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ETTORE MAJORANA:
NOTES ON THEORETICAL PHYSICS
Edited by
Salvatore Esposito
University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
Erasmo Recami
University of Bergamo, Dalmine (BG), Italy
(Reproduction forbidden)
CONTENTS
Preface
xiii
References
xxv
1
Volumetto I
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
Electric potential
Retarded potential
Interaction energy of two electric or magnetic charge distributions
Skin effect in homogeneous cylindrical electric conductors
Thermodynamics of the thermoelectric cells
Energy of an isolates conductor
Attraction between masses which are far apart
Formulae
Electric lines
Density of a spherical mass distribution
Limit skin effect
Limit skin effect for simply-shaped conductors. Hints for arbitrary shapes
12.1 Elliptic cross sections
12.2 Effect of the irregularities of the boundary
Hysteresis in magnetic conductors in the limit skin effect regime
Field produced by a circular and homogeneous distribution of
charges in its own plane
Field produced by a circular charge current in a plane
Weak skin effect in conductors, with an elliptic cross section,
having the same magnetic permeability as the surrounding
medium
Oscillating discharges in capacitors
Self-induction of a very long circular coil with many turns
Energy of a uniform circular distribution of electric or magnetic
charges
Self-induction in a rectilinear coil with finite length
Mean distances of volume, surface, or line elements
Evaluation of some series
Self-induction of a finite length rectilinear coil with circular
cross section and a finite (small) number of turns
Variation of the self-induction coefficient due to the skin effect
Mean error in estimating the probability of an event through
a finite number of trials
Unbalance of a pure three-phase system
Table for the computation of x!
Influence of a magnetic field on the melting point
Specific heat of an oscillator
Do children of the same parents tend to be of the same sex?
Heat propagation from a certain cross section along an infinitelength bar endowed with another cross section acting as a heat
well. A similarity with the crickets
Combinations
Energy and specific heat of a rotator
vii
1
4
5
6
10
11
12
14
15
18
18
23
23
24
26
28
29
30
31
32
33
36
38
39
41
43
45
46
47
48
50
52
53
55
56
viii
Volumetto II
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
2 in cylindrical coordinates
58
63
66
69
71
71
74
77
78
82
83
85
85
85
87
90
93
97
101
105
108
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
120
121
127
131
133
135
137
144
146
148
150
154
155
156
160
161
177
CONTENTS
35
36
37
38
Retarded potential
The equation y 00 = xy
Resonance degeneracy for many-electron atoms
Various formulae
38.1 Schwarz formula
38.2 Maximum value of random variables
38.3 Binomial coefficients
38.4 Expansion of 1/(1 x)n
38.5 Relations between the binomial coefficients
38.6 Mean values of r n between concentric spherical surfaces
Volumetto III
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Volumetto IV
1
2
3
4
5
ix
188
190
190
192
192
193
195
196
197
198
205
205
207
212
226
235
237
241
242
243
248
250
252
255
265
267
271
276
279
287
298
301
307
311
319
319
322
329
329
(x) = 0
330
(x a)ya
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Volumetto V
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
333
335
339
342
345
348
350
352
355
358
359
369
372
374
375
377
379
381
382
385
396
402
403
417
419
419
425
427
428
428
429
430
430
433
434
435
435
435
441
446
450
454
456
465
CONTENTS
xi
469
Index
481
PREFACE
HISTORICAL PRELUDE
Ettore Majoranas fame solidly rests on testimonies like the following,
from the evocative pen of Giuseppe Cocconi. At the request of Edoardo
Amaldi, he wrote from CERN (July 18, 1965):
In January 1938, after having just graduated, I was invited, essentially by you, to come to the Institute of Physics at the University in
Rome for six months as a teaching assistant, and once I was there I would
have the good fortune of joining Fermi, Bernardini (who had been given
a chair at Camerino a few months earlier) and Ageno (he, too, a new
graduate), in the research of the products of disintegration of mesons
(at that time called mesotrons or yukons), which are produced by cosmic
rays [...]
It was actually while I was staying with Fermi in the small laboratory
on the second floor, absorbed in our work, with Fermi working with a
piece of Wilsons chamber (which would help to reveal mesons at the
end of their range) on a lathe and me constructing a jalopy for the
illumination of the chamber, using the flash produced by the explosion
of an aluminum ribbon shortcircuited on a battery, that Ettore Majorana
came in search of Fermi. I was introduced to him and we exchanged few
words. A dark face. And that was it. An easily forgettable experience
if, after a few weeks while I was still with Fermi in that same workshop,
news of Ettore Majoranas disappearance in Naples had not arrived. I
remember that Fermi busied himself with telephoning around until, after
some days, he had the impression that Ettore would never be found.
It was then that Fermi, trying to make me understand the significance of this loss, expressed himself in quite a peculiar way; he who
was so objectively harsh when judging people. And so, at this point, I
would like to repeat his words, just as I can still hear them ringing in my
memory: Because, you see, in the world there are various categories of
scientists: people of a secondary or tertiary standing, who do their best
but do not go very far. There are also those of high standing, who come
to discoveries of great importance, fundamental for the development of
science (and here I had the impression that he placed himself in that
category). But then there are geniuses like Galileo and Newton. Well,
Ettore was one of them. Majorana had what no one else in the world
had [...]
xiii
xiv
PREFACE
xv
publish just prior to the 1937 Italian national competition for three fullprofessorships.
With respect to the last point, let us recall that in 1937 there were
numerous Italian competitors for these posts, and many of them were
of exceptional caliber; above all: Ettore Majorana, Giulio Racah, Gian
Carlo Wick, and Giovanni Gentile Jr. (the son of the famous philosopher
bearing the same name, and the inventor of parastatistics in quantum
mechanics). The judging committee was chaired by E. Fermi and had as
members E. Persico, G. Polvani, A. Carrelli, and O. Lazzarino. On the
recommendation of the judging committee, the Italian Minister of National Education installed Majorana as professor of theoretical physics
at Naples University because of his great and well-deserved fame, independently of the competition itself; actually, the Commission hesitated
to apply the normal university competition procedures to him. The attached report on the scientific activities of Ettore Majorana, sent to the
minister by the committee, stated:
Without listing his works, all of which are highly notable both for
their originality of the methods utilized as well as for the importance of
the achieved results, we limit ourselves to the following:
In modern nuclear theories, the contribution made by this researcher
to the introduction of the forces called Majorana forces is universally
recognized as the one, among the most fundamental, that permits us to
theoretically comprehend the reasons for nuclear stability. The work of
Majorana today serves as a basis for the most important research in this
field.
In atomic physics, the merit of having resolved some of the most
intricate questions on the structure of spectra through simple and elegant
considerations of symmetry is due to Majorana.
Lastly, he devised a brilliant method that permits us to treat the positive and negative electron in a symmetrical way, finally eliminating the
necessity to rely on the extremely artificial and unsatisfactory hypothesis of an infinitely large electrical charge diffused in space, a question
that had been tackled in vain by many other scholars.
One of the most important works of Ettore Majorana, the one that introduces his infinite-components equation was not mentioned, since it
had not yet been understood. It is interesting to note, however, that the
proper light was shed on his theory of electron and anti-electron symmetry (today climaxing in its application to neutrinos and anti-neutrinos)
and on his resulting ability to eliminate the hypothesis known as the
Dirac sea, a hypothesis that was defined as extremely artificial and
xvi
PREFACE
xvii
(8) Uber
die Kerntheorie, Zeitschrift f
ur Physik 82 (1933) 137-145;
Sulla teoria dei nuclei, La Ricerca Scientifica 4(1) (1933) 559565.
(9) Teoria simmetrica dellelettrone e del positrone, Nuovo Cimento
14 (1937) 171-184.
The first papers, written between 1928 and 1931, concern atomic and
molecular physics: mainly questions of atomic spectroscopy or chemical
bonds (within quantum mechanics, of course). As E. Amaldi has written
(Amaldi, 1966 and 1986), an in-depth examination of these works leaves
one struck by their superb quality: They reveal both a deep knowledge of
the experimental data, even in the minutest detail, and an uncommon
ease, without equal at that time, in the use of the symmetry properties of the quantum states in order to qualitatively simplify problems
and choose the most suitable method for their quantitative resolution.
Among the first papers, Atomi orientati in campo magnetico variabile
(Atoms oriented in a variable magnetic field) deserves special mention.
It is in this article, famous among atomic physicists, that the effect now
known as the Majorana-Brossel effect is introduced. In it, Majorana predicts and calculates the modification of the spectral line shape due to an
oscillating magnetic field. This work has also remained a classic in the
treatment of non-adiabatic spin-flip. Its results once generalized, as
xviii
PREFACE
xix
Uber
die Kerntheorie. Majoranas paper on the stability of nuclei was
immediately recognized by the scientific community a rare event, as
we know, from his writings thanks to that timely propaganda made
by Heisenberg himself. We seize the present opportunity to quote two
brief passages from Majoranas letters from Leipzig. On February 14,
1933, he writes his mother (the italics are ours): The environment of
the physics institute is very nice. I have good relations with Heisenberg,
with Hund, and with everyone else. I am writing some articles in German. The first one is already ready.... The work that is already ready
is, naturally, the cited one on nuclear forces, which, however, remained
the only paper in German. Again, in a letter dated February 18, he tells
his father (we italicize): I will publish in German, after having extended
it, also my latest article which appeared in Nuovo Cimento. Actually,
Majorana published nothing more, either in Germany or after his return
to Italy, except for the article (in 1937) of which we are about to speak.
It is therefore of importance to know that Majorana was engaged in
writing other papers: in particular, he was expanding his article about
the infinite-components equations.
As we said, from the existing manuscripts it appears that Majorana
was also formulating the essential lines of his symmetric theory of electrons and anti-electrons during the years 1932-1933, even though he
published this theory only years later, when participating in the aforementioned competition for a professorship, under the title Teoria simmetrica dellelettrone e del positrone (Symmetrical theory of the electron and positron), a publication that was initially noted almost exclusively for having introduced the Majorana representation of the Dirac
matrices in real form. A consequence of this theory is that a neutral
fermion has to be identical with its anti-particle, and Majorana suggested that neutrinos could be particles of this type. As with Majoranas other writings, this article also started to gain prominence only
decades later, beginning in 1957; and nowadays expressions like Majorana spinors, Majorana mass, and Majorana neutrinos are fashionable.
xx
As already mentioned, Majoranas publications (still little known, despite it all) is a potential gold-mine for physics. Recently, for example,
C. Becchi pointed out how, in the first pages of the present paper, a clear
formulation of the quantum action principle appears, the same principle that in later years, through Schwingers and Symanziks works, for
example, has brought about quite important advances in quantum field
theory.
PREFACE
xxi
spin particles that I began in Italy and of which I gave a summary notice
in Nuovo Cimento.... In the second one (dated March 3, 1933) he even
declares, referring to the same work: I have sent an article on nuclear
theory to Zeitschrift f
ur Physik. I have the manuscript of a new theory
on elementary particles ready, and will send it to the same journal in a
few days. Considering that the article described here as a summary
notice of a new theory was already of a very high level, one can imagine
how interesting it would be to discover a copy of its final version, which
went unpublished. [Is it still, perhaps, in the Zeitschrift f
ur Physik
archives? Our own search ended in failure.] One must moreover not
forget that the above-cited letter to Quirino Majorana, dated January
16, 1936, revealed that his nephew continued to work on theoretical
physics even subsequently, occupying himself in depth, at least, with
quantum electrodynamics.
Some of Majoranas other ideas, when they did not remain concealed
in his own mind, have survived in the memories of his colleagues. One
such reminiscence we owe to Gian Carlo Wick. Writing from Pisa on
October 16, 1978, he recalls: ...The scientific contact [between Ettore
and me], mentioned by Segre, happened in Rome on the occasion of
the A. Volta Congress (long before Majoranas sojourn in Leipzig).
The conversation took place in Heitlers company at a restaurant, and
therefore without a blackboard...; but even in the absence of details,
what Majorana described in words was a relativistic theory of charged
particles of zero spin based on the idea of field quantization (second
quantization). When much later I saw Pauli and Weisskopfs article
[Helv. Phys. Acta 7 (1934) 709], I remained absolutely convinced that
what Majorana had discussed was the same thing....
THIS VOLUME
In the present book, we reproduce and translate, for the first time, five
neatly organized notebooks, known, in Italian, as Volumetti (booklets). Written in Rome by Ettore Majorana between 1927 and 1932, the
original manuscripts are kept at the Domus Galilaeana in Pisa. Each
of them is composed of about 100150 sequentially numbered pages of
approximate size 11 cm 18 cm. Every notebook is prefaced by a table
of contents, which evidently was gradually made out by the author when
a particular line of thought was finished; and a date, penned on its first
blank (i.e., on the initial blank page of each notebook) records when
xxii
it was completed except for the last, and smallest, booklet, which is
undated, probably because it remained unfinished.
Numbered blank pages appear in the original manuscript in some
cases between the end of a Section and the beginning of the next one;
we have deleted these blanks in this volume.
Most likely, Majorana used to approach the issues treated in his notebooks following well-defined schemes arising from his studies. Each notebook was written during a period of about one year, starting from the
years during which Ettore Majorana was completing his studies at the
University of Rome. Thus the contents of these notebooks range from
typical topics covered in academic courses to topics at the frontiers of
research. Despite this unevenness in the level of sophistication (which
becomes apparent on inspection of different notebooks or even a single
notebook), the style in which any particular topic is treated is never
obvious. As an example, we refer here to Majoranas study of the shift
in the melting point of a substance when it is placed in a magnetic
field or, more interestingly, his examination of heat propagation using
the cricket simile. Also remarkable is his treatment of contemporary
physics topics in an original and lucid manner, such as Fermis explanation of the electromagnetic mass of the electron, the Dirac equation
with its applications, and the Lorentz group, revealing in some cases
the literature preferred by him. As far as frontier research arguments
are concerned, we here quote only two illuminating examples: the study
of quasi-stationary states, anticipating Fanos theory by about 20 years,
and Fermis theory of atoms, reporting analytic solutions of the ThomasFermi equation with appropriate boundary conditions in terms of simple
quadratures, which to our knowledge is still lacking.
In the translation of the notebooks we have attempted to adhere to
the original Italian version as much as possible, adopting personal interpretations and notations only in a very few cases where the meaning
of some paragraphs or the followed procedures were not clear enough.
Nevertheless, for compactness sake, we have replaced Plancks constant
h, used throughout the original text, by the more current 2
h, except
where results of the old quantum theory are involved. All changes from
the original, introduced in the English version, are pointed out in footnotes. Additional footnotes have been introduced, as well, where the
interpretation of some procedures or the meaning of particular parts require further elaboration. Footnotes which are not present in the original
manuscript are denoted by the symbol @.
The major effort we have made to carefully check and type all equations and tables was motivated by our desire to facilitate the reading
of Majoranas notebooks as much as possible, with a hope of render-
PREFACE
xxiii
ing their intellectual treasure accessible for the first time to the widest
audience.
Figures appearing in the notebooks have been reproduced without the
use of photographic or scanning devices but are otherwise true in form
to the original drawings. The same holds for tables, which in almost all
cases have been reproduced independently of the source; i.e., we have
performed our own calculations, following the methods used in the text.
Several tables exhibit gaps, revealing that in these cases the author for
some reason did not perform the corresponding calculations: In such
instances, we have completed the tables whenever possible, filling the
gaps with the appropriate expressions. Other minor changes, mainly
related to typos in the original manuscript, are pointed out in footnotes.
For a better understanding of the style adopted by Ettore Majorana
in composing his notebooks, and also for giving an idea of the method
of translation and editing followed in this volume, we have reproduced,
by scanning, a whole section (Sec. 3.3) from the original manuscript;
which can illustrate some of peculiarities of Ettore Majoranas Volumetti.
These selected pages are reported at the end of the book.
A short bibliography follows this Preface. Far from being exhaustive,
it provides only some references about the topics touched upon in this
introduction.
xxiv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work has been partially funded by a grant provided by the Italian
Embassy in Washington (and in this connection we are most grateful to
former Ambassador Ferdinando Salleo and the Scientific Attache Prof.
Alexander Tenenbaum for their support), and by COFIN funds (coordinated by P.Tucci) of the Italian MURST. For his kind helpfulness, we
are very indebted to Carlo Segnini, the present curator of the Domus
Galilaeana at Pisa (as well as to previous curators and directors). Special thanks are moreover due to Francesco Bassani, the president of the
Italian Physical Society, for a useful discussion; to many colleagues (in
particular Dharam Ahluwalia, Roberto Battiston and Enrico Giannetto)
for kind cooperation over the years; to Maria Alessandra Papa for her
collaboration in the translation and to Cristiano Palomba for a preliminary reading of this book. Finally, we should express our appreciation
to Jackie Gratrix for her help in preparing the camera-ready version of
this book.
The Editors
REFERENCES
E. Amaldi, La Vita e lOpera di E. Majorana (Accademia dei Lincei,
Rome, 1966); Ettore Majorana: Man and scientist, in Strong and
Weak Interactions. Present problems, A. Zichichi, ed. (Academic, New
York, 1966).
M. Baldo, R. Mignani, and E. Recami, Catalogo dei manoscritti scientifici inediti di E. Majorana, in Ettore Majorana: Lezioni allUniversit`
a
di Napoli, pp.175-197.
S. Esposito, Majorana solution of the Thomas-Fermi equation, Am.
J. Phys. 70 (2002) 852-856; Majorana transformation for differential
equations, Int. J. Theor. Phys. 41 (2002) 2417-2426.
R. Mignani, E. Recami and M. Baldo: About a Diraclike equation
for the photon, according to E.Majorana, Lett. Nuovo Cimento 11
(1974) 568.
R. Penrose, Newton, quantum theory and reality, in 300 Years of
Gravitation, S. W. Hawking and W. Israel, eds. (University Press,
Cambridge, 1987). J. Zimba and R. Penrose, Stud. Hist. Phil. Sci. 24
(1993) 697. R. Penrose, Ombre della Mente (Shadows of the Mind)
(Rizzoli, 1996), pp.338343 and 371375.
B. Pontecorvo, Fermi e la fisica moderna (Editori Riuniti, Rome, 1972);
in Proceedings of the International Conference on the History of Particle Physics, Paris, July 1982, Physique 43 (1982).
B. Preziosi, ed. Ettore Majorana: Lezioni allUniversit`
a di Napoli (Bibliopolis, Napoli, 1987).
E. Recami, Il caso Majorana: Epistolario, Documenti, Testimonianze,
2nd edn (Oscar Mondadori, Milan, 1991), p.230; 4th edn (Di Renzo,
Rome, 2002), p.273.
E. Recami, Ettore Majorana: Lopera edita ed inedita, Quaderni di
Storia della Fisica (of the Giornale di Fisica) (SIF, Bologna) 5 (1999)
19-68.
E. Segre, Enrico Fermi, Fisico (Zanichelli, Bologna, 1971).
xxv
1
VOLUMETTO I: 8 MARCH 1927
1.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
2 V = 4.
E = V,
VO =
k V d +
(1/r U ) dS,
(1.1)
VO =
1
k V d +
4
1
U V dS
4
2
2 V
dS.
r
(1.2)
(1.3)
so that2
Z
VO =
k V d +
1
4
1
4
U
n
V
d
n
0@
d
i
1
4
Z
S
2 V
dS.
r
(1.4)
P
r
O
S
Fig. 1.1. Definition of some quantities used in the text.
On the surface we have instead
U
n
= 1/r ,
= Eni = Ene
(1.5)
1
+ 4k = 2 cos + 4k , (1.6)
r
1
4
V
n
V cos + r
d
1
2
r
4
Z
S
2 V
dS.
r
(1.7)
This formula holds for any arbitrary functions V , since we can always
find a charge distribution generating the potential V in the region S.
If there is no charge in S, then
VO =
1
4
V cos + r
V
n
d
.
r2
(1.8)
1
4
V cos + r
V
n
d
1
2
r
4
Z
S
2 V
dS.
r
(1.9)
Let us consider an infinitesimal homothety with center at O that transforms the surface into 0 and the space S into S 0 . The integration
regions transform accordingly. It is simple to evaluate the variations of
the integrals by using the homothety relations. Actually, if 1 + d is the
homothety ratio, the following relations, connecting each given quantity
VOLUMETTO I
n
dS
= d OP V,
= 0,
= d r,
(1.10)
(1.11)
(1.12)
= 0,
(1.13)
= d OP 2 V,
V
=
OP V d
d,
n
n
dS
= 2 d
.
r
(1.14)
(1.15)
(1.16)
d
4
OP V cos + r
Z
S
OP V
n
OP 2 V
2 V
+2
r
r
d
r2
dS.
(1.17)
The surface integral can be viewed as the outward flux, through the
surface , of the vector:
OP
1
+ (OP V ) .
r3
r
M = OP V
(1.18)
M dS.
OP 2 V
2 V
+2
,
r
r
(1.19)
q.e.d.
(1.20)
2.
RETARDED POTENTIAL
Let H be a function of space and time that obeys the differential equation
1 2H
.
(1.21)
c2 t2
Let O denote a point in space, r the distance of another point P from
O, and m a function of P and of t; we then set
2 H =
(1.22)
(1.23)
.
(1.24)
c rt
rc t
If O belongs to the region S confined by the surface , then, by using
Eq. (1.7) and noting that H1O = HO at O, we find
2 H1 =
HO =
1
4
H1
H1 cos + r
n
1
+
4
d
r2
2 2 H1
2 H1
+ 2
rc rt
r c t
dS.
(1.25)
Let us decompose the region S into cones having their vertices at O. The
volume element of a cone with aperture angle d between two spheres
centered at O and having radius r and r + dr, respectively, is d r2 dr.
The integral over the volume of the cone is then
d
Z r
2 H1
0
2 H1
+r
t
rt
dr = d
2r H1
,
c t
(1.26)
2 H1
cos d.
rc t
(1.28)
VOLUMETTO I
1
=
4
H1
2r H1
H1 cos + r
+
cos
n
c t
d
;
r2
(1.29)
(1.30)
(1.31)
(1.32)
we obtain
HO
1
=
4
r cos H
H
+
H cos + r
n
c
t
d
.
r2
(1.33)
If we define
m (P, t) = m (P, t + r/c) ,
and
(1.34)
r
,
H2 (P, t) = H P, t +
c
the differential equation satisfied by H2 becomes
2 H2 =
(1.35)
2 2 H2
2 H2
+
.
c rt
rc t
(1.36)
3.
1
=
4
H
r cos H
H cos + r
n
c
t
d
.
r2
(1.37)
U =
mi Vi0 ,
(1.38)
i=1
n
X
mi
i=1
ri2
cos i +
En0
n
X
mi
i=1
ri
d,
(1.39)
where En0 is the component of E0 along the inward direction perpendicular to . Now we have
n
X
mi
i=1
ri2
cos i = En ,
n
X
mi
i=1
ri
(1.40)
= V,
(1.41)
4.
1
4
En V 0 + En0 V d.
(1.42)
VOLUMETTO I
the current intensity flowing through a circle that is coaxial with the
cross section of the conductor and has radius a. Let us indicate by
D = D1 + iD2 the current density at a distance a from the axis, with
the magnetic permeability of the conductor, A the radius of the cross
section and the electric resistivity. Then the counter-electromotive
forces4 per unit length along a current line at a distance a from the
axis, due to the Joule effect5 and to the variation of the induction in the
conductor, are
D
(1.43)
and
2i
Z A
I
dx,
(1.44)
x
respectively. Since all other electromotive forces are equal for the different current lines, we can conclude that
D + 2i
Z A
a
(I/x) dx = constant.
(1.45)
I
da.
a
(1.46)
da
a
dI
I
= i ds,
ds
s
d2 I
i I
=
.
ds2
s
By setting
p =
4@
dI
,
ds
ds
,
s
s,
(1.47)
(1.48)
(1.49)
(1.50)
(1.51)
we get
d2 I
I
= i .
2
dp
p
(1.52)
I2
1 3
1
1
p + 2 p5 2 p7 + . . . ,
2
2! 3
4! 5
6! 7
1 4
1 6
1
1 2
p 2 p + 2 p 2 p8 + . . . ,
= m
2
3! 4
5! 6
7! 8
I1 = m
(1.53)
(1.54)
1
= m 1 2 p2 +
2!
1
= m p 2 p3 +
3!
D1
D2
1 4
p
4!2
1 5
p
5!2
1 6
p + ... ,
6!2
1 7
p + ... .
7!2
(1.55)
(1.56)
The mean heat per unit time dissipated along a length ` of the conductor
due to Joule effect is
Q1 =
1 2
m `
2
Z p "
0
1 2
1
1
p + 2 p4 2 p6 + . . .
2
2!
4!
6!
1
1
1
p 2 p3 + 2 p5 2 p7 + . . .
3!
5!
7!
2 #
dp.
(1.57)
Instead, the heat that would be produced if the current was uniformly
distributed is given by
Q =
1 2 1
m
2
p
"
1 3
1
1
p + 2 p5 2 p7 + . . .
2!2 3
4! 5
6! 7
1
1
1
1 2
p 2 p4 + 2 p6 2 p8 + . . .
2
3! 4
5! 6
7! 8
2 #
(1.58)
VOLUMETTO I
Table 1.1. Some values for the skin effect (see the text).
p
1
2
3
4
6
10
24
60
100
R1 /R
1.0782
1.2646
1.4789
1.6779
2.0067
2.5069
3.7274
5.7357
7.3277
1
1 2 p2 + . . .
2!
2 #
1
+ p 2 p3 + . . .
3!
dp
0
R1
Q1
"
=
=
2
2 # .
R
Q
1
1 3
1 4
1 2
p 2 p + ... +
p 2 p + ...
p
2! 3
2
3! 4
(1.59)
Both the numerator and the denominator in its r.h.s. may be expanded
in power series of p. By performing this expansion and dividing by p,
we find
1
1
1
1
1 + p2 + 2 p4 + 2 p6 + 2 p8 + . . .
R1
3!
2! 5!
3! 7!
4! 9!
=
. (1.60)
1 2
1
1
1
R
4
6
1+
p +
p +
p +
p8 + . . .
2!3!
2!3!5!
3!4!7!
4!5!9!
By relaxing the constraints on the measure units, in this expression we
have p = s/ = `/R or, using the Ohm as the resistance measure
unit and m as the measure unit of length,
p =
`
2f `
=
.
7
10 R
107 R
(1.61)
Notice that the author used Eq. (1.60) to obtain the values in this Table up to p = 6 and
then invoked the expansion (1.62) to complete the Table.
10
1
3
1
p+ +
2
4
64
1
p
2
!1
(1.62)
R1
1
1
=
p+ ,
(1.63)
R
2
4
where the last but one equation yields practically exact results for p > 10
(relative error less than 0.0001).
5.
THERMODYNAMICS OF
THERMOELECTRIC CELLS
T dS,
where the integral over the whole circuit is, in general, different from zero
only if the temperature is not equal in all the elements of the circuit and
if there are at least two different elements. Thus, if E is the mechanical
equivalent of heat, energy conservation requires an electromotive force e
to appear in the circuit:
Z
e = E
7@
T dS.
(1.64)
That is, for instance, a quantity of electric charge (flowing in a conductor) corresponding
to the chosen measure unit.
11
VOLUMETTO I
6.
ENERGY OF AN ISOLATED
CONDUCTOR
(1.66)
12
and 1 , we find
1 = =
1
2
and
F dm,
(1.67)
F dm.
(1.68)
V V1 = V =
It is very easy to see that this equation holds even when 1 is not entirely
external to , as long as F is the force external to and the sign of d
is positive or negative, according to whether 1 is locally external or
internal to .
7.
n
X
mi (x xi )2 + (y yi )2 + (z zi )2
i1/2
i=1
n
X
i1/2
i=1
Denoting by r the distance between P and O, and with , , the direction cosines of the straight line OP , we will have
V
n
X
i1/2
i=1
n
h
i1/2
1 X
mi 1 (2/r)(xi + yi + zi ) + (x2i + yi2 + zi2 )/r2
.
r i=1
If r is infinitely large, then the quantity inside the square brackets differs
from unity by an infinitesimal of the same order as 1/r. On performing
an expansion of this quantity in powers of such infinitesimal up to the
fourth order and neglecting in the sum third-order terms (because of the
13
VOLUMETTO I
n
n
1 X
1 X
mi + 2
mi (xi + yi + zi )
r i=1
r i=1
3
1 2
1 X
2
2
2
m
(x
+
y
+
z
)
x
+
y
+
z
.
i
i
i
i
i
i
r3 i=1
2
2 i
P
m
1 X
3
2
2
2
+ 3
mi xi + yi + zi
2 (yi2 + zi2 )
r
r i=1
2
(x2i
zi2 )
(x2i
yi2 )
3
m
1
1
(1.69)
V =
+ 3 Ip I + O 4 .
r
r
2
r
We can then say that the potential at large distances generated by a
system of Newtonian masses is determined, up to fourth-order infinitesimals, by the mass and by the moments of inertial (the inertia central
core) of the system. Since, as Eq. (1.69) shows, up to third-order terms
we have V /m = 1/r, then in the second term of (1.69) we may replace
1/r with the approximate value V /m. On solving the equation with
respect to 1/r, we get, up to fourth-order terms,
1
V
V3
3
=
4 Ip I ,
r
m
m
2
or, taking the reciprocal of both sides, to second order we find
m
V
r =
+ 2
V
m
(1.70)
3
Ip I .
