182

IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insula tion

Vol. 8 No. 2, April 2001

FRP Rods for Brittle Fracture Resistant

Composite Insulators
M. Kuhl
CeramTec AG
Wunsiedel, Germany

ABSTRACT
Brittle fracture of fiberglas reinforced polymer (FRP) rods can lead to mechanical failures of
composite insulators even at low mechanical loads during operational service. Although this
fact has been known for 20 years, it may still be a problem in some designs of composite
insulators at the present time. In order to find countermeasures against brittle fracture, a study
was carried out in the early eighties. It turned out that brittle fracture is a problem of FRP
material and that material compositions exist, resistant to brittle fracture. A brittle fracture
resistant FRP rod introduced 1983in one particular design of composite insulators resulted in
a 15 year excellent service performance. This study deals with details of brittle fracture of FRP
rods. Test setups were established to induce brittle fracture artificially It was realized that
brittle fracture is some kind of stress corrosion related to the composition of the FRP material.
A broad variety of FRP materials was evaluated, showing the influence of the components of
FRP material on the brittle fracture behavior of FRP rods as well as the effects of different
manufacturing processes. The compositions of brittle fracture resistant FRP rods are disclosed.
The results from artificial testing are compared with brittle fracture of FRP rods that occurred
in composite insulators in operational service. Although no quantitative correlation could be
established, the trend concerning the material behavior of FRP rods is similar.

1 INTRODUCTION

led to elastomeric housing materials such as silicone rubber and ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) rubber and to better interfaces
OMPOSITE insulators consist of a glass fiber reinforced plastic rod between the different materials of the composite components. New de(FRP rod), a shed housing made of polymeric material covering the veloped test standards [7,8] are the tools to check the integrity of the
FRP rod and metal end fittings attached to the ends of the FRP rod. The composite structure.
housing protects the FRP rod from weathering and supplies the necNo broadly accepted test exists so far to check the composite strucessary creepage distance. This composite structure consists of several ture regarding brittle fracture of the FRP rod. This may be based on
interfaces which have to be designed and manufactured properly in or- the fact that brittle fracture occurred on a small number of insulators
der to avoid ingress of moisture, and pollutants from the surrounding under operational service conditions in comparison to the big number
environment into the interior of the composite structure. Laboratory of installed composite insulators. In spite of this fact, a mechanical
tests carried out more than two decades ago revealed some typical elec- failure of an overhead transmission insulator may cause line dropping
trical and mechanical failures of composite insulators of early designs which results in an outage of the transmission line. Aging of composite
[l].However, in the late seventies a new kind of mechanical failure oc- insulators, and in particular, aging of the interfaces of the composite
curred on FRP rods of composite insulators installed in HV lines [Z-51, structure, may be one of the reasons for the infrequent occurrence of
never seen before during laboratory testing. This kind of mechanical brittle fracture. Manufacturing defects on a small number of insulators
failure is called 'brittle fracture' of a FRP rod due to the unusual fracture may contribute to the failures as well as specific environments. These
pattern of the fracture area of the concerned FRP rods. The failures oc- conditions cannot be simulated in a design test performed on a small
curred at very low nominal operational mechanical service loads [3,4]. number of test specimens. The only possibility to eliminate brittle fracThe outer features of the fracture areas are characterized by a razor cut ture of composite insulators at all was considered by using a brittle
fracture surface running perpendicular to the axis of the FRP rod [6]. In fracture resistant FRP rod as member of the composite structure. The
those days it was thought that brittle fracture was initiated by ingress of result of this study has led to such a rod. It was introduced in the manchemicals such as dilute acids into the composite structure [Z, 4/51, The ufacturing of composite insulators consisting of a housing made of high
improvements carried out on composite insulators in the last decades temperature vulcanized (HTV) silicone rubber in 1983. Such insulators

1070-9878111 $3.00 02001 IEEE

IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation

have been manufactured in large quantities during the last 15 years.
The number of brittle fractures from those insulators is zero.

