yields the same amount of product as the theoretical process is to control the
temperature in which the reaction
occurs

at.

An

increase

in

temperature increases the rate of

reaction of the combustion. This is

k (J)

due to the kinetic molecular theory

T (K)

of gases, which says that an increase

in

temperature

molecular

increases

velocities

and

the

Figure 2: Plot showing the exponential dependence of

the rate constant on absolute temperature

the

frequency of intermolecular collisions, which makes the rate constant increase

exponentially like figure 35. The greater the number of collisions gives a greater
likelihood that all of the reactants in the process will react and form their
theoretical results. But the increase in temperature causes a rise in the final
temperature compared with the same reaction done at a lower temperature since
the final temperature attained depends on the rate of release and dissipation of the
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energy and the quantity of combustion products, all of which are increased with a
heated combustion reaction.
Theres times when increasing the temperature of the reaction is not feasible, due
to costs or the surroundings of the combustion process, so a new way of trying to increase
the products of the reactants is to add a catalyst to the reactants of the combustion
process. A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a reaction without being consumed in
the reaction. The catalyst provides a
new pathway for the reaction to
go, one with lower activation of
energy, which allows for a much
larger fraction of collisions to occur
at a regular temperature.

The

activation of energy is just the

threshold

energy

that

must

be

overcome to produce any chemical

reaction. Such a process is used in
an automobiles catalytic converter. A

Figure 3: Inside diagram of an automotive

catalytic converter

catalytic converter is a device incorporated into the exhaust system of an automobile that
reduces the amount of pollutants in the exhausts gases. A catalytic converter contains
small beads that are coated with metals, such as palladium and platinum. When exhaust
gases pass through the catalytic converter, these metals act as catalysts, encouraging
chemical reactions that change pollutants, such as carbon monoxide and certain
hydrocarbons, into less harmful carbon dioxide and water6.

All three of these processes are great in getting a reaction that will give you
products that are close to the predicted result in quantity. But in an actual combustion
process, its close to impossible to have a combustion yield the predicted result from a
mass balance. To gain a better knowledge of the amount of products produced, the actual
process must be analyzed. One device that is commonly used to analyze the composition
of combustion gases is the Orsat gas analyzer (Figure 5). The device words by collecting
a sample of the combustion gases and cooling it to room temperature and pressure, at
which point its volume is measured. Then the
sample is mixed with a chemical that absorbs
the CO2. The remaining gases are returned to
the room temperature and pressure, and the new
volume they occupy is measured again. The
ratio of the reduction in volume to the original

Figure 4: An Orsat Gas Analyzer7

volume is the volume fraction of the CO2, which is equivalent to the mole fraction if
ideal-gas behavior is assumed. The volume fractions of the other gases are determined
by repeating this procedure using different chemicals that absorbs different elements of
the product. The whole entire analysis of the combustion process is done over water and
is maintained saturated at all times, inside a sealed container, which means that the vapor
pressure of water remains the same during the entire test. Because of this reason, the
presence of water vapor in the test chamber is ignored and data is reported on a dry
basis8.
Applications

Many of todays applications require a theoretical and actual analysis of its

combustion process, since many things involved in peoples lives involves some type of
combustion. Because of the critical role of combustion in the production of power, a
great deal of research effort is devoted to finding ways to burn fuels more efficiently.
Researchers also seek to reduce the pollutants released by combustion, since these
products contribute greatly to environmental problems such as acid rain. Scientists at
combustion laboratories use sophisticated laser probes to study boilers and engine
systems in operation, in order to discover sites of fuel wastes and to improve the design
of these fuel-burning systems.
There is a great amount of competition in researching and engineering among the
automotive companies in the world on making the actual combustion process of
automobiles close to the theoretical process, so that they can get more output from
engines that they are currently using.

Everything from the beginning to the end of the

combustion process is being researched, refined, and redesign to make it more efficient
and environmentally friendly. Theres a tremendous emphasis on finding new ways to
increase the percent excess air in the reactant part of the process. Extra intake valves
and/or bigger ones, as well as installing camshafts with more lift are being added to the
newer engines to increase the excess air. A lot of newer engines are designed with a
higher temperature so that the process takes place at higher temperatures. A great
example of engineers accomplishing this task is the motor that was used on Chryslers
1999 and later Jeep Grand Cherokees. The 1998 models used a 4.9 liter engine which
was able to output 145 horsepower, while the 1999 models used a 4.7 liter engine which
was able to output 160 horsepower, despite being smaller than its counterpart by .2 liters.

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This accomplishment was due to engineers being able to increase the regular temperature
that the engine runs at and increasing the size of the intake and exhaust valves. Theres
also new research going into designing engines that utilize gases other than gasoline, such
as hydrogen and methanol.

Another part of the automobile combustion process that is

being closely researched is the products of the process; this is mainly due to new
governmental regulations that are slowly being put into law requiring automakers to
make their new vehicles produce less pollutants.
Recent electrical shortages have introduced a lot of new and exciting research into
increasing the efficiency of combustion turbines in power plants.

The top thermal

efficiency of combustion turbines is usually around 40%. New ways of combining cycles
to increase greater percent excess air and hotter reaction temperatures have increased the
thermal efficiency to around 60%, and the percentage is continually being increased with
new research. In a combined-cycle power plant, the considerable heat remaining in the
gas turbine exhaust is directed to a boiler called a heat-recovery steam generator. The
heat thats recovered is used to raise steam for an associated steam turbine9.
Conclusion
The analysis of the combustion process has become a very important part of
engineering. A lot of research is going into finding new ways on how to make the actual
process a lot like the theoretical process in products and the amount of these products.
New technologies evolve from these researches. These new technologies involve adding
excess air into the reaction, heating the reaction up, adding an oxidizing agent, and/or

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changing the reactants all together.

Everything in peoples every day lives will be

affected by the new engineering evolved from all this research.

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Works Cited
1. Chemical Energy. pg. 342-343 Zumdahl, Steven S. Chemical Principles,
Third Edition Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1998
2. Hydrogen Bonding. Microsoft Encarta 1999, Microsoft Corporation
3. Example 14-1. pg. 766 Cengel, Yunus and Michael Boles.
Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach Hightstown: McGraw Hill,
1998.
4. Example 14-2. pg. 768-769 Cengel, Yunus and Michael Boles.
Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach Hightstown: McGraw Hill,
1998.
5. A Model for Chemical Kinectics. pg. 702-703 Zumdahl, Steven S.
Chemical Principles, Third Edition Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company,
1998
6. Catalytic Converter.
http://www.sciam.com/2000/0200issue/0200working.html
7. Orsat Gas Analyzer. http://www.gow-mac.com/ie/ser23-pic.asp?loc=1
8. Theoretical and Actual Combustion Process. pg. 768 Cengel, Yunus and
Michael Boles. Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach Hightstown:
McGraw Hill, 1998.
9. Combustion Turbine. Microsoft Encarta 1999, Microsoft Corporation

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