2
(1.71)
14
8.
FORMULAE
(m F) = m F + m F,
(2)
EF = E F E F,
(3)
(m n) = m n + n m,
(4)
2 (m n) = m 2 n + 2 m n + n 2 m,
(5)
E = 2 E + E,
Z
(6)
En d =
(7)
m En d =
(m E + m E) dS,
(8)
n F d =
Z
(9)
(11)
q n d =
E dS,
(10)
Z
F dS,
p n d =
p dS,
q i
q j
q k
+
+
x
y
z
dS, if q is a homography,9
m F = m F + m F,
(12)
8@
9@
En denotes the component of the vector E along the outward normal n to the surface .
i, j, k are the unit vectors along the coordinate axes x, y, z, respectively.
15
VOLUMETTO I
Z
OP q n d =
OP
q i
q j
q k
+
+
x
y
z
+ i q i + j q j + k q k dS,
Z
(13)
E En d =
(14)
(15)
EE EE +
1
E En E 2 n
2
1
E2
2
dS,
d =
(E E E E) dS.
x2 = x2 (x, y, z),
x3 = x3 (x, y, z).
(1.72)
2 U1
2 U1
2
|
x
|
+
.
.
.
+
2 x1 x2 + . . .
1
x1 x2
x21
U1 2
U1 2
U1 2
+
x1 +
x2 +
x3 .
(1.73)
x1
x2
x3
Similar formulae hold for transformations involving spaces with an arbitrary number of dimensions and also for transformations among spaces
with different dimensionalities.
9.
ELECTRIC LINES
(1.74)
(1.75)
In the
original manuscript, the author used both notations x1 , x2 , x3 and x1 , y1 , z1 .
Here, 1 will be denoted by j.
16
r + Lj
g + Cj,
q =
g + Cj/ r + Lj.
(1.76)
(1.77)
(1.78)
cosh p` + Rq sinh p`
.
(1.80)
sinh p` + Rq cosh p`
On substituting the last expression into Eqs. (1.74) and (1.75) and
letting x take appropriate values, we easily find the following expressions:
cosh p` + Rq sinh p`
i0 = V 0 q
,
(1.81)
sinh p` + Rq cosh p`
V0 R q
V1 =
,
(1.82)
sinh p` + Rq cosh p`
V0 q
i1 =
.
(1.83)
sinh p` + Rq cosh p`
Some particular cases follow:
B = V0
For R = :
i0 = V0 q
sinh p`
,
cosh p`
V0
,
cosh p`
= 0.
(1.84)
V1 =
(1.85)
i1
(1.86)
For R = 0:
i0 = V0 q
cosh p`
,
sinh p`
V1 = 0,
V0 q
i1 =
.
sinh p`
(1.87)
(1.88)
(1.89)
17
VOLUMETTO I
For12 r = g = 0:
q
i0 = V0
V1 =
V0 R C/L
q
,
(1.91)
i1 =
V0 C/L
q
.
(1.92)
For r = g = 0 and R = :
q
q
sin LC`
i0 = V0 C/L j
= C/L j tan LC`, (1.93)
cos LC`
V
0
V1 =
,
(1.94)
cos LC`
i1 = 0.
(1.95)
For r = g = R = 0:
s
1
C
j
,
L tan LC`
i0 = V 0
V1 = 0,
[]
(1.97)
C
1
j
.
L sin LC`
i1 = V 0
(1.96)
(1.98)
13
12 @
Z
sinh Y Z,
(1.99)
V1 = V0 cosh Y Z + i0
Y
Y
sinh Y Z.
ii = i0 cosh Y Z + V0
(1.100)
Z
After performing a series expansion, the first terms read
13 @
V1
V0
1 +
YZ
2
+ i0 Z
1 +
YZ
6
(1.101)
18
10.
1
K0 =
4
V0
+
r
V0 V
d ,
d2
(1.107)
11.
i0
1 +
YZ
2
ii
1 +
ii
1 +
YZ
6
YZ
YZ
+ i0 Z 1 +
2
4
YZ
i0 1 +
+ V0 Y,
2
V0
+ V0 Y
V1
(1.102)
(1.103)
YZ
+ i0 Z,
2
YZ
YZ
+ V0 Y 1 +
.
i0 1 +
2
4
V0
1 +
(1.104)
(1.105)
(1.106)
VOLUMETTO I
19
netization of the conductor (if this is a magnetic one) in the thin surface
layer where the current is flowing. The second contribution to the magnetic field tends to zero, because the volume of the considered surface
layer tends to zero, while the magnetization magnitude doesnt increase
indefinitely. It then follows that inside the conductor the field produced
by the current is also zero in the limiting case. Let us decompose the
current that flows through every element of the boundary of the conductor into two components, one with zero phase and the other having
phase equal to /2. Inside the conductor both the field due to the first
component and the field due the second component must vanish. We
can replace the elementary currents of equal phase with elementary DC
currents having the same effective intensity; the field due to the former
is the same as the effective field due to the latter. It is well known that
the magnetic field produced by a set of parallel and rectilinear DC currents is orthogonal and numerically equal to the electric field generated
by a set of charges distributed along straight lines coinciding with the
current axis and having linear charge densities numerically equal to the
current intensities. In our case, if we replace the elementary currents
flowing through the edge of the cross section of the conductor with such
charge densities, we have a surface charge density distribution on the
whole conductor that is numerically equal to the linear current density.
On the other hand, such a distribution must produce no field inside
the conductor, so it must be the same as the distribution of an isolated
charged conductor. This distribution is perfectly determined up to a
constant factor, and since its surface densities are proportional to the
linear (phase 0 or phase /2) current densities, we can conclude that:
(1) The elementary currents that flow on the surface of the conductor
all have the same phase.
(2) The linear densities of these currents are proportional to the surface density (which has to be computed on the surface elements
where the currents are flowing) of a certain charge distribution as
in an isolated charged conductor.
Let us now study the dependence of the surface current density upon
the depth of the thin conductor layer. Since the thickness of this layer is
infinitesimal, we can assume the surface of the conductor to be a plane
in a region having a large extension with respect to its thickness, so
that both the current density and the field are functions of the depth
of the layer only. Let us fix a right-handed Cartesian reference frame
with origin on the surface, its x axis along the direction of the current
and its z axis along the inward direction normal to the surface. Clearly,
neglecting small quantities, the magnetic field is aligned with the y axis,
20
even though its orientation does not necessarily coincide with it. If u
is the (complex) current density, H the (complex) magnetic field, and
the electric resistivity, neglecting the displacement current which has
no relevant role, Maxwells equations take the form
H
z
u
z
= 4 u,
=
(1.108)
j
H.
(1.109)
u = a e 2/ (1+j) z + b e 2/ (1+j) z .
(1.110)
(1.111)
The first term of the expression above must have a zero coefficient, since
it diverges for large z; thus well have
u = u0 e 2/ (1+j) z .
(1.112)
This equation represents a damped wave travelling from outside to inside. The damping factor
p is equal to the
pdephasing constant, as for heat
propagation, and it is 2/ = 2 f /. The wavelength and the
propagation speed are, respectively,
s
2
=
v = f =
,
f
f
,
(1.113)
(1.114)
u
0
4
0
r
1
u0
u0
=
.
2 2 f
2 2
u dr =
(1.115)
(1.116)
It follows that there is a 45o phase difference between the whole current
in the conductor and the current flowing in the outer surface layer. In
21
VOLUMETTO I
mechanical measure units, the heat per unit time and unit conductor
surface produced by the Joule effect is
Z
Z
2
2
|u| dz = |u0 |
e4 f /z dz
q =
0
1
= |u0 |2
4
= |u0 |2
.
f
4
(1.117)
We shall call equivalent a layer of thickness s such that the same quantity
of heat is produced when a current flows in it with uniform density at
any depth. Then, we would have
|d|2
= |u0 |2
;
s
4
and, using Eq. (1.116), we deduce that
=
s =
2
2
(1.118)
.
f
(1.119)
As far as the Ohmic resistance is concerned, the current flows inside the
equivalent layer with a density that is independent of its depth but which
varies along the boundary of the conductor. Thus, it is not correct to
compute the resistance per unit length by dividing the resistivity by the
area of the cross section of the whole equivalent layer. This is correct
only if the cross section is circular, while in all other cases this method
underestimates the real values.
Let us now consider a conductor with a circular cross section of radius
r. The equivalent cross section has the shape of a ring, with outer
radius r and thickness s; its area is then 2rs s2 . Note that s is
infinitesimal and that it was determined in first approximation, i.e., up
to second-order terms. Consequently, in order to prove the consistency
of Eq. (1.119) under inclusion of the term s2 in the expression for
the area above, we should reason as follows. Let us denote by A the
area of the equivalent cross section. Then, by using Eq. (1.63), we find
approximately
r2
=
A
1
1
p+
=
2
4
1
2
r +
= r
2
4
1
f
+ .
(1.120)
A =
f
1
+
= r
1
r
1
1+
4r f
22
= r
,
f
4 f
(1.121)
A = 2 r s s2 = 2 r
s
2
s,
(1.122)
as we anticipated.
Let us now turn to cross sections of arbitrary shape. Our method
will be that of considering, as far as the resistance is concerned, circular
equivalent cross sections for infinitely large skin effect. We must note,
though, that, as the frequency goes to infinity, such equivalence holds,
in general, only to first order. Thus, by computing the radius of the
equivalent circle and the cross section of the equivalent layer using Eq.
(1.122), we will be making a second-order error and not one of order
three, as we may think from Eq. (1.122). Despite the fact that the error
that we make in estimating A by Eq. (1.122) is of the same order as
s2 , nevertheless it is better to take into account such a term, as this
yields a better approximation.
Apart from a constant factor, the heat produced per unit time and
unit length of the conductor by the linear current density d and by each
element d` of its boundary is d2 d`, so that the total heat per unit length
and time is
Z
Q = c
d2 d`,
(1.123)
while the total current intensity is
Z
i =
d d`.
(1.124)
On replacing the given cross section with the equivalent circle of length
p, we find
Z
2
1
Q = c
d d` ,
(1.125)
p
from which one gets
Z
p =
2 Z
d d`
d2 d`.
(1.126)
(1.127)
23
VOLUMETTO I
Table 1.2. Some values for the radius r of the equivalent circle for the limit skin
effect in a conductor with elliptic cross section (with semi-axes a and b). In the last
two columns, the radii rA and rp of the circles having the same area and the same
length, respectively, of the elliptic cross section are also reported.
a
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
12.
12.1
b
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
r
0.949
0.897
0.843
0.787
0.728
0.666
0.598
0.520
0.425
0
rA
0.949
0.894
0.837
0.775
0.707
0.632
0.548
0.447
0.318
0
rp
0.951
0.903
0.857
0.813
0.771
0.733
0.698
0.669
0.647
0.637
p
q
a2 sin2 t + b2 cos2 t
(1.128)
d` =
(1.129)
p = 2r = 4
Z
2
p
dt
a2 sin2 t + b2 cos2 t
!1
(1.130)
24
Fig. 1.2. A regular section of a conductor on which a wave-like edge has been
superimposed.
r =
2
dt
a2 sin2 t + b2 cos2 t
!1
(1.131)
In Table 1.2 we report some numerical values for r. From this Table
we see that the equivalent circle is always better approximated by the
circle having the same area as the cross section, rather than by the
one with the same length; although the ratio between the radii of the
equivalent circle and the circle having the same area tends to infinity for
infinite eccentricity. Nevertheless, for b/a = 0.1, this ratio doesnt reach
the value 1.35. The suggestion of some authors of replacing an irregular
cross section with the circle having the same length, rather than with the
circle of the same area, seems then erroneous, even as an approximation.
This conclusion is confirmed by the following discussion.
12.2
Let us assume that a cross section with a regular boundary (i.e., one
with a radius of curvature that is never too small with respect to the
dimensions of the cross section) is replaced with another cross section,
nearly overlapping the first but with a wave-like edge. It is clear that the
area enclosed by these two differently shaped boundaries will be nearly
the same, whereas their length might be significantly different. The
25
VOLUMETTO I
B
Fig. 1.3. A small part of the section of Figure 1.2 (see text).
question to be addressed is how these differences are reflected in the
apparent resistance in the regime of an infinite skin effect. To facilitate
the calculations, we shall assume that the wave pattern superimposed on
the regular edge is infinitely small. Consider a small part of the boundary
of the regular cross section, containing however many oscillations of the
edge wave pattern. Let the conductor be charged with a charge q per
unit length; if d now is the charge density, the length of the equivalent
circumference will be (cfr. Eq. (1.126))
Z
p = q2
d2 d`
(1.132)
Apart from a factor 2, the term d2 d` has the same numerical value as
the electrostatic stress on the surface element14 d`
u. It is thus clear
that the charge distribution does not vary much if we take the irregular
edge instead of the regular one, as long as we consider parts of it that
are long enough to contain many oscillations.
It follows (see Fig. 1.3) that the same electrostatic stress acts on the
plane15 s u
relative to the regular cross section as well as on s0 u
26
relative to the wavy one. However, in the first case the resulting stress derives from the composition of nearly parallel elementary stresses, whereas
in the second case the elementary stresses are pointing in different directions. It then follows that in the latter case the arithmetic sum of the
elementary stresses is larger. Consequently, from Eq. (1.132) we deduce
that p, relative to the irregular cross section, is larger than the corresponding one for the regular section, whilst the radius of the equivalent
circle is smaller. By combining this result with those we derived above
for elliptic cross sections, we can intuitively conclude that, for a rather
long cross section with small irregularities (such as that of a railroad),
the radius of the equivalent circle is only slightly larger than that of
the circle having the same area as the cross section, while it is sensibly
smaller than the radius of the circle having the same length.
13.
HYSTERESIS IN MAGNETIC
CONDUCTORS IN THE LIMIT SKIN
EFFECT REGIME
The results in Sec. 1.11 for the limit skin effect were obtained by assuming a constant magnetic permeability and neglecting hysteresis. To
some extent the effects of hysteresis can be roughly taken into account
by introducing a phase delay in the induction field with respect to the
magnetic field. Using the notation of the symbolic method, the quantity
, which is the ratio between different AC quantities having different
phase values, is imaginary and has argument , which we shall regard
as constant in order to facilitate the calculations. Let us write as
= 0 ei .
(1.133)
All the formulae in Sec. 1.11 in symbolic notation will still hold as long
as is treated as a complex number. If we then insert Eq. (1.133) into
Eqs. (1.112) and (1.115), we get
q
one-dimensional line, which thus does not suffice to define the surface) and an auxiliary unit
vector. In the same manner, a surface is also defined in the case of a wavy-edge cross section.
The unit vectors s
and s
0 are the curvilinear abscissas on the regular and the irregular
edge, respectively.
27
VOLUMETTO I
and
u0
d =
2
20 f
cos 45
2
j sin 45
2
o
(1.135)
It follows that the delay between the current and the electric field on
the surface of the conductor is 45o /2. Equations (1.113), (1.114),
and (1.119) then become
r
=
s
,
o
20 f sin(45 /2)
(1.136)
1
f
,
o
20 sin(45 /2)
r
2 1
,
= |u0 |
4 20 f cos(45o /2)
r
cos(45o /2)
=
.
20 f
v =
q1
s1
(1.137)
(1.138)
(1.139)
From Eqs. (1.136) and (1.139), it follows that the hysteresis increases
the wavelength and decreases the losses due to Joule effect. However,
the quantity q1 in Eq. (1.138) is the heat due only to the Joule effect,
and in Eq. (1.139) s1 is not the true thickness of the equivalent layer,
but only the one related to the Joule effect. We shall then denote by
q the total energy loss and by s the thickness of the actual equivalent
layer, also accounting for hysteresis. The energy flowing in a unit time
through the surface of the conductor that is transformed into heat is, by
the Poynting theorem,
EH
q =
cos ,
(1.140)
4
where E is the effective electric field at the surface of the conductor,
H the effective magnetic field, and the phase difference between the
electric and magnetic fields. In our case well have
E = |u0 | ,
H = 4 |d| = 2 u0
= 45o
and thus
q =
s =
|u0 |2
2
,
2
(1.141)
,
20 f
(1.142)
(1.143)
cos 45o
,
20 f
2
r
1
.
2 cos(45o /2) 20 f
(1.144)
(1.145)
28
|u0 |2
= q q1 =
4
sin
,
20 f cos(45o /2)
= sin .
(1.146)
(1.147)
Introducing then the heat q0 that would be produced for the same
current if there were no hysteresis or for the same value of |u0 | [which is
the same, because of Eq. (1.135)], we find
q
q0
q0 q1
q2
1
4
,
0 f
= cos
+ sin ,
2
2
sin /2 + cos /2 1
=
.
sin
q0 = |u0 |2
(1.148)
(1.149)
(1.150)
From the last equation, we note that for a small hysteresis one half of the
loss due to hysteresis is compensated by the decreased loss due to the
Joule effect; in the strong hysteresis regime this balancing is relatively
smaller. From Eq. (1.147) we can also see that the ratio between the
loss due to hysteresis and that due to Joule effect is independent of the
frequency.
Finally, we observe that if on a straight line we consider the points
O, Q0 , Q1 , and Q, with OQ0 = q0 , OQ1 = q1 , OQ = q, we obtain a
harmonic group.16
14.
16 @
Such geometric properties seem to derive from Eqs. (1.147), (1.149), and (1.150).
In the original manuscript, the heading refers to Newtonian masses rather than to
charges, while the material presented both in this and in the following Section leads one
to consider charges and the electric or magnetic field produced by them. However, the results are quite general, due to the similarity between the Newton and Coulomb laws.
17 @
29
VOLUMETTO I
given by18
2K
E =
r
1 x 1 9 x3 1 9 25 x5
+ 3 + 5 + . . . r ,
2 r
2 8 r
2 8 24 r
(1.151)
r2
3 r4
3 15 r6
3 15 35 r8
+
+
+ . . . r . (1.152)
x2 4 x4 4 16 x6 4 16 36 x8
In both the series, which always converge, the coefficients of the terms
(x/r)n approach the asymptotic value 2/ as n .
15.
Let i be the current intensity and r the radius of the circle. If x is the
distance from the center of the circle, the field inside it is19 :
2i
H =
r
3 x2 3 15 x4 3 15 35 x6
1 + 2 + 4 + 6 + ... n
,
4 r
4 16 r
4 16 36 r
(1.153)
1 r3
1 9 r5
1 9 25 r7
1 9 25 49 r9
3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + ... n
.
2 x
2 8 x
2 8 24 x
2 8 24 48 x
(1.154)
The above equations can easily be derived from those of the previous
paragraph.
2i
H =
r
30
16.
Ra = Rc 1 + c p2 ,
(1.155)
E = 2 u
b
a
x2 +
y2 ,
a+b
a+b
(1.156)
(1.157)
3 2k + 3k 2
.
12(1 + k)2
(1.158)
In Table 1.3 we show the value of the coefficient c for some vales of k.
31
VOLUMETTO I
Table 1.3. Some values of the shape coefficient c for conductors with elliptic cross
sections, with axis ratio k. In the last column we also report the difference between
the coefficient c for a given k and for the previous k value.
k
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
17.
c
0.0833
0.0838
0.0854
0.0885
0.09375
0.1019
0.1139
0.1317
0.1574
0.1949
0.2500
OSCILLATING DISCHARGES IN
CAPACITORS
2 LC
T = q
,
1 R12
LC
t = q
arccos R1 ,
1 R12
t
T
imax =
=
arccos R1
,
2
(1.159)
(1.160)
(1.161)
Q
Q
Rt
arccos R1
=
exp
exp R1 q
(1.162)
2L
LC
LC
1 R12
Q
RT arccos R1
exp
2L
2
LC
Q
tR1
=
exp
LC
LC
32
T R1
k = exp
LC
R1 2
= exp q
1 R12
(1.163)
R12
log R1 +
1
q
LC
,
R12 1
t =
(1.164)
R1
q 2
R1 1
R1 + R12 1
LC
Q
t R1
exp
.
LC
LC
imax =
=
(1.165)
log 2R1
2L
LC
=
log 2R1 ,
R1
r
.
=
4R13
LC 2R1
t =
imax
(1.166)
(1.167)
18.
L = 4 n `
1
1
1 2
r1 + r1 r2 + r22 ,
2
3
6
(1.168)
with n denoting the total number of turns per cm, ` the length of the
coil, r1 its inner radius, and r2 its outer radius. The previous equation
may also be written as
L = 4 n2 ` S,
(1.169)
with
3S1 + 2 S1 S2 + S2
S =
,
8
(1.170)
33
VOLUMETTO I
Table 1.4. Oscillating discharges in capacitors: numeric values for some quantities
defined in the text.
r
R/
4L
C
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
2
10
100
2 LC
1.000
1.005
1.021
1.048
1.091
1.155
1.250
1.400
1.667
2.294
2 LC
0.2500
0.2352
0.2224
0.2112
0.2013
0.1925
0.1845
0.1773
0.1707
0.1647
0.1592
0.1210
0.0479
0.0084
t
T
0.2500
0.2341
0.2180
0.2015
0.1845
0.1667
0.1476
0.1266
0.1024
0.0718
0.0000
Q
imax /
LC
1.000
0.863
0.756
0.672
0.603
0.546
0.499
0.459
0.424
0.394
0.368
0.218
0.049
0.005
k
1.000
0.532
0.277
0.139
0.064
0.027
0.0090
0.0021
0.00023
0.000002
0.000
where S1 and S2 are the inner and outer cross sections of the coil, respectively. If the relative difference between S2 and S1 is not very large,
we can approximately express S as
S =
1
(2S1 + S2 ).
3
(1.171)
Clearly, Eq. (1.169) also holds for non-circular cross sections, as long as
the various layers of turns are uniformly stacked and have homothetic
cross sections.20
19.
Let R be now the radius of a circular plate on which the charges are
uniformly distributed, the charge density and Q the total charge. The
20 @
34
2
Q.
R
(1.172)
Having fixed a coordinate system Oxyz with its origin in the center of
the circle and with its z-axis perpendicular to it, the following relation
holds for the components Ex , Ey , Ez of the field at any point outside the
charge distribution:
Ex
Ey
Ez
+
+
= 0.
x
y
z
(1.173)
(1.174)
=
.
z
z
(1.175)
Note, from this expression, that Er /r takes the same numerical value
(apart from the sign) as the component Hz of the magnetic field produced by a current of intensity flowing along the circumference of .
The expression for such a quantity is known in terms of a series expansion (see Sec. 1.15). On substituting it into Eq. (1.175), we can derive,
for the points inside , that
3 r2
3 15 r4
3 15 35 r6
1 + 2 + 4 + 6 + ... ,
4 R
4 16 R
4 16 36 R
(1.176)
quantity r denoting the distance from the center.
The component Er of the field in the xy plane is radial and in this
plane depends only on r. We have
Ez
2
=
z
R
Ex =
Ey =
x
Er ,
r
y
Er .
r
(1.177)
(1.178)
35
VOLUMETTO I
Taking their derivatives and substituting them into the Laplace equation,21 we find
!
3 15 r4
3 15 35 r6
3 r2
1 + 2 + 4 + 6 + ... .
4 R
4 16 R
4 16 36 R
(1.179)
This equation allows us to express Er as a series expansion in r; one gets
Er
Er
2
+
=
r
r
R
1 3 r3
1 3 15 r5
1 3 15 35 r7
r + 2 + 4 + 6 + ... .
2 4 R
3 4 16 R
4 4 16 36 R
(1.180)
The potential at a distance r from the center will be
Er =
R
= V0
Q
R
Z r
Er dr
1 r2
1 1 3 r4
1 1 3 15 r6
2 2 2 4 2 6
2 R
2 2 4 R
2 3 4 16 R
1 1 3 15 35 r8
2 8 + ...
2 4 4 16 36 R
"
1
r2
1 3 r4
1 3 15 r6
Q
2
+
+
R
2 R2 4 4 R4 9 4 16 R6
1 3 15 35 r8
+ 8 + ...
16 4 16 36 R
Q 2
R
!#
1 + (r/R) cos
(1.181)
d.
(1.182)
VR
Q
1
=
2
R
2
8
4
Q 4
Q
= 1.2732 .
R
R
(1.183)
21 @
Z R
0
V r dr/
Z R
r dr
Q
1
1
1 3
1 3 15
2
+
+
+ ...
R
2 12 43 4 94 4 16
!#
1
3 15 35 63 4(n 1)2 1
+ 2
+ ...
n (n 1) 4 16 36 64
4(n 1)2
36
=
=
1
32
Q
2
4
R
2
3
4
Q
VR = 1.69765 .
3
R
Q 16
16
=
R
R 3
3
(1.184)
1
Q2 8
Q2
Q Vm =
= 0.84883
.
2
R 3
R
(1.185)
20.
(1.186)
SELF-INDUCTION IN A RECTILINEAR
COIL WITH FINITE LENGTH
Were the coil of infinite length, then, regardless of the winding width
and of the shape of its cross section, the field at any point P would be
directed along the coil and would have the magnitude 4ni, where i is
the current intensity and n is the number of turns per unit length. If,
by contrast, the coil has a finite length, the resulting field gets one more
contribution. In this case we should in fact also add the field generated
by two surface distributions of magnetic charges 1 and 2 , located at
the beginning and at the end of the coil, with surface density ni and ni,
respectively. Let us assume that a unitary current intensity is flowing in
the coil; then the densities of the distributions 1 and 2 can be simply
written n and n. If we now fix a reference frame with its x axis along
the direction of the coil, the components of the resulting field at an
arbitrary point will be
Hx = 4 n + Hx0 ,
Hy = Hy0 ,
Hz =
Hz0 ,
(1.187)
37
VOLUMETTO I
Hx0 , Hy0 , Hz0 being the contributions to the total field from the 1 and 2
distributions. The total energy of the system is
1
=
8
(1.188)
where the integral extends over all of space. Since i = 1, it is also true
that
1
= L,
(1.189)
2
which yields
1
L =
Z 4
=
4 n2 dV + 18
The first of the three terms is the self-induction L1 of the coil when
its transverse dimensions are negligible compared to its length or, more
precisely, if the flux in each turn of the coil is the same as for a coil
of infinite length. The second term is twice the proper energy 0 of the
joint 1 and 2 distributions.
As for the third term, we note that the coefficient n must be taken as
zero not only around the coil but also next to its ends. Then, the only
place where the integrand does not vanish is on the cylindrical region
that has such end surfaces as bases. On carrying out first the integration
with respect to x, and letting ` denote the length of the coil and S its
normal section, one finds
Z
2n Hx0 dV
dy dz
Z a+`
a
2n Hx0 dx,
(1.191)
a
being the abscissa of the lower side of the coil. Now, the integral
R a+`
Hx0 dx is the difference in the magnetic potential due to the 1 and
a
2 distributions between two corresponding points in the outermost cross
sections of the coil. If E is the magnetic potential due to 1 and 2 at
a point on the upper side, then, by symmetry, the potential at the
corresponding point on the lower side must be E. It is then possible
to rewrite the foregoing equation as
Z
2n Hx0 dV
R
4n E dy dz.
(1.192)
(1.193)
38
we finally obtain
K = 1
21.
20
.
L1
(1.194)
5
R = 0.8333 R.
6
(1.195)
3
R = 0.58905 R.
16
(1.196)
(1.197)
(4) Geometric mean of the distances among the elements of a rectilinear segment of length a:
dm = R e3/2 = 0.2231 a.
(1.198)
128
R = 0.9054 R.
45
(1.199)
Sec. 2.38.6.
39
VOLUMETTO I
(7) The n-th root of the mean value of the n-th power of the distances
among the surface elements of a circle of radius R for even and
odd n, respectively, are
s
dm = 2R
dm = 2R
22.
32
246 (n + 1)
. (1.202)
(n + 2)(n + 4) 357 (n + 2)
2
1
1
+
2
3 2
4
=
1
+
3
3 15 2
4 16
+ ...
4 log 2 2
.
/2
(1.203)
1 3 1 315
1 31535
1 3153563
1+ +
+
+
+ ...
4 4 9 416 16 41636 25 4163664
(2)
= 4
8
.
(1.204)
1 1
1 1 3 1 1 315 1 1 31535
2 + 2 + 2
+
+ ...