Vol.8 No.2, April 2001

183

the composite material. More reproducible results were obtained from

It is interesting to note that for several designs of other composite

insulator types brittle fracture is still a current problem [9-121. Most of
the concerned insulators failed in the USA because there is the largest
market for composite insulators [HI.
Brittle fractures on FRP rods can be traced to stress corrosion of Eglass (electrical grade) filaments. Stress corrosion involves an ion exchange mechanism. Sodium ions with a large ion radius are replaced
by hydrogen ions with small radius, resulting in an increase of stress
in the glass surface of the filaments [13]. E-glass filaments build up spiral flaws on their surfaces after immersion in diluted acids [6,14,15].
The flaws in the filaments initiate the failure of the composite material
which can be described by the mechanism of fracture mechanics [16].
In order to improve the brittleness of FRP material, several measures
were proposed. Gel coats can be applied on the surface. The correct
choice of the matrix resin as well as the use of an acid resistant glass
composition for the glass filaments may be successful [17,18].

2 EXPERIMENTAL
All HV insulators under operational service conditions are stressed
frequently by electrical surface discharges when the surfaces of the insulators are polluted and humidity penetrates the pollution. Already
Cavendish found in 1784 the generation of nitric oxides and nitric acid
by using electrical discharges in nitrogen and oxygen, while Birkeland
and Eyde found an industrial process proposed in 1905 for generating
nitric acid by using electrical discharges in humid air [19]. It was very
likely to assume that the electrical discharges on HV devices may also
generate nitric oxides and derivatives such as nitric acid. In order to
show that nitric acid can be generated from power frequency voltage in
presence of air and humidity, a device according to Figure 1 was built.
The electrical discharge was carried out at 25 kV,,, (50 Hz). Distilled
water was fed through the filter paper wrapped around the energized
electrode at a flow rate of 10 cm3/h. After a time span of 1 h the content of the water collector had a pH value of 2.9, and 2.52 mg nitrogen
was measured. More evidence for the presence of nitric acid and nitric oxides and their derivatives were found on the surfaces of polluted
insulators from experiments and tests. 110 kV silicone composite insulators showed 4 to 5% nitrogen in the pollution after 5 yr service. Salt
was taken from the surface of a silicone composite insulator after passing the 1000 h salt fog test described in [7]. The nitrogen content in
the salt amounted to 2.5%. A huge pollution content of nitrogen was
reported from dc insulators on the pacific coast of California [20]. The
authors of [20] considered that the nitrogen in the pollution could be
traced back to agricultural products and fertilizers.
Mechanical failures of test specimens from stress corrosion implies
the presence of two components, mechanical stress and simultaneous
application of an environmental medium such as nitric acid. To check
FRP rods concerning their stress resistance corrosion, some have suggested the use of bending stress. Experiments carried out by the author
under bending stress showed that after crack initiation, delamination
occurred lengthwise in FRP rods to different extents. The acid can run
out and the stress cannot be held constant due to the delamination in

Water flowrate 10cm3/h

Result. 2.52mg N/h

pH 2.9

Figure 1. Device for generating nitric acid at power frequency voltage 25 kV,50 Hz. 1: steel bar, 2: supporter, 3: insulated copper wire 1.5
mm diameter, 4: filter paper wrapped around, 5: holder (acrylic glass),
6: PVC tube OD 63 mm, ID 51 mm, 7: silver paint (ground electrode),
8: water supply (de-ionized water), 9: acid collector.

test specimens loaded under tension. The test arrangement for testing
FRP rods under tensile loads is shown in Figure 2. The arrangement
has the advantage that assembled FRP rods can be evaluated. FRP rods
clamped into the interior of the end fittings may undergo higher mechanical stresses in the end fittings as can be expected for the free length
of the rods between the end fittings. In this way the influence of the
stress in the end fittings can be estimated. Diluted nitric acid of 1 n
HN03 were chosen for simultaneous application of the environmental
medium (1n is 63 g concentrated HN03 added to 937 g water).

Figure 2. Test arrangement for the evaluation of brittleness of FRP

rods (tensile load and 1 n HN03, simultaneously). Procedure I End
fittings under acid. Procedure I1 Infusion of HN03.Procedure 111Acid
on the free rod length.

Experiments with the three test arrangements shown in Figure 2

resulted in rejecting Procedure I because the acid attacked the metal
of the end fittings in such a way that the acidity suffered and led to
unreliable test results. The best reproduction of test results could be

Kuhl: FRP Rods for Composite Insulators

184

Epoxy resins and hardeners used to manufacture the test

specimens.