2 1
3 2 4 4 3 416 5 42 41636
(3)
= 4
(4)
(5)
(1.201)
(1)
16
135 (n + 1)
,
(n + 2)(n + 4) 246 (n + 2)
23 See
1+
(1.205)
1 1
2
+ + ... =
.
4 9
6
(1.206)
1
1
1
+
+
. . . = 1.2021.
8 27 64
(1.207)
1+
24
32
.
3
40
(6)
1+
1
1
1
4
+
+
+ ... =
.
16 81 256
90
1
.
1x
(1.209)
x
.
(1 x)2
(1.210)
(7)
1 + x + x2 + . . . =
(8)
x + 2x2 + 3x3 + . . . =
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
sin x +
(15)
(1.211)
x(1 + 4x + x2 )
.
(1 x)4
(1.212)
1
1
+x
sin 2x + sin 3x + . . . =
,
2
3
2
0 < x < .
sin (n + 1/2) x 1
.
2 sin x/2
2
(1.215)
(16)
(1.213)
(14)
x(1 + x)
.
(1 x)3
1
1
sin 3x + sin 5x + . . . = ,
3
5
4
sin x +
(1.208)
(1.217)
1
+
+
+ . . . = x2 x + 2 ,
1
4
9
4
2
6
0 < x < 2.
(1.218)
41
VOLUMETTO I
23.
SELF-INDUCTION OF A FINITE
LENGTH RECTILINEAR COIL WITH
CIRCULAR CROSS SECTION AND A
FINITE (SMALL) NUMBER OF TURNS 25
Let us consider a coil with N turns, length `, and diameter d; its selfinduction coefficient can be cast in the form
L = K 2 d2
N2
,
`
(1.219)
4 d
1 d 2
d 6
1 d 4
5
K = 1
+
+
3 `
8 `
64 `
1024 `
8
10
d
d
35
147
+
+ ...
16384 `
131072 `
135 (2n 1) 2 d 2n
1
....
(n + 1)(2n 1)
246 2n
`
(1.220)
1
7 2
101 3
1485 4
4 d
+ p+
p +
p +
p
3 `
8
64
1024
16384
11059 5
83139 6
p +
p + ....
131072
1048576
(1.221)
bn 4/3 n
lim
= 0.
(1.223)
n
bn
bn = a1 n a2 +
25 This
42
Table 1.5. Some values of the correction factor K vs the ratio d/`
d/`
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
K
0.9588
0.9201
0.8838
0.8499
0.8181
0.7885
0.7609
0.7351
0.7110
0.6884
The first terms of the expansion (correct to seven decimal digits) are
K = 1 0.4244132 d/` + 0.125 p + 0.109375 p2 + 0.0986328 p3
+ 0.0906372 p4 + 0.0843735 p5 + 0.0792875 p6 + . . . . (1.224)
If d/` is very large, the following approximate formula may be used:
K =
2
d
log 4
d/`
`
1
2
2
d
log
d/`
`
0.258 .
(1.225)
This result is easily derived from the well-known expression for the selfinduction coefficient of a circular coil. In Table 1.5 we report some
values26 of K corresponding27 to d/` 10.
If d/` is somewhat larger than one, the series expansion in Eq. (1.224)
converges very slowly and the computation of the coefficients becomes
very cumbersome. In this case it is then convenient to use the following
26 The
27 @
p
4 d
+
,
3 `
8 7p
4 d
48p 29p2
+
.
3 `
384 568p + 194p2
In the original manuscript, this Table consists of 40 entries, ranging from d/` = 0.1 to
d/` = 10, but only the first 10 corresponding values of K are reported. By deviating from
the method we have usually adopted, we here prefer not to include the remaining values in
the Table, since it is not clear which formula the author would have used to compute K for
d/` larger than one. We also note that the reported values have probably been obtained from
Eq. (1.220) with n = 10.
43
VOLUMETTO I
expansion28 :
s
K =
d2
d 4
1
13
+
c1
c2 + . . .
4`2
` 3 24
246
13(2n 1)
cn . . . ,
24 (2n + 2)
1+
in which
cn
(1.226)
1 d2n 1 + x2
.
=
2`
(2n)!
dx2n
x=
(1.227)
1 + (d/2`)2
K =
d 4
1
+
h
` 3 16
1
1 + (2`/d)2
1 1 4 (2`/d)2
5 1 12 (2`/d)2 + 8 (2`/d)4
+
h
h
i7/2
i11/2
128
2048
1 + (d/2`)2
1 + (d/2`)2
2
24.
i3/2
+ . . . .
h
i
32768
2 15/2
1 + (d/2`)
(1.228)
Notice that the author is again using a Taylor series expansion, but of a particular kind,
as it can be deduced from the expression for cn .
44
In general, if E is the complex electric field at the surface of the conductor (i.e., the field due both to the potential drop and to the external
flux variations), R1 the AC resistance per unit length of the conductor,
the angular frequency, and i = a + bj the overall current,29 we get
E = (a + b j) (R1 + ` j) .
(1.229)
p =
,
(1.230)
1010 R
R being the DC resistance measured in ohm per km of conductor, we
have (see Sec. 1.4)
1 3
1
1
p + 2 p5 2 p7 + . . . ,
(1.231)
2
2! 3
4! 5
6! 7
1 2
1
1
1
b = m
p 2 p4 + 2 p6 2 p8 + . . . . (1.232)
2
3! 4
5! 6
7! 8
The field E can be computed by multiplying by the surface current
density; with the units used in Sec. 1.4, it is = , and thus one
obtains
a = m
E = m
p2
p4
p6
1 2 + 2 2 + ...
2!
4!
6!
+mj
p3
p5
p7
p 2 + 2 2 + ... .
3!
5!
7!
(1.233)
From Sec. 1.4, we derive the expression for R1 , which can then be
introduced into Eq. (1.229). Thus, having set E = u + vj, we get
` =
av bu
,
a2 + b2
(1.234)
Notice that the author is using the (electro-technical) notation j for the imaginary unit.
In the original manuscript, the results of this Table corresponding to values from p = 4.5
to 100 were lacking. Moreover, a few values of R1 /R differ slightly from the ones reported
here, which have just been obtained following the text.
30 @
45
VOLUMETTO I
Table 1.6. Influence of the skin effect on the effective resistance and self-induction
coefficient of an electric conductor.
p
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
25.
R1 /R
1.0008
1.0033
1.0075
1.0132
1.0205
1.0293
1.0396
1.0512
1.0641
1.0782
1.0934
1.1096
1.1267
1.1447
1.1634
1.1827
1.2026
1.2229
1.2436
1.2646
`/
0.4998
0.4992
0.4981
0.4967
0.4949
0.4927
0.4901
0.4873
0.4841
0.4806
0.4768
0.4728
0.4686
0.4642
0.4597
0.4550
0.4501
0.4452
0.4403
0.4352
p
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
6
7
8
9
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
80
100
R1 /R
1.372
1.479
1.581
1.678
1.768
1.853
2.007
2.146
2.274
2.394
2.507
3.005
3.427
3.799
4.135
4.732
5.256
5.730
6.537
7.167
`/
0.4100
0.3857
0.3633
0.3432
0.3253
0.3096
0.2836
0.2630
0.2464
0.2326
0.2210
0.1814
0.1582
0.1430
0.1327
0.1203
0.1135
0.1096
0.1055
0.1036
(1.236)
46
np(1 p); but if the event has occurred m times well have:
X
Xi = m (1 p) (n m) p = m n p = n e.
(1.237)
We thus deduce that the mean value of e is p(1 p)/n or, using the
usual notations,
s
m
p(1 p)
p =
.
(1.238)
n
n
For the case in which p is unknown and only its approximate value m/n
is given, if we can assume that the difference between these quantities
is so small that the substitution of the latter for the former into the
expression for the mean error doesnt change it significantly, we can
approximately write
s
m 1
p =
n n
m(n m)
.
n
(1.239)
m
m
.
(1.240)
p =
n
n
On multiplying the previous relations by n, they become
s
np = m
m(n m)
,
n
np = m m
26.
(1.241)
m
for small
values .
n
(1.242)
UNBALANCE OF A PURE
THREE-PHASE SYSTEM
B =
(1.243)
(1.244)
47
VOLUMETTO I
27.
x!
1.0000
0.9735
0.9514
0.9330
0.9182
0.9064
0.8975
0.8911
0.8873
0.8857
0.8862
0.8889
0.8935
0.9001
0.9086
0.9191
0.9314
0.9456
0.9618
0.9799
1.0000
n! = C n (n/e)n .
(1.246)
Let us now determine C. Let x be the probability that in 2n trials an
event with probability 1/2 occurs t times. If 2n is very large, we can
31 @
It is not clear how the author obtained the values in Table 1.7, since in this Section
he considered only the limit for large x of the function x!. Probably, half of this Table was
derived from the formula
x (1 x)
x! (1 x)! =
,
(1.245)
sin x
which appears near this Table in the original manuscript.
32 @ Here e is the Napier constant.
48
1
(t n)2
x =
exp
.
(1.247)
n
n
2n
n
(2n)!
22n (n!)2
(1.248)
n
n! = 2 n
.
(1.249)
e
Notice that, for large n, we also have
22n (n!)2
= n.
(2n)!
28.
(1.250)
Let us consider the system shown in Fig. 1.4 and suppose it is in equilibrium. If, using any procedures, we move a unit volume of solid from
vessel 2 to vessel 1 and place it in a thin layer at the boundary between
solid and liquid, we have to do the work
L1 = h (1 2 )
(1.251)
against gravity, where 1 and 2 are the specific weights of the solid and
the liquid, respectively. If we assume, for the moment, that the solid is
a magnetic material while the liquid is not, it is easy to compute how
much work the magnetic field has to perform on the solid unit volume
during the process described above:
L2 =
H 2 1 1
,
8 1
(1.252)
49
VOLUMETTO I
2
L
L
S
p+dp
S
Fig. 1.4. Solid-liquid phase transition in presence of a magnetic field.
1 being the magnetic permeability of the solid. In order to exclude the
possibility of perpetual motion, it must hold
L1 = L2 ,
(1.253)
wherefrom we obtain
h =
H 2 1 1
1
.
8 1 1 2
(1.254)
H 2 1 1 2
,
8 1 1 2
(1.255)
H 2 1 1
V1
.
8 1 V2 V1
(1.256)
T =
(V2 V1 )p,
(1.257)
50
T =
(1.258)
The generalization of Eqs. (1.255) and (1.258) to the case where the
liquid has an arbitrary magnetic permeability 2 is obviously the following:
H 2 1 1 2
2 1 1
p =
+
,
8
1 1 2
2 2 1
H 2 1 1 V1
2 1 V2
T = T
.
8
1
(1.259)
(1.260)
If 1 = 2 = , we obtain
H2 1
,
8
T H 2 1 V1 V2
.
8
p =
(1.261)
(1.262)
In this case the boundary surface between solid and liquid would be at
the same level in both vessels of Fig. 1.4 but, due to the magnetization
of the liquid, the pressure distribution would not be hydrostatic, thus
resulting in p 6= 0.
Similar relations hold if the magnetic field is replaced with an electric
field or if the different phases are liquid-vapor or solid-vapor instead of
solid-liquid.
29.
h
h/kT
(1.263)
In this Section we follow the author in using Plancks constant h instead of replacing it
with the reduced Planck constant h
.
51
VOLUMETTO I
Table 1.8. Specific heat and mean energy of an oscillator (see the text for notations).
1
T
=
p
T0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.5
3
4
5
10
p =
T0
T
5
2.5
1.67
1.75
1
0.83
0.71
0.625
0.556
0.500
0.400
0.333
0.250
0.200
0.100
0
c
k
0
0.1707
0.6089
0.7967
0.8794
0.9207
0.9445
0.9590
0.9681
0.9746
0.9794
0.9868
0.9908
0.9948
0.9967
0.9992
1
kT
0.0000
0.0338
0.2236
0.3873
0.5019
0.5820
0.6417
0.6867
0.7198
0.7476
0.7707
0.8133
0.8427
0.8802
0.9033
0.9508
1
kT0
0.0000
0.0068
0.0894
0.2319
0.4016
0.5820
0.7732
0.9671
1.1517
1.3447
1.5415
2.0332
2.5307
3.5208
4.5167
9.5083
kT
kT0
0.0000
0.1932
0.3106
0.3669
0.3984
0.4180
0.4316
0.4413
0.4483
0.4539
0.4585
0.4668
0.4723
0.4792
0.4833
0.4917
0.5000
d
kp2 ep
=
= k
dT
(ep 1)2
p
p/2
e ep/2
(1.264)
The ratio c/k is always less than 1 and is given in Table 1.8 as a function34 of p. For very large T , Eq. (1.263) becomes
1
= kT h = k
2
1
T T0 ,
2
34 @
In the original manuscript, this Table was almost entirely empty. Apart from the values
in the first two columns (which are input values), the author wrote down only the first and
the last value in the third column and the first value in the fourth column.
52
30.
(1.265)
where is, in general, positive. On the other hand, the probability for
a couple of parents to have a male child may not be the same as W , and
we shall write it as
W1 = W + = 1/2 + + .
(1.266)
(1.267)
(1.268)
(` m)2 =
=
n+4
n + 4
+8
( + )2 (n2 n)
(n n) + 4
(n n).
(1.269)
2
(n n)
(1.270)
Since we have implicitly assumed that the mean value of is zero independently of n, the mean value of the last term on the r.h.s. of Eq.
(1.270) is also zero. We can thus neglect it and write
X
35 @
(` m)2 =
n + 4 2
(n2 n) + 4
53
VOLUMETTO I
(` m)2 =
n + 4 (2 + 2 )
(n2 n).
(1.272)
(` m)2 n
P
2 .
4 (n2 n)
(1.273)
= P
`
1
;
n
2
(1.274)
(` m)2 n
P
4 (n2 n)
`
1 2
P
.
(1.275)
31.
(` m)2 n
P
4 (n2 n)
`
1 2
P
+
P .
(1.276)
54
l
P
O
Fig. 1.5. Heat propagation in one dimension (see text).
U (x, t) of survivors at time t and at a point x. Note that, if there were
no traps, the linear density would be
U0 (x, t) =
2
2
N
ex /2 t .
2t
(1.277)
Moreover, notice that we can still view the individuals falling into the
trap as alive and kicking after their death, as long as, starting from the
moment they fall, another, negative signed individual is associated with
each of them. Then, in order to derive the actual density U , all we have
to do is to subtract from U0 the density U1 of the negative individuals.
The last quantity can be easily obtained by observing that, for x > `,
U1 (x, t) = U0 (x, t),
(1.278)
(1.279)
Thus
U (x, t) = U0 (x, t) U0 (2` x, t)
2
2
2
2
N
=
ex /2 t e(2` x) /2 t ;
2t
(1.280)
e
e
.
3 t 2t
(1.281)
2N ` e1/2 `2 /22 t
e
,
Umax = U (` t, t) =
2 t 2
(1.282)
2
2
2N `
e` /2 t .
2t
(1.283)
55
VOLUMETTO I
(` x) dNa = N `,
(1.284)
32.
COMBINATIONS 36
The sum of the probabilities that an event having probability 1/2 will
take place n times in n trials or in n + 1 trials or in n + 2... or in 2n
trials is equal to 1; expressed as a formula, it writes
n
X
r=0
2n+r
n+r
n
Indeed, it holds
36 See
n+1
X
r=0
2n+1+r
Sec. 2.38.5.
n+1+r
n+1
= 1.
(1.287)
56
n
1 X
1
1
n+r
2n + 1
+
n
n
2 r=0 2n+r
22n+2
X 1 n+r
1
1 n+2
2n + 2
;
n+1
n+1
2 r=1 2n+r
22n+3
and, since
1
22n+2
n+2
X
r=1
2n+r
2n + 1
n
n+r
n+1
2n + 2
n+1
22n+3
n+1
X
r=0
2n+1+r
n+1+r
n+1
one obtains
n+1
X
r=0
2n+1+r
n+1+r
n+1
n
X
r=0
2n+r
n+r
n
(1.288)
33.
r=0
2n+r
n+r
n
= 2.
(1.289)
In this Section we adhere to the authors use of h, rather than rewriting it in terms of
2
h.
38 @ Here and are the energy and frequency of the rotator, while is its angular frequency.
57
VOLUMETTO I
nh
=
.
2
4 2 I
(1.292)
X
n2 h 2
n=0
n2 h2
exp
8 2 I
8 2 IkT
X
n=0
n2 h2
exp 2
8 IkT
X
h0
n=0
h0 2
n exp
n
2
2kT
X
n=0
h0 2
exp
n
2kT
(1.293)
p =
we get
= kT
2 pn2
pn e
n=0
,
X
epn .
(1.294)
n=0
p0
1
kT.
2
(1.295)
pn2
n4 e
= k p2 n=0
c =
X
dT
2
epn
2
X
2
n2 epn
n=0
X
2
pn
n=0
(1.296)
n=0
T0 =
(1.297)
(1.298)
In Table 1.9 the specific heat and the mean energy are shown for different
temperatures.39
39 @
In the original manuscript, the values in the third and fourth column were missing.
58
Table 1.9. Specific heat and mean energy of a rotator vs. its temperature.
T
1
=
p
T0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
3.0
4.0
34.
T0
T
5.00
2.50
1.67
1.25
1.00
0.83
0.71
0.62
0.56
0.50
0.33
0.25
p=
1
kT
2
1.3375
1.5548
1.7763
2.0182
2.2896
2.5927
2.9244
3.2784
3.6486
4.0297
6.0022
8.0001
1
k
2
1.1118
1.1235
1.0867
0.9955
0.8525
0.6829
0.5169
0.3740
0.2613
0.1776
0.0200
0.0018
GRAVITATIONAL ATTRACTION OF AN
ELLIPSOID
(1.300)
The total mass m can be computed easily. Indeed, our distribution can
be viewed as the limit for 0 of a spatially uniform distribution
having volume density / and filling the space between the ellipsoid of
semi-axes a, b, c and the ellipsoid of semi-axes a(1 + ), b(1 + ), c(1 + ).
We then have
h
i
4
m = lim
a b c (1 + )3 1 = 4 a b c .
(1.301)
0 3
As is well known, the ellipsoid in Eq. (1.299) is an equipotential surface,
so the field inside it is zero whereas the field outside it, but near it, is
normal to the surface and has the magnitude
h
i1/2
(1.302)
59
VOLUMETTO I
i1/2
mK h 2 2
x /a + y 2 /b2 + z 2 /c2
.
abc
(1.303)
mK
,
bc
Fb =
mK
,
ca
Fc =
mK
,
ab
(1.304)
respectively.
Let us now construct the equipotential surface that is infinitesimally
close to our ellipsoid. In order to do this, consider a point P on the
outward normal direction originating from another point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ),
such that the distance between P0 and P is
s
dU
abc
ds =
= dU
F
mK
x2 y 2 z 2
+ 2 + 2.
a2
b
c
x = x0 + ( dU )
x0
,
a2
y0
,
b2
z0
,
c2
(1.305)
abc
dU,
mK
(1.306)
and
1 x0
dt,
2 a2
1 y0
y = y0 +
dt,
2 b2
1 z0
z = z0 +
dt;
2 c2
x = x0 +
40 @
(1.307)
Note that F is the gravitational force field related to the gravitational potential U
(see below). Equation (1.302) then is a relation analogous to Coulombs theorem for the
electrostatic field in the proximity of a conductor.
60
2
a + dt
y
b2 + dt
z
2
c + dt
=
=
=
x0
,
a
y0
,
b
z0
.
c
(1.308)
On squaring and summing the above expressions, we obtain the equation that describes the equipotential surface under consideration:
x2
y2
z2
+
+
= 1.
(1.309)
a2 + dt
b2 + dt
c2 + dt
Neglecting infinitesimals of order higher than the first, this surface is
itself an ellipsoid, and the same considerations developed above apply
to it as well. Thus, by introducing another error of order greater than
the first, the surface
x2
y2
z2
+
+
= 1
(1.310)
a2 + 2dt
b2 + 2dt
c2 + 2dt
is again an equipotential surface. In general, up to n infinitesimal errors
of order higher than the first, the surface
x2
y2
z2
+
+
= 1
(1.311)
a2 + ndt
b2 + ndt
c2 + ndt
is equipotential. This means that the ratio of the error to ndt remains
infinitesimal for any ndt. If n in such a way that ndt = t remains
finite, the surface
x2
y2
z2
+
+
= 1
(1.312)
a2 + t
b2 + t
c2 + t
will be exactly equipotential. This one, then, is the general expression for
the equipotential surfaces external to the ellipsoidal mass distribution;
t can take any positive value.41
From Eq. (1.308) we can derive the general expression for the lines of
force:
x =
y =
z =
41 One
a2 + t,
b2 + t,
(1.313)
c2 + t,
can formally prove this by showing that it is possible to construct a function U = U (t)
that obeys Laplaces equation 2 U = 0 and is zero for t .
61
VOLUMETTO I
U (t0 ) =
dt
.
(a2 + t)(b2 + t)(c2 + t)
p
t0
(1.314)
Z
p
0
(a2
dt
.
+ t)(b2 + t)(c2 + t)
(1.315)
As far as the effects outside the ellipsoid are concerned, we may replace
the original distribution of total mass m with a similar distribution of
the same mass placed on a confocal ellipsoid. Thus, we may generalize
Eq. (1.303) to points outside an arbitrary ellipsoid:
F
mK
(a2 + t)(b2 + t)(c2 + t)
1
q
. (1.316)
x2 /(a2 + t)2 + y 2 /(b2 + t)2 + z 2 /(c2 + t)2
From Eq. (1.315), we can immediately derive the gravitational capacitance of the ellipsoid:
Z
C =2
dt
p
2
(a + t)(b2 + t)(c2 + t)
!1
(1.317)
L + M + N = 4 K .
(1.318)
In particular, at the edge of the semi-axis of length a, the force is directed along the inward normal direction, and the absolute value of its
62
(1.319)
with 0 < p < 1. The mass between two ellipsoids having semi-axes of
lengths pa, pb, pc and (p + dp)a, (p + dp)b, (p + dp)c, respectively, is
dm = 4 a b c p2 dp.
(1.320)
This mass acts on the unit mass placed at (a, 0, 0) with a force that is
directed along the x axis and whose magnitude, apart from a sign, is
dF
[a2
p2 (b2
K dm
a2 )] [a2 + p2 (c2 a2 )]
4 a b c K p2 dp
.
[a2 + p2 (b2 a2 )] [a2 + p2 (c2 a2 )]
On setting
a
p =
,
2
a +t
(1.321)
(1.322)
we find
t = (a/p)2 (1 p2 ),
4 a2 b c K dt
p
dF =
,
2 (a2 + t) (a2 + t)(b2 + t)(c2 + t)
(1.323)
(1.324)
and
1
p
.
2
2
2
a
(a + t)(b + t)(c2 + t)
dF = 4 a2 b c K dt
(1.325)
The expression for the resulting force due to the completely filled ellipsoid is obtained by varying p between 0 and 1, or t between 0 and ,
and by summing the contributions
L a = 4 a b c K 2
a
2
Z
p
(a2
dt
,
+ t)(b2 + t)(c2 + t)
(1.326)
that is,
L = 4 a b c K
a2
Z
p
0
(a2
dt
;
+ t)(b2 + t)(c2 + t)
(1.327)
63
VOLUMETTO I
while similar relations hold for M and N . Thus, the force inside and on
the surface of the ellipsoid results to be completely determined:
F = Lxi M yj N zk.
(1.328)
In order to determine the force at points outside the surface, we observe that, m being the total mass of the ellipsoid, Eq. (1.327) can be
cast in the form
Z
L = 3K m 2
a
(a2
dt
,
+ t)(b2 + t)(c2 + t)
(1.329)
a2
Z
p
(a2
dt
.
+ t)(b2 + t)(c2 + t)
(1.331)
(1.332)
35.
1
2
t+
(a2 + t)(b2 + t) a b
(1.333)
(a2
dt
,
+ t)(b2 + t)(c2 + t)
(1.334)
64
Z
h
dt1
(1/4)(a + b)2 + t1
iq
(c2 + t1 )
c2 + t1
.
c2 + t
(1.335)
2
2
The difference between t and t1 is of the order
p a or b and, since c is
2
much greater than both a and b, the factor (c + t1 )/(c2 + t) in the
above integrand is always very close to 1. Since all the other factors do
not change sign in the limit of very large c, we can write
Z
p
0
dt
=
2
(a + t)(b2 + t)(c2 + t)
= q
c2 (1/4)(a + b)2
log
c+
dt1
(1/4)(a + b)2 + t1
c2 (1/4)(a + b)2
(1/2)(a + b)
iq
(c2 + t1 )
(1.336)
and, since the previous relation holds anyway only as a first approximation,
Z
p
0
(a2
4c
dt
2
log
.
=
2
2
c
a+b
+ t)(b + t)(c + t)
(1.337)
mK
4c
log
,
c
a+b
(1.338)
c
.
log [4c/(a + b)]
(1.339)
4c
ab
1 ,
= 4 K 2 log
c
a+b
L = 4 K
M
N
(1.340)
65
VOLUMETTO I
and by
a
b
L(t) = 4 K
,
2
2
a + t a + t + b2 + t
b
a
M (t) = 4 K
,
(1.341)
2
2
b + t a + t + b2 + t
4c
ab
N (t) = 4 K 2 log
1 ,
c
a2 + t + b2 + t
respectively.
II. Let us now suppose a = b, while c is arbitrary. We shall then have
Z
dt
=
2
(a + t)(b2 + t)(c2 + t)
c + c2 a2
2
log
,
a
c2 a2
p
0
c
arccos ,
2
2
a
a c
dt
(a2
+ t)
(c2 + t)
c > a,
(1.342)
c < a.
1+e
1
log
,
c > a,
ce
1e
dt
p
=
2 arcsin e, c < a.
ae
(1.343)
The capacitance and the potential of the filled ellipsoid of mass m are
mK
1+e
log
,
U0 =
2ce
m K arcsin e,
ae
and
C =
c > a,
1e
(1.344)
c < a,
2ce
,
log (1 + e)/(1 e)
e
,
arcsin e
c < a,
c > a,
(1.345)
66
2 K
1 e2
1
log
L = M =
e2
2e
1
1 e2
1+e
N = 4 K
log
2
e
2e
1e
1+e
,
1e
(1.346)
1 ,
p
1 e2 arcsin e
2 ,
e
L = M = 2 K
e2
e
arcsin e p
4 K
1
N =
1 e2 ,
e2
e
(1.347)
for c < a. The functions L(t), M (t), N (t) for a point P outside the
ellipsoid can be computed by replacing and e, of the previous expressions, with the corresponding values for the homothetic ellipsoid passing
through P and having the same mass as the given ellipsoid.
36.
(1.348)
and rotating with angular velocity around the z axis, to be in equilibrium, it is necessary that the sum of the attraction potential and the
centripetal potential be constant throughout the entire surface. This
means that in all the points of the surface the following must hold:
1 2 2
1
1
x + y 2 L x2 + y 2 N z 2 = constant,
2
2
2
or also
L 2
(1.349)
x2 + y 2 + N z 2 = constant.
(1.350)
(1.351)
67
VOLUMETTO I
2
2 2
=
.
2 K
4 K
(1.353)
3
2
=
,
2
(4/3) K
(1.354)
1 e2 .
(1.355)
s = 1
Notice that s is the flattening of the ellipsoid, while measures the ratio
between the repulsive drag force field and the attractive gravitational
field inside the fluid ellipsoid. In particular, = (3/2) is the ratio
between the centrifugal force acting on a mass m at a distance r from
the rotation axis and the attraction force that would be exerted on the
same mass located on the surface of a sphere with radius r and density
. In general, the known quantity is (or ). Then Eq. (1.352) shows
that to a given value of e it corresponds only one value of while, by
contrast, for each value of (smaller than a given limit value) there
exist two values of e. This means that two equilibrium configurations
are possible: One is obtained for weak flattening and is stable, whereas
the other corresponds to strong flattening and is probably unstable. For
increasing , the two solutions get closer, and it exists a value of such
that they coincide. Beyond this limit, i.e., above some angular velocity
value for a given density, equilibrium is no longer possible. For weak
flattening, we have
s =
1 2
15
5
e =
= .
2
8
4
(1.356)
In Table 1.10, we report42 the values of , , and 1000/T 2 as functions of the flattening, being the density relative to water and T the
revolution period in hours. In our computation, K has been set equal
to 1/(1.5 107 ) (c.g.s. units), so that 1000/T 2 = (432/) = 137.51.
42 @ In the original manuscript, only the values of s (first column) were reported. We calculated the corresponding values for the remaining columns from Eqs. (1.352), (1.354), and
(1.353), respectively.
68
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.10
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.14
0.15
0.16
0.17
0.18
0.19
0.20
0.21
0.22
0.23
0.24
0.25
0.26
0.27
0.28
0.29
0.30
0.31
0.32
0.33
0.34
0.35
0.36
0.005322
0.01062
0.01589
0.02114
0.02636
0.03155
0.03672
0.04185
0.04696
0.05203
0.05706
0.06207
0.06703
0.07196
0.07685
0.08170
0.08651
0.09128
0.09600
0.1007
0.1053
0.1099
0.1144
0.1189
0.1233
0.1277
0.1320
0.1362
0.1404
0.1445
0.1486
0.1525
0.1564
0.1603
0.1640
0.1677
0.07983
0.01593
0.02384
0.03171
0.03954
0.04733
0.05508
0.06278
0.07043
0.07804
0.08569
0.09310
0.1005
0.1079
0.1153
0.1223
0.1298
0.1369
0.1440
0.1510
0.1580
0.1648
0.1716
0.1783
0.1850
0.1915
0.1980
0.2043
0.2106
0.2168
0.2228
0.2288
0.2347
0.2404
0.2461
0.2516
1000
T 2
0.7318
1.450
2.185
2.907
3.625
4.339
5.049
5.755
6.457
7.154
7.847
8.535
9.218
9.896
10.57
11.24
11.90
12.55
13.20
13.84
14.48
15.11
15.73
16.35
16.96
17.56
18.15
18.73
19.31
13.87
20.43
20.98
21.51
22.04
22.56
23.06
0.37
0.38
0.39
0.40
0.41
0.42
0.43
0.44
0.45
0.46
0.47
0.48
0.49
0.50
0.51
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
0.60
0.61
0.62
0.63
0.64
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
0.1713
0.1748
0.1782
0.1816
0.1848
0.1880
0.1910
0.1939
0.1968
0.1995
0.2021
0.2046
0.2067
0.2092
0.2113
0.2133
0.2151
0.2168
0.2184
0.2197
0.2210
0.2220
0.2229
0.2236
0.2242
0.2245
0.2247
0.2246
0.2243
0.2196
0.2084
0.1895
0.1613
0.1220
0.06919
0.0000
0.2570
0.2622
0.2674
0.2724
0.2772
0.2819
0.2865
0.2909
0.2952
0.2992
0.3031
0.3069
0.3104
0.3138
0.3170
0.3199
0.3227
0.3252
0.3275
0.3296
0.3315
0.3330
0.3344
0.3354
0.3362
0.3367
0.3370
0.3369
0.3365
0.3294
0.3126
0.2842
0.2419
0.1830
0.1038
0.0000
1000
T 2
23.56
24.04
24.51
24.97
25.41
25.85
26.26
26.67
27.06
27.43
27.79
28.13
28.46
28.77
29.06
29.33
29.58
29.81
30.03
30.22
30.39
30.53
30.65
30.75
30.83
30.87
30.89
30.89
30.85
30.20
28.66
26.06
22.18
16.77
9.514
0.0000
69
VOLUMETTO I
8
44 2
4
3217 4
800
s+
s + s3 +
s +
s5
15
105
15
57911
791113
736
6
n
+
s + . . . + kn s + . . . ,
(1.357)
3571113
= (1 s)
with
37.
n(3n + 5) n!
.
1357 (2n + 3)
kn =
(1.358)
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
We have44 :
(1)
45
Z
1
0
sin nr ek
2 r2
dr =
=
(2)
46
Z +
cos nr e
Z
43 @
(1.360)
x3 sin x dx = 3 6.
(1.363)
x4 sin x dx = 4 12 2 + 224.
(1.364)
n2 /4k2
dr =
e
.
k
(1.359)
(1.362)
(6)
.
2
2k
x2 sin x dx = 2 22.
ex dx
(1.361)
(5)
n/2k
x sin x dx = .
(3)
(4)
k2 r2
70
2n+1
3
x
sin x dx = (1) (2n + 1)!
+ ...
.
3!
(2n + 1)!
0
(1.365)
(8) For integer n 0 [and (1)0 = 1], one gets
Z
2n+1
2 4
2n
x sin x dx = (1) (2n)! 11
+
...
.
2!
4!
(2n)!
0
(1.366)
(9) By using the series expansions for sin and cos , Eqs. (1.365) and
(1.366) can be combined into the single expression:
2n
4
6
2
+
... ,
xn sin x dx = n! n
(n + 2)! (n + 4)! (n + 6)!
0
(1.367)
which probably holds for n > 1, even for non-integer values. For very
large n, we obtain, as a first approximation:
Z
xn sin x dx =
Z +
(10)
Z
0
(11)
(1.368)
(1.369)
ex cos nx dx = en
2 /4
kx2
Z +
x3 dx
n+2
.
(n + 1)(n + 2)
ex 1
n2 /4k
cos nx dx = e
Z +
X
k=1
= 6
1+
.
k
(1.370)
x3 ekx dx
1
1
+ 4 + ...
4
2
3
4
;
15
(1.371)
Z +
sin2 kx
x2
dx = k .
(1.372)
71
VOLUMETTO I
38.
HEAT PROPAGATION IN AN
ISOTROPIC AND HOMOGENEOUS
MEDIUM
Let us consider an isotropic and homogeneous medium with a transmission coefficient c, a specific heat , and a density . The mean square
value of the heat displacement in a given direction in a unit time interval
is (see Eq. (1.286))
2c
2 =
,
(1.373)
2
To determining the temperature distribution, which depends on the specific problem at hand, we can either use the method of sources or derive
particular solutions giving the temperature as the product of a timedependent function and a space-dependent function. In the following,
we are going to study quantitatively the heat propagation along one,
two and possibly three dimensions.47
38.1
One-dimensional Propagation
1.38.1.1. Method of sources. The heat quantity dQ initially concentrated on a cross section at position x0 of an infinite-length bar with
unitary cross section, propagates and distributes itself in such a way
that, from Eq. (1.373), the heat volume density at a point x and at time
is
(
)
dQ
(x x0 )2
(x, ) =
exp
.
(1.375)
22
2
If T0 is the initial temperature at point x0 , the quantity of heat existing
between the cross sections at x0 and at x0 + dx0 can be written as
T0 dx0 . On substituting this expression for dQ into Eq. (1.375) and
then integrating, we can derive the heat density. By dividing by , we
can compute the temperature at any point and at any time:
T (x, ) =
47 @
Z +
(x x0 )2
T
0 exp
22
2
dx0 .
(1.376)
Actually, in the original manuscript, only the one-dimensional case was written down.
72
Notice that, werent the bar of infinite length, we would have to consider suitable boundary conditions. However, there are cases where the
problem can easily be reduced to that of a bar having infinite length.
Let us work out an example:
Consider a finite bar bound by the cross sections S1 and S2 at x1 and
x2 , respectively, with x1 < x2 . Let T0 (x0 ) be the initial temperature
at point x0 , with x1 < x0 < x2 , and assume that the temperatures T1
and T2 of the two ends are constant. The problem is to determine the
temperature T (x, ) at an arbitrary time and at an arbitrary point x
between x1 and x2 . To this end, we shall use the linearity of the heat
propagation equations and decompose the temperature distribution, at
an arbitrary time, into the sum of two terms, one of which is the distribution that describes only the effects of the boundary conditions and is
constant in time. In other words, it holds
x x1
(T2 T1 ) + T 0 (x, ),
x2 x1
x x1
T0 (x0 ) = T1 +
(T2 T1 ) + T00 (x0 ).
x2 x1
T (x, ) = T1 +
(1.377)
(1.378)
Given the initial conditions, the problem is thus reduced to that of finding the temperature distribution along the points of a bar whose ends are
at zero temperature. To determining T 0 (x, ), consider an infinite length
bar and a point x0 on it that is initially at the temperature T00 (x0 ). The
quantity T00 , whatever its analytic expression may be, is for the moment
defined only for x0 between x1 and x2 . If x1 < x0 < x2 and n is an even
integer, let us set
T00 (x0 + n(x2 x1 )) = T00 (x0 ),
(1.379)
(1.380)
The initial temperature is thus defined on every cross section of the bar,
except for a discrete number of cross sections which is irrelevant to
the solution of the problem. Notice that the initial temperature takes
on opposite values at points that are symmetric with respect to the
cross sections S1 or S2 , so that these cross sections are always at zero
temperature. It then follows that the temperature distribution in the
infinite-length bar is, at points between x1 and x2 , exactly the quantity
T 0 (x, ) we are looking for. Now, from Eq. (1.376), we deduce
0
T (x, ) =
Z +
(x x0 )2
T0
0 exp
22
2
dx0 ,
(1.381)
73
VOLUMETTO I
!
2c1
c1
T = Ae
sin
x c2 ,
(1.383)
2 2 /2
sin ( x c) .
(1.384)
x+c .
sin
(1.385)
Another solution is
x/
T = Ae
The solutions in Eqs. (1.384) and (1.385) are special cases of the following, more general solution, from which they can be obtained by setting
= 0 and = , respectively:
2 2 ) /2
T = A e(
ex/ sin
x+c .
(1.386)
Equation (1.386) represents a surface in the space x, , T . Its intersections with planes parallel to the T -axis are, in general, damped sinusoidal
curves. By contrast, for planes parallel to the straight-line
or to
x = 0,
2
( 2 ) x = 0,
2
the intersections are exponential or (non-damped) sinusoidal curves, respectively. The geometric peculiarity of the solutions in Eq. (1.384) and
(1.385) lies in the fact that the surfaces represented by those equations
have sinusoidal intersections with planes parallel to the = 0 plane or
with planes parallel to the x = 0 plane, respectively.
The problem of the cooling of a finite length bar whose ends are at
zero temperature, which has been solved above using the method of
sources, can also be solved by using solutions of the kind (1.384). In
74
x x1
x x1
+ A2 sin 2
+ ...,
x2 x1
x2 x1
(1.387)
2 2
T 0 (x, ) = A1 exp
2(x2 x1 )2
4 2 2
+ A2 exp
2(x2 x1 )2
39.
sin
)
x x1
x2 x1
sin 2
x x1
+ . . . . (1.388)
x2 x1
CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATIONS
Let
(1.389)
dx02
i
dx2i = f (x1 , . . . , xn ).
(1.390)
x0i x0j
Let us put
= m =
f (x1 , . . . , xn ),
0, for i 6= j.
2 x0i
= k(i, r, s).
xr xs
for i = j,
(1.391)
75
VOLUMETTO I
From the theorem of the mixed partial derivatives48 , from the condition
that all the derivatives of the absolute value of the gradients of x0 with
respect to the same variable take on the same value, and from the condition that all the derivatives of the scalar products of such quantities
vanish, we get the following equations (where we are assuming the x
axes to be parallel to the gradients of x0 ):
k(i, r, s) = k(i, s, r),
k(i1 , i1 , s) = k(i2 , i2 , s),
k(i, r, s) = k(r, i, s),
Now, let us put
pr =
(1.392)
for i 6= r.
2 x0r
.
x2r
2 x0s
= ps ;
x2s
(1.394)
(c) for s = i,
k(i, r, i) = k(i, i, r) = pr ;
(1.395)
k(i, r, r) = k(r, i, r) = pi .
(1.396)
(d) for r = s 6= i,
We can also check that, whatever the n quantities p1 ,p2 ,. . .,pn are, the
quantities k(i, r, s) given by Eqs. (1.393), (1.394), (1.395), (1.396) satisfy
Eq. (1.392).
48 @
76
"
2 x01
xr xs
p1
p2
p2 p1
...
pn1 0
pn
0
. . . pn1
...
0
. . . p1
0
...
0
p1
pi 0
0
0 pi 0
0
0 pi
...
"
#
2
0
xi
= p1 p2 p3
xr xs
...
0
0
0
...
0
0
0
pn
0
... ,
. . . p1 . . . 0
. . . p2 . . . 0
p3
0
0
0
0
. . . pi . . . pk
. . . pk . . . 0
... .
. . . pn . . . 0 pi
We deduce that
2 x0i = (n 2) pi .
(1.397)
(1.398)
x0 i y 0 = f (x + iy),
(1.399)
or
where f (x + iy) is an arbitrary analytic function. In the first case, the
rotation direction is preserved, while in the second case it is inverted.
The analytical considerations developed above may have an interesting,
49 @ The generic i matrix has to be understood as the one whose ith row or column is given
by (p1 , p2 , p3 , . . . , pn ), while all the other diagonal elements are equal to pi .
77
VOLUMETTO I
brief confirmation as follows. Let us consider a conformal transformation (1.389) changing a point of the n-dimensional space S into a point
of another space S 0 . From the constraints (1.390) we have that corresponding infinitesimal geometric
p figures are connected by a similitude,
and the similitude ratio k = f (x1 , . . . , xn ) depends in general on the
considered point. Let U be a x-dependent function and let us require
that
U 0 (x01 , ,x0n ) = U (x1 , . . . , xn ).
(1.400)
The flux of the gradient of U through a surface element dS can be written
as
d = | U | dS cos ,
(1.401)
0
while the flux of U through the corresponding element is
d0 = U 0 dS 0 cos 0 .
Since we have a conformal transformation,
U 0 = 1 | U | ,
k
ds0 = k n1 dS,
(1.402)
(1.403)
(1.404)
and thus
d0 = k n2 d.
(1.405)
It follows that, if n = 2 and the flux of U through a closed surface
vanishes, then the flux of U 0 through any closed surface vanishes as well.
In other words, the conformal transformation of a plane into another
plane preserves the harmonic behavior of the harmonic functions. If n
is different from 2, such a property is not in general preserved; unless k
is a constant, in which case the conformal transformation reduces to a
simple similitude.
40.
50 @
(1.406)
In the original manuscript, the old notation h/2 is used, while we here denote the same
quantity by h
.
78
(1.407)
2m
(E U ) 2 = 0.
h2
(1.408)
2 + 2 +
or, multiplying51 by :
2 +
(E U ) 2 dS = 0,
that is,
41.
Z
2
E =
(1.409)
U dS
2 dS .
(1.410)
Es =
Em =
q
e2
2
q
+ 1 v 2 /c2 ,
6a
1 v 2 /c2
(1.411)
e2
v2
q
,
3ac2 1 v 2 /c2
(1.412)
51 @ Notice that, if is complex, one has to multiply by , and in what follows 2 must be
replaced with ||2 .
52 @ It is interesting to read about this subject, for instance, E. Fermi, Correzione di una
contraddizione tra la teoria elettrodinamica e quella relativistica delle masse elettromagnetiche (Correcting a contradiction between the electrodynamic and the relativistic theory
about the electromagnetic masses), Nota Interna della Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa
(1924). Among the subsequent, related papers by Fermi groups members, cfr., for example,
P.Caldirola, Nuovo Cimento A 4, 497 (1979) and refs. therein.
79
VOLUMETTO I
and
Eem = Es + Em
q
e2 1 + v 2 /c2
2q
+ 1 v 2 /c2 .
=
6a
1 v 2 /c2
(1.413)
(1.414)
(1.415)
(1.416)
2
v
2e2
q
Em =
,
v
3ac2 1 v 2 /c2
(1.417)
2 e2
1
m0
q
= q
,
2
3 ac
1 v 2 /c2
1 v 2 /c2
(1.418)
E00 =
e2
1
Eem =
,
3
6a
(1.420)
2 e2
1
q
3 a 1 v 2 /c2
=
53 @
e2
6a
1 + v /c
2 q
1 v 2 /c2
1 v 2 /c2
q
e2 q
1 v 2 /c2 = E00 1 v 2 /c2 , (1.421)
6a
54 @
80
55 @
81
VOLUMETTO I
a2
a
e
e dy dz
p
=
.
2
2
2
y z 4a
4a a2 y 2 z 2
(1.422)
Now, we can imagine that the core is made of longitudinal and transverse strings, each linking two elementary charges symmetric with respect the yz plane. The longitudinal strings compensate the mechanical
actions of the electric field components along the direction of motion.
The transverse strings compensate the mechanical actions of the transverse component of the electric field as well as of the magnetic field
(whose components are by themselves normal to the motion direction)
of the moving charges. The tension in the string tying up the two aboveconsidered elements is
1 e
dt =
2 a2
a2 y 2 z 2
e2
de =
dy dz,
a
8a4
(1.423)
a2 y 2 z 2
` = 2
1 v 2 /c2 .
(1.424)
d (d) = dt d` =
e2 v
a2 y 2 z 2
4a4 c2
1 v 2 /c2
dy dz dv.
(1.425)
d = E 0 ,
we obtain
dE 0 =
e2 v
6a c2
1 v 2 /c2
(1.426)
dv.
(1.427)
82
v2
1 2
c
1
E0
=
mc2
4
which is equal to 1/4 for small velocities. For larger velocities, this
ratio decreases, due to both the decrease of the proper energy and the
increase of the electromagnetic energy; while at the speed of light the
entire electron energy tends to be electromagnetic in nature.
42.
LEGENDRE POLYNOMIALS
1 dn (x2 1)n
2n n!
dxn
(1.428)
0,
Pm Pn dx =
for m 6= n,
2
,
2n + 1
(1.429)
for m = n.
Moreover,
Pn (1) = 1 ,
Pn (1) = (1)n .
Z 1
1
Pn2 dx = 2
2
3
P2 =
3 2 1
x ,
2
2
2
5
P3 =
5 3 3
x x,
2
2
2
7
(1.430)
83
VOLUMETTO I
P4 =
35 4 15 2 3
x x + ,
8
4
8
2
9
P5 =
63 5 35 3 15
x x + x,
8
4
8
2
11
P6 =
2
13
P7 =
2
15
2 IN SPHERICAL COORDINATES
43.
r =
x2 + y 2 + z 2 ,
= arccos z/r,
= arctan y/r.
(1.431)
| | =
(1.432)
(1.433)
(1.434)
1 2V
2V
V
+
+
cot .
2
2
sin 2
(1.435)
2
VOLUMETTO II: 23 APRIL 1928
1.
2 IN CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES
x2 + y 2 ,
y
= arctan .
x
r =
Since:
|r| = 1,
|| =
(2.1)
(2.2)
1
,
r
r = 0,
1
2 r = , 2 = 0,
r
then, from (15) in Sec. 1.8,
2 V =
2.
2V
1 2V
1 V
+
+
.
z 2
r r
r2 2
(2.3)
(2.4)
(2.5)
(2.6)
EXPANSION OF A HARMONIC
FUNCTION IN A PLANE
(2.7)
85
(2.8)
86
Pn0 = rn 0n (),
Pn00 = rn 00n ()
n () = an 0n () + bn 00n ().
(2.10)
(2.11)
We can now choose Pn0 and Pn00 in such a way that 0n and 00n are orthogonal in the interval (0, 2). It will suffice to prove that, for m 6= n, we
always have
Z
2
m n d = 0,
m 6= n.
(2.12)
(2.13)
Z 2
0
m n d.
(2.14)
(2.15)
(2.16)
87
VOLUMETTO II
3.
QUANTIZATION OF A LINEAR
HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
1
p2
K q2 +
= E,
2
2m
(2.17)
1
=
2
K
.
m
(2.18)
The matrices representing p and q, and the ones derived from them,
obey the sum and product rules of matrices and satisfy the following
conditions:
(a) differentiation with respect to time: M rs = (i/
h) (Er Es ) Mrs ;
(b) p q q p = h/i;
(c) H should be diagonal: H = diag(E1 , E2 , . . .);
(d) the matrices must be Hermitian .
From these conditions, it follows that the Hamilton equations hold:
H
,
p
H
p =
.
q
q =
(2.19)
(2.20)
(2.21)
(2.22)
(2.23)
From Eq. (2.22), it follows that the elements of p and q are connected
with each other by the relation
prs = qrs
im
(Er Es ) .
h
(2.24)
88
Moreover, since
m q + K q = 0,
we obtain
Thus, qrs
(2.25)
m
K 2 (Er Es )2 qrs = 0.
h
m
(Er Es )2 ,
h2
(2.26)
(2.27)
which is equivalent to
Er Es = h.
(2.28)
Let us now evaluate the (r, r) element of the matrix pq qp. Due to
the constraint (b), we have
X
h
=
(pr qr qr pr ) ,
i
(2.29)
h
im
=
(Er E )
(qr qr + qr qr ) .
i
h
(2.30)
This is equivalent to
X
(Er E ) |qrs |2 =
2
h
.
2m
(2.31)
All the terms in this sum add up to zero, apart from the two for which,
respectively,
E = Er + h,
E = Er h.
(2.32)
(2.33)
(2.34)
h
.
4m
(2.35)
h |q01 |2 =
that is,
|q01 |2 =
89
VOLUMETTO II
2h
.
4m
(2.36)
By iteration of Eq. (2.31), we can show (by induction) that the eigenvalue E0 + nh exists, n being an arbitrary integer, and we also find
that
n
h
|qn1,n |2 =
.
(2.37)
4m
It follows that the matrix q and, from Eq. (2.24), the matrix p have
both vanishing elements except for the ones adjacent to the diagonal.
Note that both q and p matrices are known, apart from a not essential
(phase) factor, since their arguments are obviously equal and opposite
to those of the complex conjugates of qrs and qsr , prs and psr .
It is now possible to determine the matrix H, to verify that condition
(c) is met and to determine E0 at the same time. From Eq. (2.17) we
have
X
1
1 X
Hrs = K
qr qs +
pr ps ,
(2.38)
2
2m
X 1
K +
m
(Er E ) (Es E ) qr qs .
2h2
(2.39)
All the terms in the sum are zero, apart from those for which differs
from r and from s by one. In order for to take one of these values,
one of the following cases must apply:
(I)
r = s + 2,
(II)
r = s = n,
(III)
r = s 2.
(2.40)
1
m
K +
2 (Es+2 Es+1 )(Es Es+1 ) qs+2,s+1 qs+1,s
2
2
h
1
=
K 2 2 2 m qs+2,s+1 qs+1s = 0.
(2.41)
2
Hs+2,s =
We can reason in a similar manner in case III, and thus the corresponding
matrix is diagonal. In case II, two terms are non-vanishing in the sum,
90
Hn = En
1
m
(En En1 )2 qn,n1 qn1,n
=
K +
2
2
2h
1
m
2
+
K +
(En En+1 ) qn,n+1 qn+1,n . (2.42)
2
2
h2
(2.44)
(2.45)
En =
(2.43)
n
h
1
K + 2 2 m 2
2
4m
1
(n + 1)
h
2
2
+
K + 2 m
;
2
4m
(2.46)
1
K + 2 2 m = K,
2
one gets:
En =
(2 n + 1) h =
(2 n + 1) h = h
2
8 m
2
In particular:
E0 =
4.
n+
1
h .
2
1
.
2
(2.47)
(2.48)
DIAGONALIZATION OF A MATRIX
(2.49)
Srs
= Ssr
.
(2.50)
91
VOLUMETTO II
1
Sri Sis
= rs
or
Sri Ssi
= rs ,
(2.51)
where1
rs =
1,
0,
r = s,
r 6= s.
The matrix SHS 1 corresponds to the matrix H to which the transformation S is applied. We then have
S H S 1
rs
Sri H S 1
XX
is
Sri
1
Hik Sks
(2.52)
(2.53)
(2.54)
(2.55)
XX
i
Hik Smi
X
l
XX
i
Skl Snl
Hik Smi
XX
i
Slk
Sln
Hik Smi kn
Smi Hin ,
Smi Hin = Em mn ,
(2.56)
1@
In the original manuscript, the definition of the Kronecker symbol was given after Eq.
(2.53).
92
that is
Smi (Hin in Em ) = 0.
(2.57)
We can also derive Eq. (2.56), and then (2.57), by exploiting the
associative property of the matrix product. In order to demonstrate
this property it suffices to show that, given any three matrices a, b, and
c,
(a b) c = a b c.
(2.58)
Indeed,
((a b) c)rs =
(a b)ri cis =
ark
XX
i
bki cis =
ark (b c)ks
= (a (b c))rs = (a b c)rs ;
From the relation
q.e.d.
S H S 1 = W,
(2.59)
we then obtain
WS =
S H S 1 S = S H S 1 S = S H,
(2.60)
det
H11 Em
H21
H31
...
HN 1
H12
H13
. . . H1N
H22 Em H23
. . . H2N
H32
H33 Em . . . H3N
HN 2
HN 3
= 0.
. . . HN N Em
(2.61)
It follows that the diagonal elements of the matrix W can be nothing but
the roots of Eq. (2.61). If these are all distinct, it is possible to construct
W in such a way that the diagonal elements are all equal to E. Matrix
S may then be constructed from Eq. (2.57). Indeed, the elements of the
nth row of S may be determined, up to a constant factor, by solving the
system of linear equations mentioned above. The constant factor may
93
VOLUMETTO II
5.
Let us consider the one-dimensional motion along the direction perpendicular to an elastic surface. If x is the distance from the wall and g the
acceleration of the particle, its potential energy is given by
U =
m g x, x > 0,
, x < 0,
(2.62)
+ 2 (E m g x) = 0,
2
dx
= 0,
x > 0,
.
(2.63)
x 0.
2/(m
h2 g 2 ),
(2.64)
d2
2 = x1 ,
dx1
(x = ) = 0,
1
2@
(2.65)
In the original manuscript, after this section, the author planned writing a section on
Laguerre polynomials. However, such a new section was never written.
94
where3
= E
2/(m
h2 g 2 ).
The function must also be regular and finite for < x1 ; as we shall
see, this condition completely determines as a function of x1 up to a
constant factor. If F (x) is such a function, the second one of conditions
(2.65) can be expressed by saying that is a zero of function . One
can then obtain all the possible energy levels from the relation
q
E =
m
h2 g 2 /2.
(2.66)
We can now also evaluate the periodicity modulus for the action,
which we shall denote by S. This will be useful in order to compare the
results from wave mechanics with those that we can deduce from the
Sommerfeld conditions. We have
S = 2
Z E/mg
0
2
4
(E mgx) dx =
m
3g
2 3/2
E
m
(2.67)
(2.68)
(2.69)
= 1+
1
1
1 4
x +
x7 +
x10 + . . . .
= x+
34
3467
3467910
(2.70)
(2.71)
95
VOLUMETTO II
with
M
.
(2.72)
N
We shall prove soon that is finite. We now show that log y does indeed
go to zero sufficiently fast as x . Let us cast an arbitrary solution
of Eq. (2.65) in the form
y = eu .
(2.73)
= lim
We then have
and, for very large x,
u00 + u02 = x
(2.74)
u0 = x.
(2.75)
(3) =
1
;
23
(3n) =
1
.
2356 (3n 1)(3n)
(2.77)
We thus have
M = (0) + (3) x3 + (6) x6 + (9) x9 . . . .
(2.78)
We can define (x) for any x > 2, by making use of the functional
equation
(x)
(x + 3) =
(2.79)
(x + 2)(x + 3)
and by assuming that (x) is evaluated in the limit of very large x
by linear logarithmic interpolation between (3n) and (3n + 3), with
3n < x < 3n + 3. In this limit we evidently have
x2/3 (x + 1)
= 1
(x)
(2.80)
x2/3 (x + )
= 1,
(x)
(2.81)
96
(2.82)
(2.83)
1 42 7 72 10 102 13 132 16
,
2 53
8
113
143
(2.84)
3
3 (2/3)!
= 0.729.
2 (1/3)!
(2.85)
(2/3)
3
=
= (1) = 3
(1/3)
We finally have
It follows that
Sn+1 Sn
=
h
1
,
(2.88)
(2.89)
97
VOLUMETTO II
6.
(2.91)
cP
=
i
mc2 ds + e
Ci dxi .
(2.92)
We have
cP
Z
2
mc x i dxi + e
Ci
xj dxi , (2.93)
xj
Ci dxi + e
that is,
cP
mc x i + e Ci xi
Z
ib
a
mc2 x
i xi ds
Ci
xi x j ds + e
xj
Ci
xj x i ds. (2.94)
xj
mc x
i = e
5@
Cj
Ci
xi
xj
x j ,
(2.95)
In the original manuscript, the approximate value S1 ' 0.76 h was given.
Throughout this section, the author adopted the summing convention over repeated
indices.