Table 1.

Trade name
Araldite F
Ruetapox 0164
Lekutherm X18
D. E. R. 331
Lekutherm XlOO
Ruetapox HX
Araldite 907
Araldite 905
1102
Vers. Prod.1102
4,4 MDA Araldite 972
DDS
Araldite 976
Araldite 906
MNA
EH 640 Versamid EH 640

Type
F
0164
X18
331
XlOO
MTHPA
HHPA
PSA mixt

setup indicating hours, minutes and seconds. The tests were carried
out indoors at room temperature.

sample

Figure 3. Test setup to cause artificial brittle fractures on assembled

obtained with Procedure 111, because there is no metal involved in the
FRP
rods.
chemical stability of the diluted acid.
To manufacture FRP rods for this study, two manufacturing meth3 FEATURES OF BRITTLE
ods were used. For variation of different glass fibers a discontinuous
FRACTURE
manufacturing procedure has been established. The glass fibers were
wound up on a rotating wooden sheet forming loops of glass rovings
The first brittle fracture on a 420 kV silicone rubber insulator ocof a predetermined number. The loops were impregnated with heated curred in 1978 [5] on a 24 mm FRP rod assembled with end fittings with
resin mixture in a tub and then pulled in steel tubes for crosslinking at a wide cleavage (Figure 4). The sealing of the end fitting was opened,
elevated temperatures. For the variation of different resin mixtures, a so that chemicals could enter the interior of the end fitting.
continuous protrusion process was used. In this process it was simple
to replace a resin mixture by another mixture. The glass content of the
FRP rods from both manufacturing procedures amounted to 63 to 69% of
weight and the mechanical properties of the rods from both procedures
were most equal when the same components were used. All FRP rods
were manufactured from an epoxy matrix resin because epoxy resin is
the best resin for FRP rods used in HV application due to their excellent
mechanical and electrical properties, although remarkable differences
exist within epoxies. The resin mixtures were prepared in ratios given
by the manufacturer of the resin mixtures. The curing state of the test
specimens concerned a curing state at 130C for 10 h, when no other
treatment is mentioned.
Table 1 lists the applied epoxy resins and hardeners. The resins F,
0164 and 331 are aromatic diglycidylether (bisphenol A base) with an
Figure 4. Brittle fracture of a 420 kV silicone rubber suspension inepoxy equivalent of 190. X18 is a distilled version of the epoxy resin
sulator after 3 yr of service.
mentioned before (high purity), XlOO is a cycloaliphatic diglycidylester
(HHPA base) with an epoxy equivalent of 185. The hardeners MTHPA,
The broken insulator was part of a double suspension insulator
PSA mixt, 1102 and MNA are liquid at room temperature. The harden- string. The parallel insulator held the line and was brought down for
ers HHPA, 4.4 MDA and DDS are solid at room temperature. Hardener evaluation purposes. Mechanical tests carried out on this insulator reEH 640 is a 4.4 MDA diluted in 30% glycolene.
sulted in no reduction of the ultimate tensile load. Brittle fracture can be
The glass fibers used consisted of either assembled or direct rovings simulated by means of test Procedure I1 (Figure 2). Both fractures, the
in 2400 or 4800 g/km. They were supplied from the companies Silenka, natural brittle fracture (Figure 4) as well as the artificial brittle fracture
PPG (Pittsburgh), OCF (Owens Corning), Bayer AG, Ahlstrom, Norsk (Figure 5 ) show fracture surfaces arranged perpendicular to the axis
(Norsk Fiberglass), Vitrofil S.p.A., Gevetex (Stratifil), and were used as of the FRP rods and characteristic patterns of stress corrosion fractures
delivered.
which cannot be simulated any other way.
Several tests performed with cyclic loads on test specimens without
All test specimens were tested under constant static load as shown
in Figure 3. After loading diluted nitric acid of a concentration of 1 n simultaneous application of acid resulted in different fracture patterns.
was applied immediately and the time to break was recorded by an Hence, they were obtained by much higher loads and required longer
electrical clock connected via movement of the lever arm of the test times to failure than necessary for stress corrosion failure.

IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation

Vol. 8 No. 2, April 2001

I85

For composite insulators in HV transmission lines, much higher stress

100

10

Figure 5. Brittle fracture of a test specimen according to test Proce-

iooooa

io000

1000

Breaking Time [minutes]

dure 11.

The experience with brittle fracture of silicone insulators showed

that in every case failure of the sealing between the housing and at
least one of the end fittings was involved. Brittle fractures on the free
length of the FRP rod had never been found for this particular insulator
design. Tests carried out on test specimen with and without silicone
sheath according to Figure 2, test Procedure 111, found that artificial
brittle fractures of the FRP rods can be obtained only from naked rods.

4
4.1

ARTIFICIAL BRITTLE
FRACTURES
INFLUENCE OF NOMINAL
TENSILE STRESS

The results shown in this study refer to nominal tensile stresses.

They are defined as those tensile stresses calculated from the applied
static tensile load divided by the unloaded cross section of the FRP rod.
This also is applicable for the end fittings; however, it is a stress indication only and does not specify any real stresses quantitatively.
The general characteristics of brittle fracture of FRP rods obtained
from nominal tensile stress and simultaneous application of 1 n nitric
acid is shown in Figure 6.
These results were obtained from 24 mm rods made of E-glass in
postcured condition (180C for 16 h). In Figure 6 curve 1 envelops the
most resistant E-glass composition (glass type OCF 859/resin type BAY
XlOO/HHPA) and curve 2 envelops one of the most susceptible E-glass
composition (glass type Silenka/resin type BAK/MTHPA).Both curves
represent artificial brittle fractures obtained from the free length of FRP
rods. Curve 3 envelops failures of FRP rods within end fittings designed
as wide cleavage of the cone wedge type. It can be seen that the stress
caused by end fittings can lead to a drastic reduction of the time to
failure (FRP composition from curve 2). The section between curves 1
and 2 also represents the load time characteristics of all evaluated FRP
rods from 16 to 37 mm made of E-glass. It can be seen that considerable
differences exist regarding the brittleness of FRP rods made of E-glass
caused by stress corrosion. For all FRP rods made of E-glass, a load level
exists indicating that at loads below this level brittle fracture does not
occur. For the free length of the rods, the level may exist at 60 MPa and
for the rod ends at 15 MPa under the above described test parameters.

Figure 6. Load time characteristics of brittle fractures of FRP rods

24 mm diameter. Curves 1 and 2: Test Procedure 111, Curve 3: Test
Procedure 11, wide cleavage.
Table 2. Variation of glass fibers. Breaking time (min) of 24 mm FRP

rods at nominal stress of 77 MPa, test Procedure 11, end fittings with
wide cleavage.
[ydrolysis
Composition
Ref :ant
SU ptible
-__
Glass
B203 YO Cured
Cured 'ostcurec
Silenka
6.7
79
73
Silenka
5.1
121
61 617
508
PPG
4.9
17
Bayer
4.8
81
34
40 1
180
Vitrofil
4.6
79
51
~

OCF859
Ahlstrom
OCF424
Norsk
Norsk ECR

4.3
4.0
3.3
2.6

186

498
103
893
<0.01 >18720

114 5821

2982

> 18720

levels can be assumed at operational service. From this point of view

it is most likely that brittle fracture may occur on composite insulators
under operational service conditions if the FRP rod is manufactured
from E-glass.

4.2

BRITTLE FRACTURE
RESISTANT FRP RODS

The brittleness of FRP rods caused by stress corrosion can be influenced by the glass composition as well as by the epoxy resin matrix and
the interface between glass fibers and matrix.
Table 2 shows several parameters influencing the brittleness of FRP
rods. As can be seen, the boron content of the glass fibers is of great
importance. Boron free glasses (B203 content 0.15%) result in brittle
fracture resistant FRP rods. Apart from the boron free glass type Norsk
ECR mentioned in Table 2 there exist some more boron-free glass fibers
as Stratifil (Gevetex), NT712 (PPG) and S2 (OCF).24 mm FRP rods made
of these glass fibers show the same or even better brittle fracture resistance as found from Norsk ECR. Although boron free glass fibers used
in FRP rods result in brittle fracture resistant FRP rods, the role of boron
oxide in the glass composition is still unclear.

Kuhl: FRP Rods for Composite Insulators

186

Resin
type
F
0164
X18
F
0164
F
F
F
F
F
F

Hardener Break time (min)

Resin
Si
cured postcured characteristic
HHPA
333
253 bisph.Amixture
HHPA
368
118 bi5ph.A regular
HHPA
416
106 bisph.Adistilled
9
PSAmix 661
220
PSAmix 551
231
6
DDS
67
17
1102

HHPA
THPA
4,4MDA
EH640

217
333

374

79
263
309

459
>1300*

glass fibers itself. For the curing state of the matrix and the interface,
some effects can be assumed. Thus, some evaluations on the postcuring
state of epoxy matrix systems were carried out. Test specimens were
molded of various epoxy matrix systems and treated with various curing states. The test specimens were tested for bending strength and
deflection [21], tensile strength and elongation [22], Youngs modulus
[22] and density [23]. The curing state was determined by measuring
the softening temperature of the resin according to Martens [24],called
T, temperature (Martins temperature).
3 pt. bending

Deflection

8
10

15
30
50

Tensile
+Pa

BO

\ O 100

120 L

Figure 7. Properties of an epoxy matrix depending on the softening

temperature T,. System DOW331/MNA.

Figure 7 shows the results obtained from the System 331/MNA because this system exhibits the post curing effect most impressively As
known from cast resin, the mechanical properties of epoxy resin systems improve with increasing curing state. This is also the case for
the system 331/MNA, One can assume that the increasing curing state
means an increasing density of crosslinking what results in a higher
stiffness of the material and in a more dense material,
Figure 7 shows that these assumptions are incorrect, It was found
that all evaluated epoxy systems showed a decreasing Youngs Modulus and a decreasing density with increasing curing state to a different
extent. Curing and postcuring of epoxy matrixes mean that the matrix
during crosslinking is subjected to a swelling effect [25,26]. In case of
reinforced epoxy it can be assumed that a compression force acts an
the interface between the glass fibers and the epoxy matrix. Postcur.
ing means also that the finish layer on the surface of the glass fibers
is hardening. Both effects result in propagation of cracks due to stress
corrosion that is not stopped at the interface, and that time to failure
due to stress corrosion can be expected earlier than in the case of non.
postcured systems.
Figure 8 shows the scattering of time to fililure of the most brittle PRP
rod found during this study It was also found that the more brittle a PRP

IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation

Vol. 8 No. 2, April 2001

4.3

91011

Rod No.
Figure 8. Scattering of time to failure. FRP rod 37 m m system DOW
331/MNA/PPG E-glass, test Procedure I1 (wide cleavage) nominal
stress 77 MPa.

rod system is, the more is the scattering of the test results. Apart from
that, the results from the end fittings (test Procedure 11) scatter more
than from free length of FRP rods (test Procedure 111).Test Procedure 111
may be a tool to check the brittleness of FRP rods in general. The test
is easy to perform in the test arrangement shown in Figure 3 with test
specimens shown in Figure 2 (Procedure 111). The acid container made
of polyethylene should have such a size that the FRP rod is surrounded
by liquid thickness not 3 1 cm and a liquid level of > 4 cm. The lower
end of the acid container has to be attached and sealed to the surface of
the FRP rod in order to prevent the acid from coming in contact with the
lower end fitting of the FRP rod. The acid container should be covered
to prevent evaporation of the liquid >5% of its volume during the test
period,
The test specimen prepared this way can be loaded in the test setup
shown in Figure 3 with a load high enough to cause a tensile stress of
340 MPa within the cross section of the free length of the FRP rod and
maintain this stress for a time span of 96 h. Immediately after applying
the load, a nitric acid of a concentration of 1 n HN03 can be poured
into the acid container. The acid must not come into contact with the
end fittings of the test specimen. Brittle fracture resistant FRP rods can
be realized, if no fracture of the FRP rod occurs during the test period
of 96 h [14], see also Figure 6.
Brittle fracture of FRP rods made of E-glass can be initiated by any
other diluted acid with pH values t 4 . Tests performed with strong
organic acids (checked were formic acid, chlorinated acetic acid and oxalic acid) showed that these acids also can attack FRP rods. On the other
hand, FRP rods made of boron-free glass fibers withstood all diluted
acids. Water did not affect any of the evaluated FRP rod systems.
Glass monofilaments may contain tiny capillaries related to gaseous bubbles in the molten glass during manufacturing of the monofilaments. This was discovered in the seventies for E-glass. Some interesting effects concerning the electrical performance of FRP rods containing
capillaries were found by the author. Test standards were developed in
order to quantify capillarity for the selection of FRP rods suitable for HV
applications. A link between capillarity and brittle fracture of FRP rods
could not be established, Today capillarity of FRP rods is not a problem
anymore. Both E-glass as well as boron-free glass exist that are nearly
free from capillaries.