6@
98
e
c
e
d m dx/dt
q
dt 1 v 2 /c2
= e
d m dy/dt
q
dt 1 v 2 /c2
Cx x
Cy y
Cz z
+
+
t t
t t
t t
x
y
z
+
+
,
x t
y t
z t
e Cx
e dy
+
x
c t
c dt
e dz
c dt
Cx
Cz
z
x
e dx
c dt
Cy
Cx
x
y
Cz
Cy
y
z
Cy
Cx
,
x
y
e Cz
e dx
+
= e
z
c t
c dt
e dy
c dt
e Cy
e dz
+
= e
y
c t
c dt
d m dz/dt
q
dt 1 v 2 /c2
Cy
Cz
y
z
Cx
Cz
z
x
which then are the equations of motion for the electron. Now, given
an arbitrary surface (that may even degenerate into a single point), the
action P along a line that ends at some fixed point and starts from
a point lying on the surface, such that P is stationary at the lower
extreme, is a function of position. Since the variation of P is stationary
for fixed end points, on keeping the lower end fixed and changing the
upper end by an infinitesimal vector (dx0 , dx1 , dx2 , dx3 ), the variation
of P reduces to (see Eq. (2.94)):
d (cP/i) =
mc2 x i + e Ci dxi ,
(2.96)
or
dP
mc2
e
dx
= q
Cx dx
dt e dt + q
c
1 v 2 /c2
1 v 2 /c2 dt
m
99
VOLUMETTO II
dy
e
+ q
Cy dy
c
1 v 2 /c2 dt
+ q
dz
e
Cz dz.
dt
c
1 v 2 /c2
(2.97)
dx
e
+ Cx ,
dt
c
1 v 2 /c2
px =
py =
e
dy
q
+ Cy ,
c
1 v 2 /c2 dt
pz =
(2.98)
m
e
dz
+ Cz .
c
1 v 2 /c2 dt
P
= px ,
x
P
= py ,
y
P
= pz .
z
(2.99)
2
W
e
+ px
c
c
e
+ py Cy
+ pz
c
2
e
Cx
c
2
e
Cz
+ m2 c2 = 0. (2.100)
c
From Eq. (2.100) we can deduce the Hamiltonian of the system, apart
from a factor 1/2m. Indeed, if is the proper time, denoting by M the
l.h.s. of Eq. (2.100) divided by 1/2m, we get
M
pt
M
px
M
1
dt
= q
=
= t,
W
d
2
2
1 v /c
1
dx
dx
=
= x,
d
1 v 2 /c2 dt
100
M
py
= y,
M
t
M
= z,
pz
1
dCx dx
e
q
t
c
1 v 2 /c2
1 v 2 /c2 dt dt
e
e
1
dCy dy
1
dCz dz
e
q
q
c 1 v 2 /c2 dt dt
c 1 v 2 /c2 dt dt
e
1
q
c 1 v 2 /c2
d
1
dt
c
dCx dx
dCy dy
dCz dz
+
+
dt dt
dt dt
dt dt
dx
dy
dz
x dt
y dt
z dt
2
d
mc
d
dW
= pt ,
q
+
= W
= e
=
d
d 1 v 2 /c2
d
M
x
1 v 2 /c2 x
e
1
q
c 1 v 2 /c2
=
Cx dx
Cy dy
Cz dz
+
+
x dt
x dt
x dt
e
1
Cx
+ q
c 1 v 2 /c2 t
1 v 2 /c2 x
e
e
1
dy
q
c 1 v 2 /c2 dt
e
1
dz
+ q
c 1 v 2 /c2 dt
Cy
Cx
x
y
Cx
Cz
z
x
e
1
dCx
q
c 1 v 2 /c2 dt
d
m
dx
e
q
= q
+ Cx
c
1 v 2 /c2 dt
1 v 2 /c2 dt
=
M
y
dpx
= px ,
d
= py ,
M
= pz .
z
101
VOLUMETTO II
(2.100) become
mc2
+ e = W,
pt = q
1 v 2 /c2
px =
dx
e
Cx ,
c
1 v 2 /c2 dt
(2.101)
py =
dy
e
q
Cy ,
c
1 v 2 /c2 dt
pz =
dz
e
Cz ;
c
1 v 2 /c2 dt
2
W
e
e
+ + px + C x
c
c
c
2
e
+ pz + Cz
+ m2 c2 = 0.
c
7.
py +
e
Cy
c
(2.102)
(0) = 1,
() = 0.
(2.103)
7@
The subject of this section is more commonly known as the Thomas-Fermi function. The
author refers here to E.Fermi, Z. Phys. 48 (1928) 73.
8 @ How the author obtained the numerical values of the now so-called Thomas-Fermi function
is not clear; but they are very accurate.
102
Table 2.1. The Thomas-Fermi function (x), and its derivative, for several points.
x
0
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
(x)
1
0.936
0.882
0.793
0.721
0.660
0.607
0.561
0.521
0.486
0.453
0.424
0 (x)
1.58
1.15
0.995
0.79
0.66
0.56
0.49
0.43
0.38
0.34
0.31
0.29
x
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
5
6
7
8
(x)
0.398
0.374
0.353
0.333
0.315
0.243
0.193
0.157
0.129
0.108
0.079
0.059
0.046
0.036
x
9
10
12
14
16
18
20
25
30
40
50
60
80
100
(x)
0.029
0.024
0.017
0.012
0.009
0.007
0.0056
0.0034
0.0022
0.0011
0.0006
0.0004
0.0002
0.0001
Setting:9
t = 1
1 q 3
x ,
12
Z
= exp
(2.104)
u(t) dt ,
(2.105)
we find
du
dt
16
1
=
+ 8+
u
3(1 t)
3(1 t)
7
2
+
4t u2 t(1 t) u3 ,
3
3
u(0) = ,
= exp
9@
Z t
1
u(t) dt .
(2.106)
(2.107)
(2.108)
The author looked for a parametric solution of the Thomas-Fermi equation in the form
x = x(t),
= (t),
103
VOLUMETTO II
Setting instead10
t = 1441/6 x1/2 1/6 ,
q
u =
4/3
16/3
(2.109)
(2.110)
(2.111)
u(0) =
16/3 00 .
(2.112)
10 @
In the remaining part of this section, only the substitutions in Eqs. (2.109) and (2.110)
are considered. Notice that the method used here by the author is quite different from the
previous one, although it looks similar. The author considered the parametric description of
x and :
x = x(t), = (x(t))
(note that now is a function of t only through its dependence on x). He then translated the
problem in terms of t and u(t), by use of Eqs. (2.109) and (2.110). The procedure he then
adopted is the following: The derivative with respect to t of Eq. (2.110) is taken [considering
= (x(t))] and the Thomas-Fermi equation in (2.103) is substituted in it. Then x (and
its t-derivative) from Eq. (2.109) is got and substituted into the relation just obtained. The
result is a first-order differential equation for u(t) (with the boundary conditions reported
in the text), which is solved by a series expansion (see below). Once u(t) was obtained, the
author did not deduce the expression for the Thomas-Fermi function from Eqs. (2.109)
and (2.110), but he looked again for a parametric solution, of the type
x = x(t),
setting
= (t),
Z
(t) = exp
w(t)dt
where w(t) is a function that can be expressed in terms of u(t) on substituting the above
expression for (t) into Eqs. (2.109) and (2.110). The final result is expressed by Eqs. (2.116)
and (2.117), where the boundary conditions are taken into account as well.
11 @ In the original manuscript, the exponents of the variable t were forgotten.
1
104
a1
a3
a5
a7
a9
'
'
'
'
'
0.455996,
0.222180,
0.129804,
0.0796351,
0.0499053,
00 =
3
16
1/3
(1 + a1 + a2 + . . .) .
(2.115)
The series in the r.h.s. has all positive terms and has a geometric convergence; the ratio between one term and the previous one tends to
approximately 4/5. Once u is known, we can obtain the parametric
equation for the function with simple quadratures. We find
= exp
x = t
Z t
144
6ut
dt ,
1 t2 u
0
1/3
(2.116)
(2.117)
12 @
The author solved Eq. (2.111) by series; he substituted (2.112) into (2.111), thus obtaining an iterating relation for the coefficients a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . (the first coefficient a0 is
given by the boundary condition for x = 0). Using this procedure, one gets the iterative
relation reported in Eq. (2.114). Strangely enough, this is different from the one reported in
the original manuscript, which reads
a1 (an 2an1 + an2 ) + 2a2 (an1 2an2 + an3 )
+3a3 (an2 2an3 + an4 ) + . . . + nan (a1 2a0 )
+8(a0 an + a1 an1 + . . . + an a0 )
8(a0 an1 + a1 an2 + . . . + an1 a0 ) = 0.
(2.113)
However, the remaining discussion and the results presented in the manuscript are all correct,
thus indicating the presence only of an oversight [probably due to the particular hurry]. Notice
also that, as stated by the author, the equations determining the coefficients a2 , a3 , . . . are
linear; while the
equation for a1 is quadratic, and we have to choose the smaller solution,
that is, a1 = 9 73.
13 @ In the original manuscript, only the first five coefficients were given.
105
VOLUMETTO II
8.
'
'
'
'
'
0.0396962,
0.0202322,
0.0130101,
0.00840558,
0.00545216,
a12
a14
a16
a18
a20
'
'
'
'
'
0.0252838,
0.0162136,
0.0104518,
0.00676660,
0.00439678.
n
X
2n2
(2.118)
Z =
(2.119)
Q =
3p/2;
(2.120)
and, since it feels an effective charge Z p, its distance from the nucleus
will be
h2 (3p/2)2/3
r =
.
(2.121)
m e2 (Z p)
In other words, if we set
x1 =
14 @
r
1 r
=
1
2
2/3
'
x
,
1.480
(2.122)
In the original manuscript, the numerical values of all these coefficients were missing.
106
with15
1 =
2 (3/2)2/3
h
' 6.93 109 Z 1/3
m e2 Z 1/3
(2.123)
and thus
(3)2/3
h2
' 4.7 109 Z 1/3 ,
27/3 m e2 Z 1/3
and, furthermore, write the interatomic potential as
=
Ze
1 ,
r
(2.125)
(1 1 + x01 )2/3
.
1 x01
(2.126)
V1 =
we then obtain
x1 =
Indeed,
If we set16
(2.124)
Z p
= 1 x 01 .
Z
(2.127)
t = 1 x 01
(2.128)
and thus
(1 t)2/3
,
t
then, knowing that 1 () = 0, well have17
(2.129)
x1 =
1 = x1
Z x1
t
x2
dx
(2.130)
i
9 h
3
t
1 (1 t)2/3 + ,
4t
2
4
which, with
2/3
x = 2
15 @
(1 t)2/3
,
t
(2.131)
(2.132)
The numerical value reported in the original manuscript is slightly different: 6.96109 .
As already stated, we usually rewrite all the equations in terms of the reduced Planck constant
h instead of using h.
16 @ Here the author applied the same method used in the previous section (a change of
variable) to find the Thomas-Fermilike function 1 .
17 @ Indeed, notice that
0
1
d 1
t
.
2 = 2 + 1 =
x
x
x
dx x
107
VOLUMETTO II
Table 2.2. Comparison between the functions and 1 for several points.
x
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
2
1
0.883
0.793
0.722
0.660
0.607
0.562
0.521
0.486
0.453
0.424
0.243
1
1
0.883
0.793
0.721
0.660
0.608
0.564
0.525
0.491
0.462
0.435
0.276
yields the parametric equation for 1 in the measurement units introduced by Fermi.
It is interesting to make a comparison with Fermis (see18 Table 2.2).
From this, we conclude that our approximate method yields a value for
the electron density near the nucleus that is roughly a sixth of the actual value, and, for the potential generated by the negative charges in
the vicinity of the nucleus, a value that is smaller than the actual one by
roughly 4%. The approximate potential derived above can thus be used
for the K and L series and, with a small error, also for the M series. It
fails though to give correct results for the outermost regions of the atom.
The reason for this is twofold: We have neglected the inversions of the
periodic system and we have approximated the elliptical with circular
orbits. The elliptical orbits are particularly relevant for strongly nonCoulombian fields, such as the ones that are present in the outermost
regions, since, for any given total quantum number, they are closer to
the nucleus than the circular orbits. The expansions of and 1 are
4 3/2
x
+ ...,
3
= 1 1.52 x + 1.11 x3/2 + . . . .
= 1 1.58 x +
1
18 @
(2.133)
(2.134)
108
9.
Let us take the unit charge to be the nuclear charge and the unit length
to be 1/, with, as usual,
=
(3)2/3
h2
= 4.7 109 Z 1/3 .
27/3 m e2 Z 1/3
(2.135)
E =
,
x
x0
.
x2
(2.136)
(2.137)
7
d.
3
(2.139)
if this hypothesis was not correct, the conclusions we have drawn from it would still
hold, because, in any case, the energy variations would be of the second order.
109
VOLUMETTO II
(2.142)
Z
1+
2x
x00 dx = 00 +
1
2
Z
0
02 dx.
(2.143)
00
x dx =
00
Z
0
02 dx.
(2.144)
4 x2
dp0
+ 2x p0 p00
dx
00
+ 0 00 .
x
(2.145)
Denoting by T 0 the kinetic energy (per unit volume) due to the radial
component of the velocity and T 00 that due to the transverse component,
the following relations hold:
p0 = 2T 0 ,
p00 = T 00 .
(2.146)
(2.147)
110
dT 0
x
+ 2x2 T 0 x2 T 00
dx
1
( 00 + x 0 00 );
2
(2.148)
Z
0
4 T 0 + T 00 dx =
1 0
1
0
2
4
Z
0
02 dx.
(2.149)
Z
0
02 dx,
(2.150)
(2.151)
02 dx =
2 0
.
7 0
(2.152)
We can then cast Eqs. (2.143), (2.144), and (2.149) in the very simple
form
U
U1 =
T
T
U
T
U1
=
=
=
6 0
,
7 0
5 0
,
7 0
3
00 ,
7
1
,
2
3
.
5
(2.153)
(2.154)
(2.155)
(2.156)
(2.157)
20 @
3 0
,
7 0
2 0
;
7 0
(2.158)
The original manuscript contains, at this point, the following paragraph: I have not
been able to prove directly this relation by following a mathematical procedure. However, I
have directly verified that it is correct to within 1%. The following formulae are then exact
if (2.152) is exact; otherwise they are only approximate relations. This paragraph has been
subsequently canceled, while the note proven appears.
111
VOLUMETTO II
=
1 =
(2.159)
(2.160)
10.
Having chosen, as usual, the unit length to be and the unit charge to
be that of the nucleus, the number of electrons at a distance x to x + dx
from the nucleus is
Z x 00 dx,
(2.161)
while the potential energy of any one of these electrons is
1
.
Z x
(2.162)
Z x 00 k 3/2 dx
(2.163)
U =
Out of the electrons (2.161), only
have a kinetic energy T < kU (k < 1). It thus follows that there are
n =
Z
0
00
Z x
x
1 y
3/2
dx,
y =
T
,
Z
(2.164)
112
Z
0
00
x
1 y
3/2
dx
x ( x y)3/2 dx = F 1 (y),
y = F ().
(2.165)
(2.166)
with = n/Z;
(2.167)
and, using ordinary measure units, i.e., expressing the terms in Rydberg
units, we find
T =
11.
(2.168)
x
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4.0
21 @
16
Z 4/3 F () = 2.2590 Z 4/3 F ().
2/3
(6)
x5
286.29
335.54
391.35
454.35
525.22
604.66
693.44
792.35
902.24
1024.
x
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
5.0
x5
1158.56
1306.91
1470.08
1649.16
1845.28
2059.63
2293.45
2548.04
2824.75
3125.
x
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
6.0
x5
3450.25
3802.04
4181.95
4591.65
5032.84
5507.32
6016.92
6563.58
7149.24
7776.
In the original manuscript, the fifth powers of numbers with odd second digit were
missing, as well as those of the numbers from 8.5 to 10.0.
113
VOLUMETTO II
12.
x
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
7.0
x5
8445.96
9161.33
9924.36
10737.42
11602.91
12523.33
13501.25
14539.34
15640.31
16807.
x
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
8.0
x5
18042.29
19349.18
20730.72
22190.07
23730.47
25355.25
27067.84
28871.74
30770.56
32768.
x
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
9.0
x5
34867.84
37073.98
39390.41
41821.19
44370.53
47042.70
49842.09
52773.19
55840.59
59049.
x
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
10.
x5
62403.21
65908.15
69568.84
73390.40
77378.09
81537.27
85873.40
90392.08
95099.00
100000
Let xy be a meridian cross section of the molecule, x its axis, and y the
equator line. Also, let V1 and V2 be the potentials generated by each of
the two atoms. Considering the effective potential in the form
V = V1 + V2
2V1 V2
,
V1 + V2
(2.169)
(2.170)
(2.171)
114
where
V
2 V
= (2 ) V1 ,
(2.172)
2V1 V2
V1 + V2
V1
d2
V1 d
2
+
V1 2 .
y
y
dy
dy
= 2 2 V1
(2.173)
The constants are determined by requiring (0) to be finite and the limit
of for y = to be equal to 1.
The hypothesis that only depends on the distance from the center
of the molecule is, however, too far from reality.
13.
x
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.
x6
85.8
113.4
148.
191.1
244.1
308.9
387.4
481.9
594.8
729.
x6
4750.1
5489.
6321.4
7256.3
8303.8
9474.3
10779.2
12230.6
13841.3
15625.
x
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
6.
x6
17596.3
19770.6
22164.4
24794.9
27680.6
30841.
34296.4
38068.7
42180.5
46656.
x
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.
x
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
5.
22 @
x
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4.
x
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
7.
x6
887.5
1073.7
1291.5
1544.8
1838.3
2176.8
2565.7
3010.9
3518.7
4096.
x6
51520.4
56800.2
62523.5
68719.5
75418.9
82654.
90458.4
98867.5
107918.2
117649.
In the original manuscript, the sixth powers of numbers with odd second digit were
missing, as well as those for the numbers from 1.1 to 2.9 and from 8.5 to 10.0.
115
VOLUMETTO II
x
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
8.
14.
x6
128100.3
139314.1
151334.2
164206.5
177978.5
192699.9
208422.4
225199.6
243087.5
262144.
x6
282429.5
304006.7
326940.4
351298.
377149.5
404567.2
433626.2
464404.1
496981.3
531441.
x
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
10.
x6
567869.3
606355.
646990.2
689869.8
735091.9
782757.8
832972.
885842.4
941480.1
1000000
x7
1.9
3.6
6.3
10.5
17.1
26.8
41.
61.2
89.4
128.
x
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.
x7
180.1
249.4
340.5
458.6
610.4
803.2
1046.
1349.3
1725.
2187.
x7
19475.4
23053.9
27181.9
31927.8
37366.9
43581.8
50662.3
58706.8
67822.3
78125.
x
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
6.
x7
89741.1
102807.2
117471.1
133892.5
152243.5
172709.5
195489.7
220798.4
248865.1
279936.
x
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.
x
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
5.
23 @
x
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
9.
x
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4.
x
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
7.
x7
2751.3
3436.
4261.8
5252.3
6433.9
7836.4
9493.2
11441.6
13723.1
16384.
x7
314274.3
352161.5
393898.1
439804.7
490222.8
545516.1
606071.2
672298.9
744635.3
823543.
In the original manuscript, the seventh powers of numbers with odd second digit were
missing, as well as those for the numbers from 1.1 to 2.9 and from 8.5 to 10.0.
116
15.
x7
909512.
1003061.3
1104739.9
1215128.
1334838.9
1464519.5
1604852.3
1756556.9
1920390.9
2097152.
x
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
9.
x7
2287679.2
2492854.7
2713605.1
2950903.5
3205770.9
3479278.2
3772547.9
4086756.
4423133.5
4782969.
x
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
10.
x7
5167610.2
5578466.
6017008.7
6484775.9
6983373.
7514474.8
8079828.4
8681255.3
9320653.5
10000000
From the statistical relation between the effective potential and the density,24
= K (V C)3/2 ,
(2.174)
combined with the Poisson equation for the local potential:
2 V0 = 4 ,
(2.175)
Z n1 2
V0
Z n
(2.176)
for the atom with atomic number Z that has been ionized n times, we
deduce
Z n1
2 V = 4
.
(2.177)
Z n
The potential inside the ion is
Ze
r
V =
+ C,
(2.178)
where
= 0.47 Z
24 @
1/3
Z n
Z n1
2/3
A,
(2.179)
117
VOLUMETTO II
00 =
x0 0 (x0 ) =
C =
16.
3/2
, (0) = 1,
x
n+1
, (x0 ) = 0,
2
(n + 1)e
.
x0
(2.180)
(2.181)
(2.182)
ATOMIC POLARIZABILITY
The potential inside an atom satisfies, to first and second order (as shown
in the previous section), an equation of the kind
2 V = K (V C)3/2 .
(2.183)
Let us now consider the atom in a weak field E. Because of the mutual dependence between the variations of the atomic quantities and the
applied field,25 if the latter is weak, we deduce
V
C
=
=
f (r) E r cos(rE),
0.
(2.184)
(2.185)
Let us suppose that the field E lies along the x axis. We then have
V1 = V + E x f (r),
2 V1 = 2 V + E
x
xf 00 (r) + 3 f 0 (r) ;
r
(2.186)
(2.187)
(V1 C) = (V C) + E x f (r),
(2.188)
3
(V1 C)3/2 = (V C)3/2 + (V C)1/2 E x f (r) + . . . ; (2.189)
2
f 00 (r) + 3
1 0
f (r) =
r
25 @
3
K (V C)1/2 f (r),
(2.190)
2
3
K (V C)1/2 r3/2 f (r); (2.191)
2
118
3
1
K V C + 2 y,
2
2r
y = r3/2 f (r),
y 00 =
f (r) =
(2.192)
(2.193)
x
y E.
(2.194)
r3/2
The condition that f (0) be finite allows us to obtain f or y up to a
constant factor. This may then be determined by the requirement that
the average value of V /x on the surface of the ion be equal to E,
that is, to the external field. This requirement reads
V1 = V +
1
r0 f 0 (r0 ) = 1.
3
The electric moment of the ion is then
17.
f (r0 ) +
(2.195)
M = E r03 (1 f (r0 )) .
(2.196)
kx
4k
cos(2x) d
+ 4 2
Z0
8
=
sin(2x) d
2
k + 4 2
0
Z
2k
=
e2ix d
2 + 4 2
k
Z
1
8
=
e2ix d;
2
2
2i k + 4
k2
for x < 0, on the other hand, the four integrals yield respectively
the values e+kx , e+kx , e+kx , e+kx . For x > , we have
e
kx
= e
= e
2k
e2i(x+) d
k 2 + 4 2
1
8
e2i(x+) d,
2i k 2 + 4 2
etc.;
119
VOLUMETTO II
kx2
ex
= 2
= 2
=
Z
Z 0
e
e
ew
2 2 /k
22
2 /4
cos(2x) d,
cos(2x) d
cos(wx) dw.
(3) We have:
1
(
Z
sin[2( 0 )a] 2ix
e20 ix , x2 < a2 ,
e
d =
0, x2 > a2 .
0
Z
sin[2( 0 )a]
Z
sin[2( 0 )a]
sin[2( + 0 )a]
+
+ 0
2
2
cos(20 x), x < a ,
=
0, x2 > a2 .
sin[2( + 0 )a]
0
+ 0
2
2
sin(20 x), x < a ,
=
0, x2 > a2 .
1
cos(2x) d
sin(2x) d
1 sin(k/0 ) 2ix
(1)
e
d,
0
Z
1 20 sin(k/0 )
(1)k
cos(2x) d,
2 02
Z
20 sin(k/0 )
k 1
(1)
sin(2x) d.
2 02
k
120
18.
BLACKBODY
Let E be the energy emitted per cm2 and per unit time, while E or E
denotes the same energy per unit frequency or wavelength. We have26
E(T ) =
E
E =
Z
0
E (, T ) d =
Z
0
E (, T ) d,
2h 3
1
,
2
h/kT
c
e
1
2c2 h
1
,
5
hc/kT
e
1
(2.197)
(2.198)
(2.199)
where
E =
E
c
E ,
2
c
E .
2
(2.200)
(2.201)
Z
2h 3
c2
d
eh/kT
h 3
h
1
=
d
c2 h3
kT
eh/kT 1 kT
0
4
4
5
4
2k T
2
=
=
k4 T 4
2
3
c h
15
15 c2 h3
W
erg
= 5.67 1012 T 4
' 5.67 105 T 4
. (2.202)
cm2 s
cm2
0
2k 4 T 4
8 5 4 4
4
E =
k T .
c
15 c3 h3
(2.203)
If there is thermal equilibrium with the environment, the radiation pressure is28
p =
26 @
1 0
4E
8 5 4 4
erg
E =
=
k T ' 2.52 1015 T 4
. (2.204)
3
3
3
3 c
45 c h
cm3
In this section we use the Planck constant h, instead of the reduced constant h
, as in
the original manuscript.
27 @ The numerical value reported in the original manuscript was slightly different (5.55
instead of 5.67).
28 @ The numerical value reported in the original manuscript is slightly different: 2.47 instead
of 2.52.
121
VOLUMETTO II
19.
px =
E
cos 1 ,
c
py =
E
cos 2 ,
c
pz =
E
cos 3 ,
c
(2.207)
and thus
q
8 2
(px + p2y + p2z ) d p2x + p2y + p2z ,
(2.208)
h3
that is, the density of the stationary states in the phase space of a gas of
light quanta is 2/h3 , exactly as for an electron gas. The analogy cannot
be carried further, since the former obeys Einsteins statistics, while the
latter obeys Fermis statistics. Let
dN =
C = C0 sin (2t ) A
(2.209)
In this section we use the Planck constant h instead of the reduced one h
, as in the
original manuscript.
122
4 2 2 2
u02
,
C 0 cos2 (2t ) =
2
8 c
8 c2
(2.212)
4 2 2 2
4 2 2 2
2
C
sin
(2t
)
=
=
u .
0
8 c2
8 c2
(2.213)
2 2 2
02
4
u
+
u
.
8c2
Let us set
q = u
(2.214)
u
=
2
4c
2c
so that we infer
W = 2 2 q2 +
and, by putting
p =
1 2
q ;
2
W
= q,
(2.215)
(2.216)
(2.217)
we find
1 2
p + 4 2 2 q 2 .
(2.218)
2
This expression can be considered as the Hamiltonian of the system. On
setting
1 2
Hs =
ps + 4 2 2 qs2 ,
2
where the index s = 1, 2, 3, . . . labels all the possible stationary waves,
and denoting by H0 = W0 the Hamiltonian of an atom inside the region
, the overall Hamiltonian when mutual interaction is neglected
becomes
W =
H =
Hs = W.
(2.219)
s=0
Let us now consider also the interaction and set H00 = H0 + interaction.
In first approximation, and when only one electron interacts with the
123
VOLUMETTO II
W0 = e +
(2.220)
1
= 0.
c t
X
s=0
Hs +
X
e
i=1
mc
pi Ci .
(2.221)
(2.222)
will appear. Leaving out the other harmonics and focusing on the electromagnetic oscillator labeled by s, the Hamiltonian may be written as
W
1 2
e s
ps + 4 2 s2 qs2 +
C p0x
2
mc x
+ terms independent of qs and ps .
(2.223)
(2.224)
124
its value at the center of the atom. Its mean squared value, obtained by
averaging over many neighboring frequencies, is31
bx2
s =
1 u2s
4 c2
=
.
2
3 qs
3
(2.225)
e s
1 2
ps + 4 2 s2 qs2 +
b p0 sin (20 t + ) qs
2
mc x
+ terms independent of qs and ps .
(2.226)
We then deduce
qs = ps ,
ps
qs + 4 2 s2 qs
(2.227)
e
bs p0 sin (20 t + ) , (2.228)
= 4 2 s2 qs
mc x
e s
=
b p0 sin (20 t + ) ,
(2.229)
mc x
.
mc
4 2 (s2 02 )
(2.230)
Let us suppose for simplicity that = 0 and impose the restriction that
at t = 0 there is no radiation:
qs (0) = qs (0) = 0.
(2.231)
,
mc 4 2 (s2 02 )
(2.232)
and the constraints (2.231) are to be satisfied with respect to the new
independent variable. We thus find
Bs = 0,
31 @
As =
0 e
bsx p0
,
s mc 4 2 (s2 02 )
(2.233)
The following formula is derived from averaging the square of Eq. (2.224) and using Eqs.
(2.211) and (2.215). Note that in the original manuscript the exponent 2 of us was missing.
125
VOLUMETTO II
qs =
=
e bsx p0 sin 20 t 0
sin 2s t sin 20 t
mc 4 2 (s2 02 )
s
e bsx p0 sin 20 t
sin 2s t sin 20 t
mc 4 2 (s2 02 )
s 0
sin 2s t
s
e bx p0 sin 20 t
s + 0
s 0
2 cos 2
t sin 2
t
mc 4 2 (s2 02 )
2
2
s 0
sin 2s t .
(2.234)
s
Ws =
Z s =M
s =0
8
Ws dN = 3
c
Z M
0
Ws n2s ds .
(2.235)
The integral must be evaluated over a large but finite range of frequencies. This is due to the fact that the previous equations were derived
under the assumption that the excited wavelength were much larger than
the amplitude of the oscillations of the electron.
Thus the frequencies
P
could not be arbitrarily large. However, s Ws tends to grow linearly
with time and can thus exceed such a limit; on the other hand, each Ws
has a maximum (as one can see from Eq. (2.234)), but this does not
contradict what was said above since, if we replace Ws with its maximum values, the integral in Eq. (2.235) diverges. However, by removing
from the integration domain a small region containing 0 , the integral
becomes convergent. This means that, after a long enough time, almost
all the emitted radiation will be contained in an arbitrarily small region
around 0 . The frequencies s of interest are thus very close to 0 , so
that in Eq. (2.234) we can replace (s + 0 )/2 with 0 . 32 Hence:
qs =
e
b2s p0 t
mc 8 2 0 (s 0 )
s 0
2 sin (s 0 )t cos 20 t
sin 20 t . (2.237)
0
32 @
The original manuscript then continued as follows: We can also replace sin 2(s 0 )/2
with 2(s 0 )/2. Hence
qs =
e
bs p0
mc 4 2 (s2 02 )
2(s 0 )t cos 20 t
s 0
sin 20 .
0
(2.236)
126
As we shall see, for large t the frequency range in which the radiation
has a relevant effect is of the order 1/t. Thus the first term in brackets
is, in general, of order unity, whereas the second one is arbitrarily small
as t tends to infinity. In this limit, it therefore follows that
e bxs p0 sin (s 0 )t
cos 20 t,
(2.238)
mc 4 2 0
s 0
e bxs p0 sin (s 0 )t
20
cos 20 t,
(2.239)
mc 4 2 0
s 0
1 2
ps + 4 2 s2 qs2
2
e2 bx2 p2 sin2 (s 0 )t
2 2 02 2 2 s 4 02
,
(2.240)
m c 16 0
(s 0 )2
Z
e2 bx2 p2 sin2 (s 0 )t 802
2 2 02 2 2 s 4 02
ds
m c 16 0
(s 0 )2
c3
Z
e2 02 2 x2
sin2 (s 0 )t
b
p
ds
c3 m2 c2 0 s
(s 0 )2
e2 02 2 4 c2 2
t
p
c3 m2 c2 0 3
4 e2 02 2 2
p0 t.
(2.241)
3 m2 c3
qs =
ps =
Ws =
=
X
Ws =
=
=
=
(2.246)
32 We can assume that the quantity t is large, that is, we can consider a large enough
0
time with respect to the oscillation period. In this case, the second term in the brackets is
negligible and we obtain
qs
ps
e
bs p0 t
cos 20 t,
mc 2(s 0 )
e
bs p0 t
cos 20 t
20 sin 20 t +
.
mc 2(s 0 )
t
(2.242)
(2.243)
e
bs p0 t
sin 20 t;
mc 2(s 0 )
(2.244)
we thus obtain
Ws =
1
2
p2s + 4 2 s2 qs2
= 2 2 s2
b2s p20 t2
e2
.
m2 c2 4 2 (s2 02 )
(2.245)
However, the previous expressions do not hold when the quantity (s 0 )t is large, since
we have replaced sin (s 0 )t with (s 0 )t.
However, this part was crossed out by the author.
127
VOLUMETTO II
p2x =
m2
x
2 ,
4 2 02
(2.247)
m2
x
2 ,
2 2 02
p20 = 2 p2x =
(2.248)
so that
X
Ws =
2 e2 x
2
t,
3 c3
(2.249)
2 2
s = 2 e x
W
,
3 c3
(2.250)
20.
Let m be the mass of the Earth (using measure units such that the
Newton gravitational constant is equal to 1), Ip the polar moment of
inertia, and Ie the equatorial moment of inertia. The potential of the
gravitational force in an external point at a distance R from the center
O of the Earth, and such that the vector R makes an angle with the
equator, is (see Sec. 1.7):
m
1
V =
+ 3
R
R
3
I0 I ,
2
(2.251)
I0 = Ie +
I
it follows that
V =
m
1
+ 3 (Ip Ie )
R
R
1
3
sin2 .
2
2
(2.254)
To evaluate Ip and Ie , we can use the fact that the potential on the
Earth surface takes the same value at the pole and at the equator, once
128
rp
r3
Ve =
Vp =
(2.255)
(2.256)
= ,
(2.257)
rp
re
r
where s is the flattening factor of the Earth, we get
m
r
s
2
Ip Ie =
3 Ip Ie
,
2
r3
2
s
mr2 ,
3
2
(2.258)
(2.259)
1
mr2 .
916
(2.260)
1
m
+ 3
R
R
1
mr2
916
1
3
sin2
2
2
(2.261)
Mm
M
+ 3
R
R
1
mr2
916
1
3
sin2
2
2
(2.262)
Thus, a component of the force along the radius vector is present; its
magnitude is
3 M mr2
F =
sin cos ,
(2.263)
916 R4
and on Earth the following torque acts:
C =
3 M mr2
sin cos .
916 R3
(2.264)
This torque would move the terrestrial axis towards the celestial meridian of the perturbing star. So, if the latter were the Sun, at the solstices
129
VOLUMETTO II
the axis of the Earth would be drawn towards the pole of the ecliptic.
At other times of the year, the meridian in which the torque lies would
be at some angle with respect to the meridian normal to the ecliptic.
Denoting by the latter angle, and with and the inclination of the
terrestrial axis and the angle that the Sun determines on the ecliptic
after the spring equinox, respectively, we have
= 90 + ,
(2.265)
(2.266)
C
C
C
tan cos
p
cos =
sin =
, (2.268)
Ip
Ip
Ip 1 + tan2 cos2
C
C
1
C
p
sin =
cos =
. (2.269)
Ip
Ip
Ip 1 + tan2 cos2
On replacing C with Eq. (2.264) and recalling that sin = sin sin ,
we find
q
1 =
M mr2
3
sin cos
916 R3 Ip
1 + tan2 cos2
, (2.270)
2 =
M mr2
3
sin
916 R3 Ip
1 + tan2 cos2
(2.271)
(2.272)
(2.273)
130
3
916
3
916
3
916
=
1 =
2 =
M mr2
sin ,
R3 Ip
M mr2
sin2 ,
R3 Ip
M mr2
sin cos .
R3 Ip
(2.274)
(2.275)
(2.276)
1 =
(2.277)
(2.278)
The axis of the Earth rotates around the axis of the ecliptic with an
angular velocity n = 1 / sin which, for small , is
n =
1 3 M mr2
3 M Ip Ie
1
=
=
.
3
2 916 R Ip
2 R3
Ip
(2.279)
After having added the effect of the Moon and having neglected the
nutation, we get
n =
3 Ip Ie
2 Ip
M
M0
+ 03
3
R
R
(2.280)
M
M0
+
R3
R03
1 1
.
n
(2.281)
M0
= 2.25,
R03
1
= 25800,
n
= 366.
(2.282)
It follows that
Ip ' 344 (Ip Ie )
(2.283)
344
m r2 = 0.375 m r2 ,
916
(2.284)
131
VOLUMETTO II
21.
X
X
1 2
e
ps + 2 2 s2 qs2 +
ps bs qs ,
s=1
s=1
mc
(2.285)
bs being a vector33 that depends on position and such that its average
value is
4c2
|bs |2 =
.
(2.286)
Let n be the eigenfunction of the nth stationary state of the unperturbed atom and srs the eigenfunction of the rth state of the sth unperturbed oscillator. Neglecting any interaction, the eigenfunction of the
whole system will be
=
X
n,r1 ,r2 ,...
(2.287)
h
a n,r1 ,r2 ,... =
an0 ,r10 ,r20 ,... An,r1 ,r2 ,...,n0 ,r10 ,r20 ,... ,
i
(2.288)
e
x
y y
z z
=
2i (n n0 ) bxs nn
0 + bs
nn0 + bs nn0
cs
h(rs + 1/2 1/2)
Note that here the author considered a sort of generalization of what had been done in
Sec. 2.19: The vector potential is written as C = bq, treating q as a scalar quantity (in a
certain sense).
132
Let us suppose that the atom is initially in the state n, while the
oscillators are in the ground state. It will then suffice to take all the
quantities a to be zero, with the exception of
an,0,0,0,... = 1.
(2.290)
h
s
e 2
h
=
nn0 bs nn0
exp {2i(nn0 s )t}, (2.291)
c h
4s
a n0 ,0,...,0,1,0,... =
e i
=
nn0 bs nn0
c h
so that
e2i(nn0 s )t 1
h
,
4s
nn0 s
(2.292)
|an0 ,0,...,0,1,0,... |2 =
=
e2 1 2
h 4 sin2 (nn0 s )t
0 |bs nn0 |
nn
c2
4s
(nn0 s )2
h2
2
2
e2 nn
0
2 sin (nn0 s )t
|b
.
(2.293)
0|
s
nn
c2
hs
(nn0 s )2
=
=
4 e2 c2 2
1
|| nn0
3 c2
h
5
2
2
3
64 2 e || nn0
t,
3 h
c3
2 sin2 ( 0 )t
8nn
0
s
nn
ds
c3
(nn0 s )2
(2.295)
34 @
(2.296)
In the last formula we have restored the Planck constant h, as in the original manuscript.
133
VOLUMETTO II
22.
ABOUT MATRICES
A physical quantity A can be represented by a linear operator that transforms vectors into vectors, in a space with infinite dimensions. Let us fix
an arbitrary reference frame and denote by 1 , 2 , . . . , n , . . . the unit
vectors along the various axes. They may also be complex. In this case
the orthogonality relations will be
i k = ik .
(2.297)
A matrix Ars can be associated with the operator A, but this matrix will
depend on the choice of the reference frame. Its elements35 are defined
by the relation36
A s = Ars r .
(2.300)
Let us introduce a new set of reference axes and let 1 , 2 , . . . , n , . . .
be the unit vectors along these new axes. For real axes, the operator S
transforming the vectors into the vectors reduces to a rotation. Its
matrix is defined by the relation
k = Sik i ,
(2.301)
(2.302)
(2.303)
Thus
k = Sik Sli1 l .
(2.304)
Sik Sli1 = kl ,
(2.305)
35 @
Notice that the author denoted by the same symbol the operator and its representative
matrix. However, any confusion is avoided by noting that a matrix has always two subscripts
labelling explicitly the row and the column.
36 The multiplication rule can be deduced as follows
AB
= A Brs
= Atr Brs
that is,
(A B)ts = Atr Brs .
r,
(2.298)
(2.299)
134
Srs
= Ssr
.
(2.306)
(2.307)
(2.308)
(2.309)
(2.310)
This relation is similar to Eq. (2.302), but it refers to the rows rather
than to the columns.
Let us go back to Eq. (2.300) and replace the vectors with their
expressions from Eq. (2.303):
1
1
A Srs
r = Ars Sir
i ;
(2.311)
A s = A0rs r ,
1
1
A0ir Srs
i = Ars Sir
i ,
(2.312)
(2.313)
1
1
A0ir Srs
= Sir
Ars ,
1
0
1
Air Srs Ssj = Sir Ars Ssj ,
1
A0ij = Sir
Ars Ssj .
(2.314)
(2.315)
(2.316)
on setting37
they become
In the same way, on substituting Eq. (2.301) into Eq. (2.312), we find
A Srs r
Air Srs i
Air Srs
Aij
37 @
{}.
=
=
=
=
A0rs Sir i ,
A0rs Sir i ,
Sir A0rs ,
Sir A0rs Ssj .
(2.317)
(2.318)
(2.319)
(2.320)
Note that Eq. (2.312) defines the matrix (A0rs ) representing the operator A in the basis
135
VOLUMETTO II
These formulae are analogous to the ones written above and can be
directly derived from them. For example, from Eq. (2.316) it follows
that
1
1
1
Sai A0ij Sjb
= Sai Sir
Ars Ssj Sjb
,
(2.321)
1
Ars = Sai A0ij Sjb
,
(2.322)
(2.323)
(2.324)
23.
(2.326)
Let us consider again that the atom is initially in the nth state and that
the oscillators are at rest. If an inner state n0 exists, to first order we
can neglect any other stationary state of the atom. While the volume in
which the atom is enclosed tends to infinity, the probability of exciting
only one frequency s tends to zero. This means that we can treat
nearly all the oscillators as if they were at rest for the duration of the
emission.38 From Eq. (2.289), we have
a n0 ,0,...0,1,0... =
38 More
lators.
e 2
nn0 bs n0 n
c
h
precisely, we exclude the quantum states corresponding to two or more excited oscil-
136
h
e2i(nn0 s )t an,0,...0,0,0... ,
4s
X e 2
=
nn0 bs nn0
h
s c
a n,0,...0,0,0...
(2.327)
h
e2i(nn0 s )t an0 ,0,...0,1,0... . (2.328)
4s
We can suppose that nn0 is real and thus nn0 = n0 n . We shall now
try to satisfy these equations by setting an,0,...0,0,0... = exp{t/2}. We
then get
e 2
nn0 bs nn0
c
h
s
h
e2i(nn0 s )t et/2
4s
a n0 ,0,...0,1,0... =
(2.329)
and thus
e 2
nn0 bs nn0
c
h
s
h e2i(nn0 s /2)t 1
4s 2i(nn0 s ) /2
an0 ,0,...0,1,0... =
a n,0,...0,0,0... =
(2.330)
X e2 4 2
2
2
nn
0 |bs nn0 |
c2 h
2 4s
s
t/2
e
e2i(nn0 s )t t/2
e
.
2i(nn0 s ) /2
(2.331)
Assuming, as usual, that s is very close to nn0 and that Eq. (2.294)
holds, and on transforming the sum into an integral, we find
2
e2 4 2
h
2 4 c
|nn0 |2
0
nn
2 4
c2
3
h
s
Z t/2
e
e2i(nn0 s )t
et/2
ds
2i(nn0 s ) /2
a n,0,...0,0,0... =
2
8nn
0
c3
3 | 0 |2
32 3 e2 nn
0
nn
et/2
3
3hc
Then, since
et/2 e2i(nn0 s )t
ds . (2.332)
2i(nn0 s ) /2
a n,0,...0,0,0... = et/2 ,
2
137
VOLUMETTO II
we deduce that
3 | 0 |2
32 3 e2 nn
0
nn
=
3
2
3
hc
et/2 e2i(nn0 s )t
ds .
2i(nn0 s ) /2
(2.333)
It can be proven that the integral on the r.h.s. equals 1/2, and thus39
3 | 0 |2
32 3 e2 nn
0
nn
.
3
3hc
24.
(2.334)
k
,
1 + e cos( )
(2.335)
r2 Vt2
M
e=
= arctan
= arcsin
(2.336)
k Vr
kr
= arccos
,
re Vt
re
with Vr and Vt denoting the radial and the transverse velocities, Eq.
(2.335) is identically satisfied when Eqs. (2.337) are substituted in it.
Moreover, the quantities k, e, given in Eq. (2.336) are constant. In-
39 @
In the original manuscript, the beginning of an attempt to prove this result is reported
(the complex exponential is expanded into trigonometric functions). Here we only quote
the following words: The imaginary part of the integral is undetermined, but we are only
interested in the real part of , since only this quantity enters in the expression of |an |2 ,
which is what has physical meaning.
138
deed,
k =
2r3
d r4 2
2r3
=
2r + r =
at = 0,
dt M
M
M
e =
1
r
k 2
e
r
k r
eM
k
1
r
M
r r 2 + 2
r
k
+
r r
M
k r
=
eM
M
ar + 2
r
(2.337)
= 0,
r e Vt k r
Vt
=
=
= 0.
k r er2
r
An expression for the semi-major axis can be deduced:
a =
=
=
q
k
k2 M
=
1 e2
kM (k r)2 Vt2 k 2 Vr2
M
k2 M
=
2
2
2
2M/r V 2
kM k V + 2krVt kM
r
r
V02
=
,
=
r
2
2
2 rV 2 /M
2 V 2 /V0
2V0 V 2
(2.338)
in which V = Vr2 + Vt2 is the total speed and V0 = M/r the speed
corresponding to circular motion. The semi-minor axis will be
b =
=
k
r2 Vt
= ka = p
1 e2
M 2 rV 2 /M
rVt
Vt
p
q
=
r
.
2M/r V 2
2V02 V 2
(2.339)
k =
(2.340)
V2
r2 V 2 /M
=
r
,
2 rV 2 /M
2V02 V 2
(2.341)
2ab
=
rVt
2M
2M/r V 2
2 3/2
a .
M
3/2 =
(2.342)
139
VOLUMETTO II
k
r2 Vt
k
t
r +
t = 2
t = 2k ,
Vr
Vt
M
Vt
e
e
r +
t
Vr
Vt
kr 2
k
t
k
2
Vt +
Vr2
+
Vr r ,
eM
eM
Vt
eM
kr
k+r
Vr t 2
Vt r ,
e2 M
e M
2 2
a (Vr r + Vt t ) .
M
(2.343)
(2.344)
(2.345)
(2.346)
kM
Vt =
= Vt (k, e, , ),
(2.347)
r
re
sin ( ) = Vr (k, e, , ).
(2.348)
Vr = Vt
M
On substituting in the three independent equations (2.343),(2.344),(2.345)
[Eq. (2.346) actually can be derived from the previous ones], we find
k = k(k,
e, , , t),
e = e(k,
e, , , t),
= (k,
e, , , t).
(2.349)
(2.350)
(2.351)
e, , ).
= kM = (k,
(2.352)
r2
From the initial values k0 , e0 , 0 , 0 of the four variables at time t0 , the
values of k, e, and at any instant can be evaluated by using Eqs.
(2.349)-(2.352). If the perturbation is small, the problem is solved by
successive approximations. Denoting by 0 the value of at any instant
140
k = k0 ,
e = e0 ,
= 0 .
(2.353)
Z
t
Z 0
t
Z 0
t0
0 , e0 , 0 , 0 , t) dt,
k(k
e(k
0 , e0 , 0 , 0 , t) dt,
(2.354)
(k
0 , e0 , 0 , 0 , t) dt.
the two terms on the r.h.s. are of the same order of magnitude, so that,
if we set an approximate value for on the r.h.s., we wouldnt get a more
approximate value on the l.h.s. However, we can try to transform Eq.
e, , )
(2.352). To this end, let us note that the form of the function (k,
does not depend on the perturbing forces, and it thus is the same if no
perturbation is present. We shall then have
0 , e0 , 0 , 0 );
0 = (k
(2.356)
= 0 + ,
(2.357)
e, , ) (k
0 , e0 , 0 , 0 )
= (k,
e, , ) 0 = (k,
= (k,
e, , , t).
(2.358)
and, setting
we shall get
e, , , t),
(2.359)
this would not have been adequate for our calculation by successive approximations, since, by setting an approximate value of in (k,
e, , , t),
we do not get an approximate value for (because is not zero when
perturbative forces are absent, unless we use for its exact value 0 ).
141
VOLUMETTO II
Z 2
0
d1
,
(k 0 , e0 , 0 , 1 )
1 1
1
(2.360)
k10 = k1 [ (a )],
e01 = e1 [ (a )],
10 = 1 [ (a )],
(2.361)
Z
t0
Z
t0
Z
t0
Z 2
0
where
kn0 = kn n1 (n ) ,
e0n = en n1 (n ) ,
kn = kn (t),
en = en (t),
n0 = n n1 (n ) ;
n = n (t).
In the original manuscript, the upper limit of the integral is not explicitly given.
142
e,
values of the quantities k,
over the entire period. Clearly, we shall
have
e, , t),
k = k(k,
e = e(k,
e, , t),
= (k,
e, , t).
(2.363)
The explicit form of Eqs. (2.363) depends on the form of the functions
r = r (r, , t),
t = t (r, , t),
(2.364)
and the time dependence obtains only if r and t depend on time, with
the constraint (as assumed) that the time variation is small.
Let us now examine the specific case in which t = 0; r = rn . From
Eqs. (2.343), (2.344), (2.345), we deduce
k = 0,
e =
k
Vr rn ,
eM
s
rk
1
= 2
Vt rn = 2
e M
e
and thus
k = 0,
with
rn
It follows that
r1 =
r2 =
r3 =
r4 =
r5 =
r6
e = 0,
(1 e2 )3/2 n
k
=
2
k n
r k rn1 ,
M
Z 2
0
d
.
(1 + e cos )n+r
(2.365)
(2.366)
(2.367)
1 e2 k 1 ,
1 e2
1 e2
1 e2
1 e2
1
= 2
e
k n
r k rn1 ,
M
1e
3/2
3/2
k 2 ,
k 3 ,
3/2
1+
3/2
1+
3/2
1 2
e
2
3 2
e
2
k 5 ,
3
1 + 3 e + e4
8
2
(2.368)
k 4 ,
k 6 ,
143
VOLUMETTO II
and41
r =
r2 =
r3
r4
r5
r6
r7
1 e2
1 e2
1e
1e
1e
1e
1e
1+
1+
1 2
e
2
3 2
e
2
k,
k2 ,
3
1 + 3 e + e4
8
15 4
e
1 + 5e +
8
k3 ,
15 2
45 4
5 6
1+
e +
e +
e
2
8
16
1e
1 + 14 e2 +
1 + 18 e2 +
+
41 @
21 2
105 4
35 6
1+
e +
e +
e
2
8
16
k5 ,
(2.369)
k ,
105 4
e
4
35 6
35 8
+
e +
e
4
128
r8
k4 ,
k7 ,
189 4
e
4
105 6
315 8
e +
e
4
128
k8 .
144
k
,
M
=
s
n = 1,
n = 2,
= 0,
2
k
2 1 1e
1e
,
M
e2
k
n = 3,
=
s
n = 4,
=
s
n = 5,
25.
3/2 1
k
1 e2
,
M
2 k3
3/2
k
1 e2
,
M
k4
3/2 3
k
3 2
2
+ e
1e
.
M
2
8
k5
(2.370)
= eh/kT ,
(2.371)
145
VOLUMETTO II
3h
8
,
c3 eh/kT 1
(2.372)
from which
B12
8
3h
c3 eh/kT 1
8
3h
eh/kT ,
c3 eh/kT 1
(2.373)
(2.374)
(2.375)
Let us now try to obtain these results using the radiation theory
developed above. Let
0 =
(2.376)
X e 4 2
bs 12
h(ns + 1)
8 2 s
c h
exp {2i( s )t} a2,...,ns 1,... ,
(2.377)
because of the fact that we can assume that in the transition 2 1 the
emitted energy has a characteristic frequency close to . In the same
way we can write
s
a 2,...,ns 1,...
e 4 2
hns
=
bs 12
c h
8 2
exp {2i(s )t} a1,...,ns ,... .
(2.378)
Since
N1 =
N2 =
X
X
|a1,... |2 ,
(2.379)
|a2,... |2 ,
(2.380)
it follows that
N 1 =
(2.381)
146
In order to simplify our calculations, let us suppose that all the a1 s are
initially zero. The previous equation would seem to yield N i = 0, but this
is wrong, since it results from an incorrect use of a limit procedure with
an infinite number of frequencies. The calculation must be performed
in the same manner as in Sec. 2.21. The only difference with respect
to what was done there is that now the argument of the square root is
ns + 1 instead of 1. Since in the final result there appears the square
of such square root, all we have to do is multiplying the result by the
average value of ns + 1. Denoting by n the average value of ns , we find
64 4 3 e2 |12 |2
N 1 = N2
(n + 1) .
3hc3
(2.382)
(2.383)
A21 =
(2.384)
B21
(2.385)
26.
DEFINITE INTEGRALS 43
(13) We have
Z 1
0
1 x2
1 22n n!2
.
2n + 1 (2n)!
43 See
Sec. 1.37.
enx dx =
1
2
,
n
(2.386)
147
VOLUMETTO II
n!2 22n
= n + . . . ,
(2n)!
(2.387)
eix
dx =
a + ix
(15) We have
(16) We have
2 ea ,
(2.388)
0,
a < 0.
cos x
a
e .
dx =
2
+x
a
(2.389)
a2
Z
x sin x
a > 0,
a2 + x2
dx = ea .
(2.390)
(17) We have
Z
(18) We have
eiax
a/k
e
,
dx =
1 + k 2 x2
k
k > 0,
a > 0.
(2.391)
44
xeiax
i
dx = 2 ea/k ,
2
2
1+k x
k
(19) We have
eix dx =
a
> 0.
k
1+i
.
2
(2.392)
(2.393)
(14bis) We have
Z
44 @
eikx
1 + ix
2 e ,
dx =
0,
k > 0,
(2.394)
k < 0.
More precisely, this result holds for a > 0 (keeping a/k > 0), while for a < 0 we simply
get the opposite.
148
8
, a > 0,
a3
8 a
, a > 0.
a3 2
ear1 dq1 =
Z
1 ar1
e
dq1 =
r1
(2.395)
(2.396)
(21) On setting
r12 =
q
r1 =
r2 =
a, b > 0,
one gets:
Z
ear1 ebr2 d
64 2
,
(2.397)
a3 b3
64 2 a
,
(2.398)
a3 b3 2
64 2 a2 + 3ab + b2
ab. (2.399)
a3 b3 2(a + b)3
1 ar1 br2
e
e
d
r1
Z
1 ar1 br2
e
e
d
r12
27.
=
=
SERIES EXPANSIONS 46
X
f (n)xn
n=0
n!
(1)n .
(2.400)
xr y
= 0
ex
(2.401)
The following integrals are evaluated over the entire real axis for each variable.
Secs. 1.22 and 3.1.
46 See
149
VOLUMETTO II
f (n) = n(n 1) or f (n) = n(n 1)(n 2), and so on. Moreover, the same holds for f (n) = 1/(n + 1) or 1/(n + 1)(n + 2) or
1/(n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3), and so on. It follows that Eq. (2.401) is
satisfied when f (n) is any rational function of n or, more generally,
when f (n) can be expanded in decreasing powers of n, the first one
being an arbitrary power nk (with integer k).
Equation (2.401) is also satisfied if f (n) can be expanded in decreasing powers of n, each power step being unity, for example,
and the first power nc being rational or irrational. In this case, in
fact, the function f1 (n) in the series
y + y0 =
X f1 (n)xn
n!
k(k 1) 00
y + . . . + y (k) ,
2
(2.402)
xr (z + z 0 )
= 0,
ex
(2.403)
which is equivalent to
z + z 0 = xr ex ,
(2.404)
z = e
k(k 1)
f (n 2)
2
k(k 1)(k 2)
f (n 3) + . . . f (n k), (2.406)
6
150
n
n/2 +
n!
=
= 2n
(n/2 + )! (n/2 )!
2 22 /n
e
.
n
(2.407)
(3) For large x, the series expansion of (which is, however, always
divergent) reads
(x) =
Z x
0
ex dx
1
2
= 1 ex
1
1
3
15
105
+
... .
3
5
7
x
2x
4x
8x
16x9
28.
Cs =
00
000 z)
As ,
(2.408)
s = c
(2.409)
and the number of oscillators, relative to the wave numbers, in the intervals s0 s0 + ds0 , s00 s00 + ds00 , and s000 s000 + ds000 , will be
dN = 2 ds0 ds00 ds000 .
(2.410)
1
Un = exp 2i(n0 x + n00 y + n000 z) ,
(2.411)
151
VOLUMETTO II
(2.412)
pny = hn00 ,
pnz = hn000 .
(2.413)
In the same way, the momenta of the light quanta are, from Eq. (2.408),
psx = h s0 ,
psy = hs00 ,
psz = hs000 .
(2.414)
mc
pAs
4c2
0
00
000
qs e2i(s x+s y+s z)
e2 4c2 X
0
0
00
00
000
000
qr qs Ar As e2i[(r +s )x+(r +s )y+(r +s )z] . (2.415)
2
2mc r,s
Since only the second-order perturbation terms will enter in the perturbation matrix, the first-order terms are either small or changing too
fast. By neglecting the first-order terms, the only non-zero elements in
the matrix will be the ones corresponding to an arbitrary exchange of
electrons and to a one-level transition (in either directions) of two and
only two oscillators. Since we are only interested in large and slowly
varying terms, let us suppose that one of these oscillators, say the rth,
undergoes the transition from the quantum number kr to kr + 1, while
the other, say the sth, undergoes the transition ks to ks 1. The matrix
element corresponding to such a transition is
Bn,kr ,ks ;n0 ,kr +1,ks 1
Z
4e2
=
Ar As
2m2
0
h(r + 1)
4r
s
h
4s
(2.416)
.
(2.417)
(r000 s000 n000 + n0000 )
Furthermore let us assume that at time t = 0 all the atoms are in the
state n and the oscillators in the state 0, apart from the oscillator s
152
e2
ks 2i(n n0 +s r )t
e
a n0 ,1,ks 1 = Ar As
2m2 r s
sin (r0 s0 n0 + n0 0 )a sin (r00 s00 n00 + n000 )a
(r0 s0 n0 + n0 0 )
(r00 s00 n00 + n000 )
sin (r000 s000 n000 + n0000 )a
,
(2.419)
(r0 s0 n0 + n0 0 )
(r00 s00 n00 + n000 )
000
000
000
000
sin (r s n + n0 )a sin (n n0 + s r )t
.