187

CONCLUSIONS FROM
ARTIFICIAL BRITTLE
FRACTURE

Brittle fracture of FRP rods made of E-glass can be simulated by applying tensile stress and simultaneous application of diluted acids. The
fracture patterns of artificial brittle fractures are very close to the fracture patterns of brittle fractures of broken composite insulators out of
service. Tests conducted with test specimens under static and dynamic
loads without application of acid led to fracture patterns not comparable to brittle fracture patterns. Brittle fracture of FRP rods occurred in
service at load levels far lower than the ultimate failing load of composite insulators. This is consistent with load levels found for artificial
brittle fractures simulated with tensile stress and simultaneous application of diluted acids. These facts have led to the conclusion that brittle
fractures of composite insulators in service are the result of stress corrosion, initiated by diluted acid at the surface of E-glass fibers under
tensile stress.
Brittle fracture of composite insulators can be avoided by using FRP
rods made of boron-free glass fibers. This class of glass fibers is resistant to acids and stress corrosion at load levels known from service
experience [14].
In general brittle fracture failure of FRP rods made of E-glass can
vary in a wide span of time. The fractures are subjected to a load time
characteristic depending on the applied tensile stress and the pH value
of the corrosive medium. The nominal stress can be enhanced by the
design of the end fittings at the ends of the FRP rods. Other general
factors influencing the brittle fracture failures are the boron content of
the glass fibers, the toughness of the resin matrix and the curing state
of the resin matrix.
These results obtained from artificial testing of FRP rods made of Eglass showed that the choice of the material components (glass, resin,
hardener) can also lead to an unpredictable brittle fracture behavior,
In the frame of this study 62 variations of FRP rods have been evaluated. Although some general trends resulting from the FRP material
components could be found, there were some results which could not
be explained, such as shown in Table 2 for the glass OCF 859 in combination with two different resins.

5
5.1

NATURAL BRITTLE
FRACTURES
FRP RODS EXPOSED
OUTDOORS

It is common practice for manufacturers of composite insulators to

evaluate the load time characteristic of FRP rods under static loads as
described in [7]. In most cases it takes several years to obtain a load
time curve for a particular assembled FRP rod, Up to now, nothing is
specified about the condition of test specimens for the realization of the
load time curves. Knowing the impact of postcuring on brittle fractures,
24 mm FRP rods were exposed outdoors under static loads in a test
device similar to Figure 3. Rods with and without a sheath of silicone
elastomer in postcured condition (180C for 16 h) were tested.

Kuhl: FRP Rods for Composite Insulators

2 88

During the first three years of outdoor testing no difference could

be observed between test specimens with and without silicone sheath.
The obtained load time curves were similar. However, after three years
of loading visual inspection of the naked FRP rods revealed some differences between FRP rods of different compositions as well as differences
between naked and sheathed rods. While the sheathed rods showed
minor influence of weathering, all naked rods made of aromatic epoxy
systems showed strong discoloration and strong erosion on their surfaces. A layer of loose glass fibers covered the surfaces of the rods
due to erosion of the aromatic epoxy matrix; the more, the longer the
time of exposure. The rods composed from cycloaliphatic epoxy matrix
showed far less surface erosion for the same exposure time.
Table 4 shows the most interesting results from 24 mm rods exposed
outdoors under static loads in the plant location of CeramTec AG. The
environment of this plant can be characterized by a relatively clean atmosphere, M 500 m above sea level. A lot of forests and agriculture
dominate this area of moderate climate. The most interesting observation made was the fact that one brittle fracture occurred on one aromatic
epoxy system and rods from other systems showed some cracks running perpendicular to the rod axis on its free length like a start of brittle
fracture.
In Table 4 are listed also three epoxy systems and their time to break
from artificial brittle fracture testing with nitric acid. There might be
a correlation between artificial brittle fracture testing and those observations made in outdoor exposure of FRP rods. Questions arose why
the aromatic F system from Table 4 did not break. Microscopic evaluation of the surface of those rods revealed some differences to the 0164
system. Under the microscope the same cracks could be seen on the F
system as seen macroscopically on the 0164 system; however, the degree of matrix erosion due to weathering on the F system exceeded by
far the erosion seen on the 0164 system. It can be assumed that crack
propagation due to brittle fracture caused by stress corrosion of the
glass fibers and the speed of matrix erosion caused by weathering are
in competition with each other. The high speed of the matrix erosion of
the F system inhibits crack propagation due to stress corrosion.
The reason for brittle fractures observed on naked FRP rods exposed
outdoors (without voltage, without acid) are still unknown. It can be argued that diluted acid can exist in every moderate climatic atmosphere
as can be found in Germany. On the other hand, the evaluated epoxy
systems are mostly crosslinked with acidic hardeners. Hydrolytic effects on the matrix system may play a role. It can also be assumed that
the ultraviolet (UV) part of the solar radiation may cause nitric acid for
crack initiation on the surface of FRP rods. The FRP rods covered with
silicone elastomer did not show any signs of brittle fracture. For the
naked rods it can be concluded from Table 4 that the observations made
on them follow the same trend as found for the results from artificial
testing.

Table 4. Observations made on 24 mm FRP rods exposed outdoors

under static load. t b is the time to break under test procedure 2, t ,
the exposure time under a tensile stress St.

Matrix

Art. test St

MPa

0164 MTHPA

261

t,
Y'

3.5 cracks and

102

F PSA mixture

252

X100 HHPA

217

14

Observation

delamination on
FRP rod surfaces.
less surface erosion
brittle fracture on
free FRP rod length
surface erosion
FRP rod surface
strongly eroded
1 crack near end
fitting. minor
erosion

In all cases the sealing between housing and the end fitting opened
and, except in one case, the live end fitting sides of the insulators were
involved. Brittle fracture on the free length of the FRP rods did not occur
in contrast to what is reported in [2] and [ll].A correlation between
the expected service tensile stresses and the time to failure could not
be found. However, 13 brittle fractures out of 19 occurred on tension
insulators. The number of tension insulators in a HV transmission line
is small compared to the number of suspension insulators. In spite of
this fact brittle fracture occurred preferably on tension insulators which
are usually more highly loaded than suspension insulators. This may
be an indication that tensile stress from service loading plays a role
concerning the statistical occurrence of brittle fractures.
Table 5 presents the results of artificial testing of FRP rods from test
Procedure 11. The comparison between the time to failure from artificial
testing and from operational service leads to a similar trend concerning the evaluated material composition. The resin matrix 331/MNA
combined with the E-glass type PPG 712 was found to be the most susceptible system concerning brittle fracture during artificial testing, see
also Figure 8.
This system was also most susceptible under operational service
conditions. The systems 0164/MTHPA/Silenka and F/PSA mixt/OCF
859 resulted in small differences from artificial testing.

Under operational service the performance of these two systems can

be considered as equal. The average time to failure of both systems
under operational service conditions results in 9,l years (one can also
assume that the time until opening of the sealing between housing and
the end fitting is equal statistically). The system XlOO/HHPA/OCF859
exhibited a remarkable resistance to the occurrence of brittle fracture in
artificial testing as well as under operational service. Although some
thousand silicone composite insulators still exist utilizing this type
of FRP rod in lines up to 245 kV with end fittings of wide cleavage,
5.2 FRACTURES ON SILICONE
only one brittle fracture under operational service conditions occurred
COMPOSITE I NSULATORS
within a service time of more than 25 yr. Finally, a vast number of siliTable 5 lists the brittle fractures of FRP rods made of E-glass used in cone rubber insulators have been installed since 1983 utilizing FRP rods
silicone composite insulators from operational service. As shown, the containing boron free acid resistant glass fibers from which is known
majority of the broken insulators were installed at harsh environmental the rate of brittle fractures is zero. This fact is also consistent with the
results of artificial testing.
conditions at high service voltages.