(2.420)
Summing over all the values of r and n0 and transforming the sum into
an integral, we get
X
an0 ,1,k 1 2 =
s
n0 ,r
e4 ks
2 m2 s
|Ar As |2
s
. (2.421)
(r000 s000 n000 + n0000 )
2 (n n0 + s r )2
(2.422)
153
VOLUMETTO II
(and similarly for the other components). On integrating over dr0 , dr00
and dr000 , we find
X
an0 ,1,k 1 2
s
n0 ,r
e4 ks
2 m 2 s
|Ar As |2 sin (n n0 + s r )t
2
, (2.423)
s
(n n0 + s r )2
where
r = c
(2.424)
(2.425)
(2.426)
and, denoting by the angle between the incident and the scattered
quantum, we moreover have
1
1
sin2 ,
2
4
2
s
pn | = 4
sin ,
c
2
|Ar As |2 =
1
|pn0
h
(2.427)
(2.428)
an0 ,1,k 1 2
s
n0 ,r
4e4 ks
m2 c2
cos
d sin2
2
2
1
sin2 crt sin /2
1
dr
sin2
2
4
2 2 c2 r2 sin2 /2
Z
4e4 ks
1
1
= t 2 3
cos sin
sin2
m c 0
2
2 2
4
4
4
4e KS
4 e t u
= t
=
,
2
3
3m c
3 m2 c3 hs
u being the energy per unit volume.
d
(2.429)
154
29.
DE BROGLIE WAVES
The expression
=
ei2x ei2t
d
+ i 2( 0 )
(2.430)
d( 0 )
+ i 2( 0 )
(2.431)
0,
d0
.
d0
(2.433)
For < 0:
0,
i20 x i20 t
e
e
,
(2.434)
for t d0 d0 x < 0.
155
VOLUMETTO II
30.
e2 ' hc ?
(2.435)
|p| = h/2`.
(2.436)
and, assuming n = 1,
At every collision the electron receives a kick equal to
2 |p| = h/`,
(2.437)
(2.438)
e2
,
`2
e =
hc
.
2
Such a value is, however, 21 times greater than the real one.
47 @
(2.440)
(2.441)
156
31.
THE EQUATION y 00 + P y = 0
y 00
(k/u2 ) dx ,
y = u exp i
we obtain
(2.442)
(2.443)
k
=
u +i
exp i (k/u2 ) dx ,
u
!
k2
00
2
=
u 3 exp i (k/u ) dx ,
u
0
(2.444)
(2.445)
k2
+ u P = 0.
u3
Given the initial conditions y0 and y00 at x = x0 , we set
u00
(2.446)
u0 = |y0 |,
(2.447)
k
y0
0
0
u0 + i
.
(2.448)
y0 =
|y0 |
|y0 |
We can suppose that both u00 and k are real. Then, if P is also real, the
integration of Eq. (2.442) with a complex variable is equivalent to the
integration of Eq. (2.446) with a real variable.
Note that, if y00 /y0 is real, then k = 0 and Eq. (2.446) reduces to
(2.442).
Given an arbitrary solution of Eq. (2.446) with an arbitrary value of
k, not only the function y in Eq. (2.443) but also its complex conjugate
y = u exp i
(k/u ) dx ,
(2.449)
y = u A exp i
On setting
(k/u2 ) dx
+ B exp i
u1 = u/ k,
(k/u2 ) dx
. (2.450)
(2.451)
157
VOLUMETTO II
we obtain
u001
1
+ u1 P = 0,
u31
(2.452)
dx/u21
y = u1 A exp i
+ B exp i
dx/u21
(2.453)
From this it follows that we can always reduce the problem to the k = 1
case. When the initial values for y and y 0 are given, it is possible to
proceed as described above, since Eq. (2.443) now becomes
Z
k u1 i dx/u21 ,
y =
(2.454)
and the constant k, the integration constants, and the initial values
u1 0 and u01 0 can be determined from Eqs. (2.447), (2.448), and (2.451).
Alternatively, we can find an arbitrary solution of Eq. (2.452), fix arbitrarily the integration constants, and then the coefficients A and B can
be determined in such a way that the initial conditions on y0 and y00 are
met.
Assuming P to be a slowly varying function, in first approximation
the function
u = P 1/4
(2.455)
is a solution of Eq. (2.452). The general solution, to first order, then is
4
P
A exp
4
P
A cos
P dx + B sin
P dx ,
P dx
P dx ,
+B exp
P > 0,
(2.456)
P < 0.
5 02 9/4
1
1 00 5/4
P P
P P
+
3 + u P = 0.
4
16
u
(2.457)
158
(2.458)
P P
16
64
and
!
00
02
P
P
(5/4)
P
u = P 1/4 1 +
.
16 P 3
(2.459)
(2.460)
(2.461)
P P 00 (5/4) P 02
1
8P3
1
u2
= P
dx
u2
P0
=
+
8P 3/2
1/2
P 02
1
32P 3
(2.462)
dx,
(2.463)
4
P
P P 00 (5/4) P 02
1+
16 P 3
"
sin
cos
P0
+
8P 3/2
P 02
1
32P 3
dx ,(2.464)
4
P
P P 00 (5/4) P 02
1+
16 P 3
"
P0
exp
+
8(P )3/2
or, by setting P1 = P ,
y =
4
P1
exp
"
P10
3/2
8P1
P1
#)
dx
,(2.465)
Z p
P 02
1
32P 3
P102
1+
32P13
#)
dx
(2.466)
159
VOLUMETTO II
Let us consider, in general, the case for which P < 0, so that P1 > 0.
Equation (2.442) can then be written as
y 00 P y = 0.
Let us set
y = z exp
We then have
y0 =
z0 + z
P1
00
00
z + 2z
exp
Z p
Z p
P1 dx .
P0
P1 + 1
2 P1
P1 + z
z 00 + 2z 0
(2.468)
P1 dx ,
(2.467)
(2.469)
exp
Z p
P1 dx , (2.470)
P0
P1 + z 1 = 0,
2 P1
z 00
1 P10
z0
+
= 0.
+
z
4 P1
2 P1 z
If P is slowly varying, we can in first approximation set
(2.471)
(2.472)
1/4
z = P1
;
(2.473)
y = A y1 + B y1
Indeed, on setting
y2 = y1
dx
.
y12
(2.474)
dx
,
y12
we get
Z
y20
y200
dx
1
+
,
2
y1
y1
Z
dx
= y100
,
y12
=
and thus
0 = y200
y10
y100
y2 = y200 + P y2 .
y1
(2.475)
160
32.
(2.476)
(2.477)
"
W
e
+
c
c
W
e
+ 1
c
c
X
i
e
pi + Ci
c
X
i
#2
2 2
+m c
e
pi + C1 i
c
= 0,
(2.478)
#2
+ m2 c2
1 = 0. (2.479)
(2.480)
(2.481)
1
1 1
= C1 +
= 0,
c t
c t
(2.482)
1 2A
.
c2 t2
(2.483)
ie
ie
A
= exp
A [W + e (1 )] ,
(2.484)
W exp
h c
hc
ie
ie
e
pi exp
A
= exp
A
pi + (C1 i Ci ) , (2.485)
h c
c
h
c
48 @
161
VOLUMETTO II
we deduce that
e
ie
W
+ 1 exp
A
=
c
c
hc
W
ie
e
+ 1 exp
A
=
c
c
hc
and that
e
ie
pi + C1 i exp
A
=
c
h c
e
ie
pi + C1 i exp
A
=
c
h c
It follows that, if is a solution of
ie
W
e
A
+ , (2.486)
hc
c
c
ie
W
e 2
exp
A
+ , (2.487)
hc
c
c
exp
ie
e
exp
A
pi + Ci , (2.488)
hc
2
ie
e
exp
A
pi + Ci . (2.489)
hc
c
Eq. (2.478), then the quantity
ie
1 = exp
A
(2.490)
hc
33.
V = e/x A,
x < R,
(2.491)
V = 0,
x > R,
x being the distance from the center and A a constant.49 For the sake of
simplicity, we adopt the radius of the first Bohr orbit as the unit length,
49 @ In the original manuscript, the value A = Q2 /R2 is given. But, for dimensional reasons,
this is wrong. The constant A can be fixed by requiring the continuity of the potential; in
this case we have A = e/R.
162
00 + 2E = 0,
x < R,
(2.492)
x > R.
1
1
+ ,
2
2
(2.493)
00 + (2A 1 ) = 0,
x < R,
(2.494)
x > R.
(2.495)
(2.496)
(2.497)
(2.498)
y = k ex 1+ /x1/ 1+ .
Since we have assumed that is small, as an approximation we could
set k = k0 , and k0 will be evaluated from the asymptotic form for y
50 @
The ground state energy of a hydrogen atom is e2 /2aB , where aB is the Bohr radius.
In the adopted units, this energy equals 1/2.
163
VOLUMETTO II
(2.500)
y =
(2.501)
an2 2an1
n2
+
.
n!
(n 1)n
(2.502)
1
2n + 2
1 1
1
n
1 + + + ... +
, (2.503)
(2n)! 2n + 1
3 5
2n 1
1
1 1
1
=
n 1 + + + ... +
. (2.504)
(2n 1)!
3 5
2n 1
a2n+1 =
a2n
Indeed, if Eqs. (2.503) and (2.504) hold for some value of n (and it can
be directly verified that they hold for n = 1), then Eq. (2.504) will still
be valid if we replace n with n + 1 since, from Eq. (2.502), we derive
n
1 1
1
n
1 + + + ... +
n+1 n+1
3 5
2n 1
2
1
1 1
1
n
2n
1 + + + ... +
+
+
n+1
3 5
2n 1
n + 1 2n + 1
1
1 1
,
= n + 1 1 + + + ... +
3 5
2n + 1
and thus Eq. (2.504) holds for a2n+2 too. In the same way, by using
again Eq. (2.502), we find
2n + 1 2n + 1
1 1
1
(2n + 2)! a2n+3 =
1 + + + ... +
2n + 3 2n + 3
3 5
2n 1
2
1 1
1
2n + 2 2n + 2
1 + + + ... +
+n
+
2n + 3
3 5
2n 1
2n + 3 2n + 3
2n + 2
1 1
1
= (n + 1)
1 + + + ... +
,
2n + 3
3 5
2n + 1
164
and thus Eq. (2.503) holds for a2n+3 as well. Equations (2.503) and
(2.504) then always apply.
The expansion (2.501) can be indefinitely derived term by term. We
can thus set
y 000 + 3y 00 + 3y 0 + y =
br xr ;
(2.505)
(2.506)
1
1
+ 2n(2n + 1) 1 + + . . . +
3
2n 1
1
1
2
3(2n + 1) 1 + + . . . +
3
2n 1
1
1
+ 3(2n + 1)(2n + 2) 1 + + . . . +
3
2n + 1
1
1
= 1,
(2n + 1)(2n + 3) 1 + + . . . +
3
2n + 1
(2.507)
1
1
(2n + 1)(2n + 2) 1 + + . . . +
3
2n 1
1
1
2
+ 3(2n + 1) 1 + + . . . +
3
2n + 1
1
1
3(2n + 2)(2n + 3) 1 + + . . . +
3
2n + 1
1
1
1
= 1
. (2.508)
+(2n + 2)(2n + 4) 1 + + . . . +
3
2n + 3
2n + 3
It follows that
br xr =
X
xs1
s!
1 X
xs
s!
X
0
x2s+1
(2s + 3)!
1 X
x2s+1
x2 1 (2s + 1)!
165
VOLUMETTO II
ex 1
ex ex 2x
x
2x2
x
x
x
e
e e
=
x
2x2
1
1
12
2x .
+
e
= ex
x
2x2
=
(2.509)
d 00
y + 2y 0 + y +
y + 2y 0 + y
dx
= ex
and thus
00
1
1
x
2x2
+ ex
y + 2y + y = e
2x
1
1
x
2x2
1
,
2x2
(2.510)
1
+
dx + C . (2.511)
2x2
1
ex
2x
1
+1 ,
2x
(2.512)
that is,
1
d 0
y + y = ex
ex
y +y +
dx
so that
2x
(Z "
y 0 + y = ex
e2x
2x
1
+1
2x
1
+1 ,
2x
(2.513)
dx + C .
(2.514)
y 0 + y = x ex + ex
and
"Z
y = e
x +
Z x 2x
e 1
2x
2x
dx
dx
(2.515)
dx + C ;
(2.516)
Z x
0
dx1
Z x1 2x2
e 1
0
2x2
dx2 .
(2.517)
166
x
x1 e2x2 1
1 2 x
x e ex
dx1
dx2
2
2x2
0
0
Z x 2x
e 1
+ ex
dx,
(2.518)
2x
0
Z x1 2x2
Z x
e 1
1 2 x
x
x
x
dx1
dx2
= e + 2x e x e + e
2
2x2
0
0
Z x 2x
e 1
ex ex
2 ex
dx +
.
(2.519)
2x
2x
0
y 0 = x ex +
y 00
Since
Z x
0
dx1
Z x1 2x2
e 1
2x2
dx2 = x
Z x 2x
e 1
2x
dx
1 2x
1
1
e + x+ ,
4
2
4
y0
Z x 2x
e 1
1 x
1
e +
+
2x
4
4
0
Z x 2x
e 1
1
= (1 x) ex
dx + ex
2x
4
0
1
3
1
+ x + x2 ex ,
4
2
2
Z x 2x
e 1
1
x
x
= (x 2) e
dx + e
2x
2x
0
3
5
1
1
+ x x2 .
+ ex
2x
4
2
2
y = x ex
00
dx
y 00 =
2
x
1
1
x x2 ex , (2.520)
2
2
(2.521)
1
(2.522)
y + x ex ,
(2.523)
(2.524)
2x
dx = e2x
1
1
+
+ higher order terms ,
4x
x2
(2.525)
1 ex
,
8 x
(2.526)
167
VOLUMETTO II
= x ex + ex 1+ /x1/ 1+ .
(2.528)
8
We now suppose that R is large in our units; this means that R has
to be large with respect to atomic dimensions. We then have
k0 =
eR 1+
(R) = R e
+
,
(2.529)
8 R1/ 1+
eR 1+
1
00
R
(R) = (1 R) e
+
1+
.(2.530)
8 R1/ 1+
R 1+
For reasons that will be clear later on, we are only interested in very
small values of , so that the second term in the expression of (R) is
of the same order as the first one. This means
that has to be of the
order R2 e2R . It is then possible to replace 1 + with 1 everywhere.
Neglecting also 1 relative to R, the equations above become
R
(R) = R eR +
eR
,
8 R
(2.531)
R
e
00 (R) = R eR +
.
8 R
Equation (2.528) takes a simple form for large values of x smaller than
R:
ex
= x ex +
.
(2.532)
8 x
For x > R the second equation in (2.492) must be satisfied. Let us
suppose that E < 0, because otherwise no spontaneous ionization would
take place. Since
1
1
E = A ,
(2.533)
2
2
A has to be much larger than 12 . The second equation in (2.492) thus
has sinusoidal solutions. For x greater than R we then have
Re
1
+
2E
eR
+
8 R
Re
cos 2E(x R)
eR
+
8 R
168
Let us set
1
A1
+ 4R2 e2R
.
(2.535)
2
A
The quantities E, B and A 1/2 have all values that are very close one
another so that, when they appear as factors in some expression, it is
definitely possible to substitute one for the other in order to simplify
the formulae. In expressions that are arguments of sines and cosines,
another approximation is required. Since
B = A
E = B
4(A 1) 2 2R
1
R e
,
A
2
well set
1
4(A 1) 2 2R
1
2E = 2B
R e
+ .
A
2
2E
(2.536)
(2.537)
=
2 2E
4(A 1) 2 2R
1
R e
+ ,
A
2
(2.538)
so that
8(A 1) 2 2R
2E
R e
.
(2.539)
A
If this is substituted into Eq. (2.534) and the approximations described
above are used, we find
1
2B eR
R
=
Re
2 cos
2B + 2 (x R)
A
4 R
!
2B
1 eR
R
+
Re
2 sin
2B + 2 (x R) , (2.540)
A
4 R
= 4
A 2 2R 2 2
2 2 2R
R e
+
R e 4
A
8
h
i
cos
2B + 2 (x R) + z ,
(2.541)
(2.542)
The author considers this as the (correction to) the momentum of the system under
consideration (in the adopted units).
169
VOLUMETTO II
such that
2 2 2R
A 2 2R 2 2
R e
+
R e 4 = 2.
A
8
N
Indeed,
lim
Z
0
Z +
() dx
(2.543)
( + ) d = 1/N 2 .
(2.544)
This yields the following normalized eigenfunctions for x < R and x > R,
respectively:
s
u =
A eR
2 R
2x ex +
2 A2 e4R 2
1+
4 R4
u = 2 cos
ex
4 x
eiBt e2i
2Bt
,
(2.545)
2B + 2 (x R) + z eiBt e2i
2Bt
2x e
ex
+
4 x
Z R
dx '
2x ex
dx ' 1,
(2.546)
so that, for small values of x, it represents the eigenfunction of the quasistationary state 1s, normalized in the usual way.
Let us now suppose that initially the electron is in the ground state.
Its eigenfunction is approximately spherically symmetric, so that we can
write
= U (x)/x,
(2.547)
where at time 0 we have
U0 ' 2x ex .
(2.548)
c u0 d.
(2.549)
We shall have
c =
Z
0
U0 u0 dx '
A eR
2 R
,s
1+
2 A2 e4R 2
;
4 R4
(2.550)
170
c u d,
(2.551)
e2i 2Bt d
x ex
,
2 2 4R
4 2
1 + ( A e /4R )
(2.552)
where it is simple to show (from Eq. (2.539)) that
A1
2B
2 2R
=
8R e
8R2 e2R
(2.553)
A
A
coincides with the relative to the stationary ground state considered
here; the demonstration is similar to the one exposed in what follows,
which will lead to Eq. (2.560)).52 Now
e2R
U = eiBt A 2
R
ex
+
8 x
e2i 2Bt d
1 + ( 2 A2 e4R /4R4 ) 2
4 2 2R
=
R e
R
2 2 2R
R e
1 + 4 2 Ae2R /4R2
(
)
4R2 2B
exp
t ,
for t < 0,
Ae2R
(
)
2 2B
4R
2
A R exp Ae2R t ,
(2.554)
for t > 0.
We are only interested in the solution for t > 0, since we shall set the
initial conditions regardless of the way the system reached such initial
state. Thus, for t > 0 and x < R, well have
n
o
ex
eiBt exp 4R2 2B t/Ae2R ,
(2.555)
U = x ex +
8 x
while, for x > R,
s
U = eiBt 2
eR
A
2 R
Z cos
2B + 2 (x R) + z e2i
2Bt
1 + ( 2 A2 e4R /4R4 ) 2
d,
(2.556)
52 @
171
VOLUMETTO II
iBt
U = e
cos
eR
R
"Z
1 (A 2Be2R /2R2 )
1 + ( 2 A2 e4R /4R4 ) 2
2B + 2 (x R) e2i 2Bt d
#
2B + (Ae2R /2R2 )
2i 2Bt
sin
2B + 2 (x R) e
d
1 + ( 2 A2 e4R /4R4 ) 2
eR i2B(xR) M + N i 2i[2Bt+(xR)]
= e
e
e
d
R
2
M Ni
+ ei 2B(xR)
e2i[ 2Bt(xR)] d ,
2
iBt
(2.557)
with
M
1 (A 2Be2R /2R2 )
,
1 + ( 2 A2 e4R /4R4 ) 2
2B + (Ae2R /2R2 )
.
1 + ( 2 A2 e4R /4R4 ) 2
(2.558)
(2.559)
We have
Z
2i[ 2Bt(xR)]
2 A2 e4R 2
1+
4 R4
)
(
2
2
R
R
4
2
exp +
[ 2Bt(x R)] ,
A e2R
A e2R
for 2B t (x R) < 0,
(
)
2
2
2
R
4
R
exp
[ 2Bt(x R)] ,
A e2R
A e2R
for 2B t (x R) > 0.
(2.560)
Moreover:53
Z
e2i[ 2Bt(xR)] d
53 @
1 + ( 2 A2 e4R /4R4 ) 2
In the original manuscript the signs of the results of the integral were reversed, but here
the correct expressions are used.
172
(
)
4
2
4
R
R
4
exp +
[ 2Bt(x R)] ,
i
A2 e4R
A e2R
for 2B t (x R) < 0,
(
)
4
2
R
4
R
4
exp
[ 2Bt(x R)] ,
i
A2 e4R
A e2R
for 2B t (x R) > 0.
(2.561)
Thus, although we will be concerned only with the solutions for x > R
and t >
0, we will have to consider two separate cases,
depending on
whether 2Bt (x R) is positive or negative, while 2Bt + (x R)
is always positive. Since the quantity
Z
(1/2)(M + N i) e2i[
2Bt+(xR)]
(2.562)
8 R iBt
e
exp
i
arcsin
(2A
1)/2A
i
2B(x
R)
A eRn
U =
0,
for
2Bt (x R) < 0,
(2.563)
having
again
made
use
of
the
approximation
2B
=
2A1
where
possible.
8R2 2B
F =
.
(2.564)
Ae2R
On the other hand, the damping factor can be written as
et/2T ,
(2.565)
54 @
55 @
1
,
T
T =
Ae2R
.
8R2 2B
(2.566)
Note that the author missed a factor 2 in front of the following expression.
Below, in this section, we shall call T the mean-life, following the authors terminology.
173
VOLUMETTO II
2B t,
(2.567)
(2.568)
so that represents formally a stationary state with a complex eigenvalue. Now, from Eqs. (2.532) and (2.534) and taking account of the
time dependence, with a suitable approximate normalization, the general
56 @
The author refers here to G.Gamov, Z. Phys. 41 (1928) 204. He had already worked on
Gamovs theory also in connection with his Thesis work [E.Majorana, The Quantum Theory
of Radioactive Nuclei (in Italian), E. Fermi supervisor, unpublished].
174
U =
ex
iEt
x
,
e 2 xe +
8 x
"
!
iEt
eR
R
eR
1
+
2E
for x > R.
cos 2E(x R)
("
U = e
"
(2.569)
8 R
!
#
eR
R
R +
sin 2E(x R) ,
e
8 R
for x < R,
R
eR
i
+
R
e
8 R
2E
i
R
eR
+
+
R
e
8 R
2E
R
eR
R +
e
8 R
R
eR
R +
e
8 R
!#
R
eR
R +
e
8 R
!#
ei
i 2E(xR)
2E(xR)
. (2.570)
= 0,
(2.571)
whence
2E + i
=
8R2 e2R ,
2E i
A1
2A 1
2 2R
=
8R e
i
8R2 e2R ,
A
A
so that
1
1
2A 1
E = A = B +i
8R2 e2R ,
2
2
A
or, to the same order of approximation,
2B
E = B +i
4R2 e2R .
A
It follows that, for x < R,
!
"
A 1 2 2R
2B 2 2R
iBt
x
R e
+i
R e
U = e 2 xe
A
A
2B 2 2R
4R e
A
e
,
(2.572)
(2.573)
(2.574)
(2.575)
ex
x
(2.576)
175
VOLUMETTO II
as already found. Then, by this method one can also determine the
mean-life T :
A e2R
T =
.
(2.577)
2B 8R2
e2R
.
8R2
(2.578)
v =
2E ' 2B + 2 ,
dv ' 2 d.
(2.579)
(2.580)
.
'
1 + ( 2 A2 e4R /4R4 ) 2
1 + (A2 e4R /16R4 ) (v 2B)2
(2.581)
176
In first approximation, the same holds for the energy. The probability
for unit energy is
(Ae2R /4 2BR2
K1 /
=
2 4R
4
2
1 + K22 (E B)2
1 + (A e /32BR ) (E B)
1/K
. (2.582)
=
1 + (E B)2 /K 2
As we shall show later, when considering radioactive phenomena, if we
deal with quasi-stationary states, we always find the same probability,
independently of the form of the potential (provided it has spherical
symmetry). The parameter K which defines the probability amplitude
is related to the mean-life T by the relation
K = 1/2T = ,
(2.583)
(2.584)
Note that such expressions agree with the general uncertainty relations.
IV. Let us push further the approximation in the case x > R, while
keeping the definition (2.538) for . We now have
E = B + 2 2B ,
(2.585)
and, instead of Eq. (2.537), in second approximation we get
2 2 2
2E = 2B + 2
.
2B
(2.586)
eR i2B(xR) M + N i
U = e
e
R
2
(
)
2 2 i 2
exp 2i[ 2Bt + (x R)]
(x R) d
2B
Z
M Ni
i 2B(xR)
+e
2
(
)
#
2 2 i 2
exp 2i[ 2Bt (x R)] +
(x R) d . (2.587)
2B
iEt
177
VOLUMETTO II
34.
SCATTERING OF AN PARTICLE BY A
RADIOACTIVE NUCLEUS
57 @
2 dx = 1.
(2.589)
Once more, the author is referring to G.Gamov, Z. Phys. 41 (1928) 204: See the previous
footnote.
178
|u0 |2 dx = 1,
(2.590)
(2.591)
= 0 + W y(x),
0W
= 00 + W y 0 (x),
(2.592)
and these are valid (as long as U has a reasonable behavior) with great
accuracy and for all values of W in the range of interest. In particular,
for x = R:
W (R) = 0 (R) + W y(R),
(2.593)
0W (R) = 00 (R) + W y 0 (R).
Bearing in mind that Eq. (2.588) simply reduces for x > R to
d2 W
2m
+ 2 (E0 + W ) W = 0,
2
dx
(2.594)
= (a + bW ) cos
1q
2m(E0 + W )(x R)
h
1q
2m(E0 + W )(x R),
+ (a1 + b1 W ) sin
h
58 For
(2.595)
179
VOLUMETTO II
having set
a = 0 (R),
a1 = p
00 (R)
h
,
2m(E0 + W )
b = y(R),
h y 0 (R)
b1 = p
.
2m(E0 + W )
(2.596)
Note that a1 and b1 are not strictly constant but, to the order of approximation for which our problem is determined, we can consider them
as constant and replace them with
h 0 (R)
a1 = 0
,
2mE0
h y 0 (R)
b1 =
.
2mE0
(2.597)
= cos
2m(E0 + W ) (x R)/ h
(2.598)
+ W sin
2m(E0 + W ) (x R)/ h.
We set
q
2m(E0 + W ) / h
=
2mE0 / h + 2 = C + 2 ,
(2.599)
h 2E0 /m
W
,
hv
(2.600)
= cos(C + 2)(x R)
+ 0 sin(C + 2)(x R),
with
0 = 2
h
2E0 /m.
(2.601)
2W dx = 1.
(2.602)
180
2
[ cos(C + 2)(x R)
+ 02 2
2
+ sin(C + 2)(x R) = p 2
W .
+ 02 2
0
(2.603)
u0 =
K W d.
(2.604)
Z
0
2
u0 dx = p 2
+ 02 2
Z R
0
2W dx = p
2
,
+ 02 2
(2.605)
4 W
d.
2 + 02 2
(2.606)
4
4
d =
,
02
2
+
0
(2.607)
and, consequently,
4
(2.608)
u = eiEt/h
Z 4W exp 2i
2E0 /m t
2 + 16 2 2 /2
d.
(2.609)
(2.610)
(2.611)
181
VOLUMETTO II
1
1
= 2 .
v
2E0 /m
(2.612)
In this way, and using also Eq. (2.608), both and 0 can be expressed
in terms of T :
1
1
=
= p
,
(2.613)
4
2(E/m)T 2
vT
q
0 = 4 vT = 4 4 2(E/m)T 2 .
(2.614)
It will be clear that only one stationary state corresponds to a hyperboliclike orbit in the classical theory. The revolution period or, more precisely,
the time interval between two intersections of the orbit with the spherical
surface of radius r, is given by
PW =
(2
4
,
+ 02 2 )v
(2.615)
(2.616)
Z
0
2
TW
Z
0
TW d =
1
= T.
2 v
(2.617)
Z
4 cos(C + 2)(x R) 2ivt
e
d
2
02 2
0
Z
4 0 sin(C + 2)(x R) 2ivt
e
d ,
2
02 2
0
(2.618)
182
where and 0 depend on T according to Eqs. (2.613), (2.614). Equation (2.618) can be written as
Z
(2 2i 0 ) 2i(vt+xR)
e
d
2
02 2
0
Z
(2 + 2i 0 ) 2i[vt(xR)]
iC(xR)
+e
e
d . (2.619)
2
02 2
0
Since and 0 have opposite signs and, for t > 0 and x > R, one has
vt + x R > 0, the first integral is zero, while the second one equals
Z
Z 2i[vt(xR)]
(2 + 2i 0 ) 2i[vt(xR)]
e
e
d = 2
d
2
02 2
0
4 2(/ 0 )[vt(xR)]
4
2
= 0 e( /2)[vt(xR)] ,
0 e
(2.620)
0,
iE t/
h imv(xR)/
h t/2T (xR)/(2vT )
e
e
e
,
e 0
u =
0,
(2.621)
183
VOLUMETTO II
(2.624)
(2.626)
The eigenfunctions of a free particle moving perpendicularly to the incoming wave, normalized with respect to dE, are60
1
= p
ei 2mE(d1 )/h .