IEEE Transactionson Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation

Vol. 8 No. 2, April 2001

Table 5. Brittle fractures experienced on silicone composite insulators.

-Env.
Pos.
E-gIass :RP rod
danuf. Line
String
tb
tf
nounted fracture
diam. iostcurec year roltage
config.
type
min
mm
Y'
- kV
-PPG 712
21 1979
420 triple tension very severe, coast
0.08 life end
11 MNA
37
1979
420 dto
dto
0.08 groundend
37
1979
420 inv.V
dto
0.4
lifeend
37
1979
420 suspens
dto
1.3
dto
37
__
24
420 double
10
dto
coastal severe
121 1981
164 MTHPA jilenka
tension
420 dto
24
1981
10
dto
dto
420 dto
24
dto
10
1981
dto
6
dto
medium
123 dto
24
1979
15
123 double
24
1979
dto
medium
suspens
12
420 triple tension medium
24
1979
dto
2
24
dto
230 double
1981
tension
__
PSA mixt
24
rural
420 double
220 1975
suspens
1975
24
4
dto
dto
420 dto
1975
37
6
coastal severe
420 invertv
dto
1975
420 double
severe
dto
37
7
tension
1977
24
12
Alps
dto
123 spacer
420 suspens
dto
24
very severe
1975
7
severe
24
20
dto
420 spacer
1975
420 double
1976
37
very severe
19
dto
tension
100 HHPA 3CF 859
15 tension
2982 1968
29
very severe
dto
I
railway
__
-

189

Reason
fracture

Resin
system

bad sealing
dto
dto
dto
dto
dto

dto
dto
dto
dto
dto

dto
bad sealing
dto
bad sealing
dto

wide cleavage
range

CONCLUSIONS

OMPOSITE insulators installed

outdoors in HV lines can suffer from

catastrophic mechanical failures at tensile loads far below their ultimate tensile strength. This fact, together with the unusual fracture
pattern of the FRP rods, leads to the assumption that brittle fracture of
FRP rods is initiated by stress corrosion. Nitric acid can be formed by
electrical discharge in humid air and may have access to the surface of
FRP rods.
FRP rods have been tested artificially under tensile stress and simultaneous application of 1n nitric acid. The results from this testing lead
to the conclusions that brittle fracture of FRP rods
1. is a matter of stress corrosion,
2. follows the rules of fracture mechanics,
3. can be initiated by diluted acids and simultaneous application of tensile

stress,
4. is a matter of stress corrosion of glass fibers containing boron oxide

5. can be prevented by using boron-free glass fibers.

A broad variety of FRP rods made of different material components

were evaluated. It was shown that all E-glass fibers used in FRP rods
lead to rods susceptible to stress corrosion to different extent. Considering the parameters of influence found, the occurrence of catastrophic
mechanical failures of composite insulators installed outdoors on HV
lines can be related to incidents and reasons:
1. Defect of the sealing between end fitting and FRP rod. Moisture penetration into the inside of the end fitting with generation of an acidic

solution due to electrical activity (corona) in the area near the end fitting. Acid attack upon non-brittle fracture resistant FRP rods which are
permanently under mechanical load.
2. Glass fibres used for FRP rods contain 8203.
3. Epoxy matrix is not suitable. The main parameters that influence the
brittle fracture resistance are the curing state, the toughness and the
swelling characteristic of the matrix.
4. Interface between matrix and fibres is weak. Moisture in the interface,
missing coupling agents and bad sizing can lead to a weak fibre-matrix
bonding. FRP rods with weak fibre-matrix bondings are expected to be
more sensitive to brittle fracture.
It is most likely that more than one of these parameters determines
the time to failure of a particular composite insulator installed on a HV
line, as long as FRP rods are used made of E-glass.
The brittleness of FRP rods can be checked simply by means of tensile stress in the simultaneous presence of diluted acids (test Procedure 111).The test results obtained from this testing are consistent qualitatively with the experience obtained from operational service of composite insulators installed in outdoor HV lines. The use of boron-free
glass fibers in FRP rods have led to a new generation of silicone composite insulators free of brittle fracture in 1983. This is proven by the
vast number of such insulators manufactured during the last 15yr. The
number of brittle fractures from those insulators is zero.

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Manuscript was received on 4 May 1999, in final form 10 October 2000,