2hE/m
(2.627)
Note that the square root at the exponent must be considered once with
the positive sign and once with the negative sign, and E runs twice
between 0 and . However, only the eigenfunctions with the positive
square root sign are of interest to us, since they represent the particles
moving in the direction of decreasing . We can set
0 =
59 @
Z
0
cE dE,
(2.628)
Note that the author split the wavefunction of the incident particles into a term related
to the principal energy E0 (the second term in Eq. (2.626)) plus another term which will be
expanded according to Eq. (2.628).
60 @ In the original manuscript, these eigenfunctions are denoted by , but here, for clarity,
184
wherein
cE =
Z d2
d1
0 d.
(2.629)
In particular, we put
cE0 =
Z d2
d1
k `
1
0 eimv(d1 )/h d = .
hv
hv
Since, evidently,
N = c2E0 ,
(2.630)
(2.631)
one finds
k2 `2
.
(2.632)
hv
Let us now expand u0 in terms of the eigenfunctions associated with
the central field produced by the remaining nuclear constituents. Since
only the spherically symmetric eigenfunctions having eigenvalues very
close to E0 are significantly different from zero near the nucleus, we
shall concentrate only on these. For x > R, the expression of these
eigenfunctions is given in Eqs. (2.603), (2.613), (2.614). Actually, the
W given by Eq. (2.603) are the eigenfunctions relative to the problem
reduced to one dimension. In order to have the spatial eigenfunctions,
normalized with respect to , we must consider
W
gW =
.
(2.633)
4x
N =
0 =
p gW d + . . . ,
(2.634)
wherein
ZZZ
p =
dS gW 0 =
Z d2
d1
2 x gW dx
Z x
d1
0 d.
(2.635)
We can set
i
1 h
A ei(C+2)(xd1 ) + B ei(C+2)(xd1 ) ,
gW =
4x
(2.636)
i 0
ei(C+2)(d1 R) ,
2 + 02 2
+ i 0
p
ei(C+2)(d1 R) .
2 + 02 2
(2.637)
185
VOLUMETTO II
(2.638)
=
=
x
2B d2 imv(xd1 )/h
e
dx
eimv(d1 )/h d
4 d1
d1
B h3/2 N
hB k `
=
(2.639)
= q B ,
i 4 m v
i 4 m v
with
h3/2 N 1/2
.
i m v 1/2 4
Substituting into Eq. (2.634), one gets
q =
0 = q
B gW d + . . .
(2.640)
(2.641)
Z
0
B gW e2ivt d + . . . ,
(2.642)
Z
p
0
2B
W e2ivt d + . . . .
+ 02 2
(2.643)
(2.644)
186
|u2 | dx
(2.645)
Z
0
2
e2i[vt(d1 R)] d.
i 0
(2.646)
u =
t d/v
t d/v
iCd
iE
t/
h
2T
2T ,
= qe
e
e
q 0 e 0
0,
for t <
for t >
d
,
v
d
.
v
(2.647)
The meaning of these formulae is very clear: The -particle beam, which
by assumption does not last for a long time, reaches the nucleus at the
time t = d/v, and there is a probability |q|2 that a particle is captured
(obviously, q 2 2 1). The effect of the beam then ceases and, if a
particle has been absorbed, it is re-emitted on the time scale predicted
by the laws of radioactive phenomena. If we set n = |q|2 , then from
Eqs. (2.612) and (2.640) we get
n =
2 2
h3
N,
m2 v 2 T
(2.648)
which tells us that the absorption probabilities are completely independent of any hypothesis on the form of the potential near the nucleus,
and that they only depend on the time-constant T . 61
Equation (2.648) has been derived using only mechanical arguments
61 @
The original manuscript then continues with two large paragraphs which have however
been crossed out by the author. The first one reads as follows:
Since only the particles with energy near E0 are absorbed, we can think, with some imagination, that every energy level E0 + W is associated with a different absorption coefficient `W ,
and that such `W is proportional to the probability that a particle in the quasi-stationary
state has energy E0 + W . From (2.600), (2.608), (2.612), and (2.605), we then have
`W =
D
1 + 4T 2 W 2 /
h2
(2.649)
187
VOLUMETTO II
but, as a matter of fact, we can get the same result using thermodynamics. Let us consider one of our radioactive nuclei in a bath of particles
in thermal motion. To the degree of approximation we have treated the
problem so far, we can consider the nucleus to be at rest. Due to the
assumed spherical symmetry of the system, a particle in contact with
the nucleus is in a quantum state with a simple statistical weight. Such
a state, of energy E0 , is not strictly stationary, but has a finite half-life;
this should be considered, as in all similar cases, as a second-order effect.
Assuming that the density and the temperature of the gas of particles
is such that there exist D particles per unit volume and unit energy near
E0 , then, in an energy interval dE, we will find
D dE
(2.654)
p
q
dp =
2mE0 ,
(2.655)
m/2E0 dE.
(2.656)
E0 appears instead of E in the previous equations because we are considering particles with energy close to E0 . The DdE particles fill a unitary
volume in ordinary space, and in momentum space they fill the volume
between two spheres of radii p and p + dp, respectively. Thus, in phase
space they occupy a volume
4 p2 dp = 4 m2
2E0 /m dE = 4 m2 v dE.
(2.657)
Since the number of incident particles per unit area and unit energy with energy between
(E0 + W ) and (E0 + W ) + dW is N dW , we must have
n = N
`W dW = N D
h
,
2T
(2.650)
This is a very simple expression for the absorption cross section of particles with energy E0 ,
i.e., the particles with the greatest absorption coefficient. If we set
D =
N0 = N
h
,
2T
(2.652)
which means that the absorption of N 0 particles of energy E0 is equivalent to the absorption
of N particles per unit energy. The second paragraph is not reproduced here since it appears
to be incomplete.
n =
188
m2 v
dE
2 2
h3
quantum states. Therefore, on average, we have
2 2
h3
m2 v
(2.658)
(2.659)
n =
(2.660)
particles will be emitted per unit time and, in order to maintain the
equilibrium, the same number of particles will be absorbed. Concerning
the collision probability with a nucleus, and then the absorption probability, D particles per unit volume and energy are equivalent to a parallel
beam of N = Dv particles per unit area, unit energy and unit time. On
substituting, we then find
n =
2 2
h3
N,
m2 v 2 T
(2.661)
35.
RETARDED POTENTIAL 62
(2.662)
2
u = 0
c2
(2.663)
(2.664)
189
VOLUMETTO II
r
O
1
4
u sin t =
u
sin (t r/c) u cos + r
n
d
r
u cos cos (t r/c)
+
,
c
r2
(2.665)
and thus
1
u =
4
1
4
1
r
u
u cos + r
n
r
r
+
u cos sin
c
c
d
.
r2
(2.666)
If the distances r are large with respect to the wavelength, we will simply
have
u =
r
cos
c
r
u
cos
+ u cos sin
n
c
c
c
d,
(2.667)
1
2
1
r
u
2r
2r
cos
+ u cos sin
2 n
62 See
Sec. 1.2.
d;
(2.668)
190
Table 2.3. Matching values for the solutions of the equation y00 = xy (see the text).
x
4
0
4
M
0.2199
1
68.1777
M0
1.2082
0
131.6581
N
0.5732
0
93.5172
N0
1.3972
1
180.6092
THE EQUATION y 00 = xy
36.
= 1+
x4
x7
x10
= x+
+
+
+ ....
34
3467
3467910
(2.669)
For |x| > 4 the first and, even better, second-approximation asymptotic
expressions are practically exact. It is then enough to compute, from Eq.
(2.669), the values of M, N, M 0 , N 0 for x = 4. These can be found in
Table 2.3.63 In Fig.2.2 we report the functions M and N in the interval
4 < x < 0.
37.
Note that the numerical values reported in Table 2.3, as written in the original
manuscript, were obtained from Eqs. (2.669) by taking the expansions up to the nonvanishing tenth term (and the same is true for the derivatives), which means up to the x27
and x28 power terms for M and N , respectively (and x29 , x30 for M 0 and N 0 , respectively).
191
VOLUMETTO II
Fig. 2.2. The functions M (solid line) and N (dashed line) in the interval 4 <
x < 0.
(2.670)
1 2 3 ... n
a1 a2 a3 . . . an
(2.671)
(2.672)
(2.673)
(2.674)
192
As a perturbation term, let us introduce in the Hamiltonian the interaction H, which well have to consider symmetric with respect to q, so
that
Pr H(q) = H(q), r = 1, 2, . . . , n!.
(2.675)
The Hrs term of the perturbation matrix will be
Z
r H s dq =
Hrs =
Pr 1 H Ps 1 dq,
(2.676)
38.
VARIOUS FORMULAE
38.1
Schwarz Formula
2
n
n
n
X
X
X
ai bi
a2i
b2i .
i=1
i=1
(2.677)
i=1
Indeed,
n
X
i=1
a2i
n
X
i=1
b2i
2
n
n
X
1 X
ai bi =
(ai bj aj bi )2 .
2
i=1
i,j=1
(2.678)
(ai bj aj bi )2 .
i<j
y z dx
y 2 dx
z 2 dx
a
a
64 @
(2.679)
193
VOLUMETTO II
y dx
z dx
y z dx
a
a
a
Z x=b Z =b
Z b
38.2
Z b
1
2
x=a
=a
(2.680)
d
=
dy
with
1 (y)
2
(2.682)
y
2
2
(y) =
ey dy.
(2.683)
0
For large n, the values of y for which Py is significantly different from
zero are large themselves. Limiting our analysis to such a part of the
curve representing Py , we can then derive its asymptotic behavior for
large n by the Equation in item 3) of Sec. 2.27. As a first approximation,
we have
!n
2
d
1 ey
Py =
1
,
(2.684)
dy
2 y
which approximately is
(
Py
ney
d
exp
=
;
dy
2 2y
(2.685)
Py
ney
n
+ y2
= exp
2 2y
!)
(2.686)
n ey
+ y2
2 y
n
n ey
2
= ey
+ 2y,
2 y2
(2.687)
194
log n,
y0 =
absolute error 0,
log n,
absolute error 0,
n
2
ey0
2
n ey0
2 y0
e
y02
= 1,
2 log n
,
n
relative error 0.
It follows that
(
Py0
n
n ey0
2
= ey0 exp
2 y
2 log n
=
.
e
(2.688)
Thus we have obtained both the maximum value of Py and the corresponding value of y:
y0 =
Py0
log n,
2y0
2 log n
=
.
e
e
(2.689)
(2.690)
n
Z y
d
1
y 2
Py =
e
dy ,
(2.691)
dy
if we require Py0 0 = 0, we have
(n 1) e
y02
= 2y0
Z y
ey dy,
(2.692)
(2.693)
(2.694)
log n log 2 y 2 = log y.
195
VOLUMETTO II
On setting y0 =
(2.695)
log 2 log n
.
=
2 log n
(2.696)
which yields
log 2 log n
y0 = log n
.
2 log n
(2.697)
It follows that the correction term goes to zeroless rapidly than the amplitude of the Py curve, which behaves as 1/ log n. This is something
we have to bear in mind.
Pushing further
the approximation would not yield corrections comparable with 1/ log n. Then, we use the following as a first-order approximation values for y0 and Py0 :
y0
Py0
log 2 log n
=
log n
,
2 log n
p
= (2/e) log n,
p
(2.698)
(2.699)
or
Py0 = 2y0 /e.
38.3
n
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
(2.700)
Binomial Coefficients
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
3
6
10
15
21
28
36
45
1
4
10
20
35
56
84
120
1
5
15
35
70
126
210
1
6
21
56
126
252
1
7
28
84
210
1
8
36
120
1
9
45
1
10
196
13
14
15
n
16
17
18
19
20
38.4
1
462
1
924
1
1
1716
13
1
3003
91
1
5005
455
1
8008
1820
1
12376
6188
1
18564
18564
1
1
27132
50388
19
1
38760
125970
190
11
330
12
792
55
165
66
495
165
55
220
220
330
11
495
66
462
1
792
12
13
1716
1
14
3432
14
15
6435
105
78
1287
286
715
715
286
1287
78
91
3003
1
105
6435
15
364
2002
1001
1001
2002
364
455
5005
1
1365
3003
3003
1365
16
11440
560
17
19448
2380
18
31824
8568
120
12870
120
136
24319
680
153
43758
3060
560
11440
16
680
24310
136
816
48620
816
1820
8008
1
2380
19448
17
3060
43758
153
4368
4368
6188
12376
1
8568
31824
18
19
50388
27132
1
20
77520
77520
20
171
75582
11628
969
92378
3876
3876
92378
969
11628
75582
171
190
125970
38760
1
1140
167960
15504
4845
184756
4845
15504
167960
1140
We have
X
X
1
n+r1
n+r1
r
=
x
=
xr . (2.701)
r
n1
(1 x)n
r=0
r=0
It follows that
n+r1
r
r
X
n+r2
r=0
(2.702)
197
VOLUMETTO II
r = 0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
or
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
2
0
1
3
6
10
15
21
28
36
45
55
3
0
1
4
10
20
35
56
84
120
165
220
4
0
1
5
15
35
70
126
210
330
495
715
r
X
k1+r
r=0
5
0
1
6
21
56
126
252
462
792
1287
2002
6
0
1
7
28
84
210
462
924
1716
3003
5005
k+r
r
7
0
1
8
36
120
330
792
1716
3432
6435
11440
8
0
1
9
45
165
495
1287
3003
6435
12870
24310
9
0
1
10
55
220
715
2002
5005
11440
24310
48620
(2.703)
38.5
n1
r1
n
X
r=0
2n+r
r=0
2n+r
n1
r
n
r
(2.704)
n+r
n
= 1
(2.705)
= 2
(2.706)
n+r
n
r=1
22n+r
l
X
n+r
r=0
2n + r
n
= 1,
n+l+1
l
(2.707)
(2.708)
l
X
n+r
r=0
n+l+1
n+1
(2.709)
198
38.6
1
2r + 1
n
2r
2n
.
n+1
(2.710)
(2.711)
1
4x2
Z 4x2
0
rn d =
1
4
Z 4
0
rn d;
(2.712)
it follows that
dSn
dx
dSn
x2
dx
=
=
4
1
rn u d,
4 0
Z 4x2
1
rn u d,
4 0
(2.713)
(2.714)
4x
1
2 rn dS
4 0
Z 4x3
1
=
n(n + 1) rn2 dS,
4 0
Z
2
dSn
n(n + 1) 4x n2
d
x2
=
r
d
dx
dx
4
0
= n(n + 1) x2 Sn2 .
x2
dSn
dx
(2.715)
(2.716)
We thus get
d2 Sn
2 dSn
+
= n(n + 1) Sn2 ,
2
dx
x dx
65 See
(2.717)
Sec. 1.21.
In what follows, the author denoted by d, d, and dS the surface element, the solid
angle element, and the volume element, respectively.
66 @
199
VOLUMETTO II
(2.718)
Z 4
0
n rn1
r2 + x2 1
d,
2xr
(2.719)
that is,
dSn
n
1 x2
=
Sn n
Sn2 .
(2.720)
dx
2x
2x
Taking the derivative of the last expression and substituting it into Eq.
(2.717), we finally get
(n + 2) Sn 2n (1 + x2 ) Sn2 + (n 2) (1 x2 )2 Sn4 = 0. (2.721)
Equations (2.718) and (2.721), with the obvious relations
S0 = 1,
S1 = 1,
Sn (0) = 1,
(2.722)
= 2x,
= 1 + x2 ,
1 3
x ,
3
1
= 1 + x2 .
3
x S1 = x +
S1
(2.723)
1
.
(1 x2 )2
2x
,
(1 x2 )2
(2.724)
(2.725)
200
d(xS2 )
dx
x S2 =
S2 =
1
,
1 x2
1
1+x
log
,
2
1x
1
1+x
log
.
2x
1x
(2.726)
(2.727)
S2 = 1 + x2 ,
(2.728)
from which
as can be directly checked. Here we report the values of the first Sn with
positive n:
S0 = 1,
S0 (1) = 1,
1
(1 + x)3 (1 x)3
S1 = 1 + x2 =
,
3
6x
S1 (1) =
S2 = 1 + x2 =
(1 + x)4 (1 x)4
,
8x
4
,
3
S2 (1) = 2,
1
S3 = 1 + 2x2 + x4 = . . . ,
5
S3 (1) =
16
,
5
10 2
x + x4 = . . . ,
3
S4 (1) =
16
.
3
S4 = 1 +
2n+1
.
n+2
(2.729)
Clearly, in this formula Sn (1) is the mean value of the nth powers of the
distances between two surface elements on a sphere of unit radius (see
Sec. 1.21 for the analogous formulae corresponding to surface elements
on a circle).
201
VOLUMETTO II
S0 (1) = 1,
S1 = 1,
S1 (1) = 1,
S2 =
1
1+x
log
,
2x
1x
S3 =
1
1
=
2
1x
2x
S2 (1) = ,
1
1
,
1x 1+x
S4 =
S5 =
1
1
1
1
=
,
(1 x2 )2
4x (1 x)2 (1 + x)2
1
1 + x2
1
1
1
3
.
=
(1 x2 )3
6x (1 x)3 (1 + x)3
arn x2r ,
(2.730)
r=0
a0n = 1.
(2.731)
(2.732)
(2.733)
so that
arn =
Sn =
(n + 1)n(n 1)(n 2r + 2)
,
(2r + 1)!
X
(n + 1)n(n 1) (n 2r + 2) 2r
x .
(2r + 1)!
r=0
(2.734)
(2.735)
X
n+1
r=0
2r
x2r
.
2r + 1
(2.736)
202
Sn (1) =
2rn+1
X
r=0
n+1
2r
1
2n+1
=
.
2r + 1
n+2
(2.737)
Then we get
S6 = 1 + 7x2 + 7x4 + x6 ,
S6 (1) = 16,
1
S5 = 1 + 5x2 + 3x4 + x6 ,
7
S5 (1) =
64
,
7
10 2
x + x4 = . . . ,
3
S4 (1) =
16
,
3
1
S3 = 1 + 2x2 + x4 = . . . ,
5
S3 (1) =
16
,
5
S4 = 1 +
S2 = 1 + x2 =
(1 + x)4 (1 x)4
,
8x
S2 (1) = 2,
1
(1 + x)3 (1 x)3
S1 = 1 + x2 =
,
3
6x
S1 (1) =
S0 = 1,
S0 (1) = 1,
S1 = 1,
S1 (1) = 1,
1
1
1
S2 = 1 + x2 + x4 + x6 + . . . ,
3
5
7
S3 = 1 + x2 + x4 + x6 + . . . ,
S4 = 1 + 2x2 + 3x4 + 4x6 + . . . ,
S5 = 1 +
25 2 37 4 49 6
x +
x +
x + ...,
3
3
3
S6 = 1 +
4
,
3
203
VOLUMETTO II
and so on. Equation (2.735) can be rewritten for the two cases n > 2
and n < 2, respectively, as follows:67
2r=n+1/21/2
Sn =
r=0
Sn =
X
r=0
1
n 2
n+1
2r
x2r
,
2r + 1
n 2 + 2r
n 3
n > 2,
(2.738)
x2r ,
n < 2.
(2.739)
(2.741)
(2.742)
,
2x
2x
well have
1
y =
2
In conclusion,
y =
0,
2x
0,
d
= r .
dr
2x
(2.744)
for r < 1 x,
,
(2.745)
for 1 + x < r;
and, in particular,
67 @
(2.743)
y(1 x) =
1x
,
2x
y(1 + x) =
1+x
.
2x
(2.746)
The + sign in the upper limit for the sum refers to odd n, the sign to even n.
204
r y dr =
Z 1+x n+1
r
1x
2x
dr
(1 + x)n+2 (1 x)n2
,
2(n + 2)x
Z 1+x
1x
1
1
1+x
dr =
log
,
2rx
2x
1x
(2.747)
Equation
(2.748)
3
VOLUMETTO III: 28 JUNE 1929
1.
X
1 ry
sin x
e
sin rx = arctan y
r
e cos x
r=1
(17)
= arctan
x
tan x/2
,
tanh y/2
2
(3.1)
or, setting K = ey ,
X
Kr
r=1
sin rx = arctan
= arctan
K sin x
1 K cos x
x
1+K
tan
1K
2
x
.
2
(3.2)
Special cases:
(a) K=1:
X
sin rx
r=1
x
;
2
2
(3.3)
see (12).
(b) x = /2 :
K
1 3
1
K + K 5 + . . . = arctan K.
3
5
(3.4)
+ . . . = 1.
35
79
1113
1517
2 2
205
(3.5)
206
2
2
2
2
+
+
+
+ . . . = 1,
13
35
57
79
(18)
2
2
2
+
+
+ ... = ,
13
57
911
4
2
2
2
2
+
+
+
+ ... = 1 ,
35
79
1113
1517
4
2
2
2
2
21
+
+
+
+ ... =
,
35
1113
1921
2729
8
2
2
2
2
2+1
+
+
+
+ ... = 1
.
79
1517
2325
3133
8
(19)
(20)
2
82 (82
1)
2
84 (84
1)
162 (162
2
242 (242
1)
1)
2+1
2
= 1
.
8
192
2
164 (164
1)
2
244 (244
1)
+ ...
+ ...
2+1
2
4
= 1
.
8
192
902048
(21)
X
n+1
r=0
2r
(1 + x)n+2 (1 x)n+2
x2r
=
2r + 1
2(n + 2)x
X
n+1
r=0
2r
1
22n+1
=
.
2r + 1
n+2
(3.6)
1
1
1
1+x
1 2
x + x4 + x6 + . . . =
log
.
3
5
7
2x
1x
(3.7)
207
VOLUMETTO III
(c) For other interesting expressions with integer n, see Sec. 2.38.6.
X
cos rx
(22)
r=1
x
2
+ ...
+ ...
2
2
2
2
1k
9k
25 k
49 k
(2n + 1)2 k 2
=
(3.8)
4 cos k/2
2.
THE EQUATION 2H = r
(3.9)
1
1
V V
;
r
r
(3.10)
1
1
p
V V
= .
(3.11)
r
r
r
If r is the distance between P0 and an arbitrary point P , on integrating
over a region S 0 between a closed surface around P0 and a sphere of
radius centered in P0 , we get
1
V (P0 ) =
4
V
V cos + r
n
Z
S
p
1
dS +
r
4
r2
Z 42
V
V +
n
d
,
2
0
(3.12)
n being the outward normal and the angle between this normal and
the position vector. For 0, S 0 tends to the whole region S enclosed
by and Eq. (3.12) becomes
S0
p
dS =
r
V
V cos + r
n
d
.
r2
(3.13)
208
1 2H
= r,
c2 t2
(3.14)
(3.15)
then it follows:
H(P, t) = H1 (P, t + r/c),
x 0
H (P, t + r/c),
rc 1 t
2x 00
00
H (P, t + r/c)
Hxx
(P, t) = H100xx (P, t + r/c)
rc 1 xt
x2
r2 x2 0
+ 2 2 H100tt (P, t + r/c) +
H1 t (P, t + r/c),
r c
r3 c
1
2 H(P, t) = 2 H1 (P, t + r/c) + 2 H100tt (P, t + r/c)
c
2 0
2
H (P, t + r/c),
+ H100tr (P, t + r/c) +
c
rc 1 t
1 00
1
H (P, t) = 2 Htt00 (P, t + r/c).
c2 tt
c
Hx0 (P, t) = H10 x (P, t + r/c) +
2 00
2 0
H (P, t + r/c) +
H (P, t + r/c),
c 1 tr
rc 1 t
(3.16)
2 00
2 0
H (P, t) +
H (P, t) = r(P, t r/c). (3.17)
c 1 tr
rc 1 t
(3.18)
2 2 H1
2 H1
+
= r.
c tr
rc t
(3.19)
2 2 H1
2 H1
;
c tr
rc t
(3.20)
Let us set
p = r
209
VOLUMETTO III
2 H1 = p.
(3.21)
For a given value of t, H1 and p are space-dependent functions, and we
can use Eq. (3.13). We then get
Z
1
4 S
Z
1
=
4 S
Z
1
+
4
H1 (P0 , t) =
Furthermore,
Z 2
H1
S
1 H1
+
tr
r t
p
H1
1
H1 cos + r
dS +
r
4
n
!
Z 2
r
1 2
H1
1 H1
dS +
+
r
4 c S tr
r t
H1 d
H1 cos + r
.
n
r2
dS
r
=
=
=
=
2 H1
H1
d
r
+
tr
t
Z
Z
H1
d
r
dr
r
t
Z
H1
d
r
t
Z
H1
d
r
cos 2 .
t
r
(3.22), we find
d
r2
dS
r
(3.22)
dr
(3.23)
Z
1
H1
2r H1
d
+
H1 cos + r
+
cos
.
4
n
c t
r2
(3.24)
However,
H1 (P0 , t) = H(P0 , t),
H1 (P, t) = H(P, t r/c) = H(P, t),
H1 (P, t)
H(P, t r/c)
H(P, t)
cos H(P, t)
=
=
;
n
n
n
c
t
and, on substitution into Eq. (3.24):
Z
1
r
H(P0 , t) =
dS
4 S r
!
Z
1
H
r H
d
+
H cos + r
+
cos
,
4
n
c t
r2
(3.25)
210
(3.26)
,
c
(3.27)
(3.28)
r = y eit ,
(3.29)
Let us consider
with y a function depending only on space variables; it follows that
2 u + k 3 u = y.
(3.30)
If Eqs. (3.26) and (3.29) are satisfied, then, to every function that is
solution of Eq. (3.14), there corresponds a function that is solution of
Eq. (3.30); the same holds if we change i in i in Eqs. (3.26) and (3.29).
If u satisfies Eq. (3.30), then, from Eqs. (3.25), (3.26), and (3.29), we
obtain
Z
1
eikr
u(P0 ) =
y dS
4 S r
Z
1
u
d
+
u (1 + ikr) cos + r
eikr 2 . (3.31)
4
n
r
Changing i into i, we obtain a second expression for u:
Z
1
eikr
y dS
4 S r
Z
1
u
d
+
u (1 ikr) cos + r
eikr 2 . (3.32)
4
n
r
u(P0 ) =
Taking the sum of these two expressions and dividing the result by 2,
we get a third expression for u, which is explicitly real:
1
u(P0 ) =
4
cos kr
1
y dS +
u cos kr cos
r
4
S
u
d
+ u kr sin kr cos + r
cos kr
.
(3.33)
n
r2
211
VOLUMETTO III
If instead we take the difference of the two expressions and divide by 2i,
we obtain the remarkable identity
Z
1
sin kr
y dS
4 S
r
Z
u
1
d
u sin kr cos u kr cos kr cos + r
,
+
sin kr
4
n
r2
0 =
that is,
Z
S
sin kr
y dS
r
u
u sin kr cos u kr cos kr cos + r
sin kr
n
d
.
r2
(3.34)
On taking the limit k 0, Eq. (3.30) reduces to Eq. (3.9) and Eq.
(3.33) to Eq. (3.13). Substituting Eq. (3.30) into (3.34), we have:
Z
S
sin kr 2
u + k 2 u dS
r
u
sin kr
n
d
,
r2
(3.35)
1 2 2
r u
6
dS =
1
1 u
u r cos r2
3
6 n
d,
(3.37)
1
1 2 2
r u =
u 2 r2 r2 2 u .
6
6
(3.38)
212
(3.39)
u (cos 1)
ei kr
d
r
(3.40)
k =
(3.41)
2i
i
cos 1 u e
u(P0 ) =
2
r
If is small and the wave is approaching P0 :
i
u(P0 ) =
3.
2i
d.
(3.42)
u d.
(3.43)
EQUILIBRIUM OF A ROTATING
HETEROGENEOUS LIQUID BODY
(CLAIRAUT PROBLEM)
0 0.
(3.44)
213
VOLUMETTO III
r D = 3
Z r
0
r2 dr,
(3.47)
3r2 D + r3 D0 = 3 r2 ,
(3.48)
3 = 3D + r D0 ;
(3.49)
3 0 = 4D0 + r D00 ,
(3.50)
that is,
and, taking the derivative,
so that
1
r2
Z r
0
4r2 dr =
4
r D,
3
4
V00 = r D.
3
(3.51)
(3.52)
Now let us set the body in rotation; in the new equilibrium configuration, an element in P will have moved to P 0 . Let us put
= P P 0 cos r , P P 0 .
(3.53)
H Y,
(3.54)
with H being functions that depend on the radius. If the rotation takes
place about the z axis, only the spherical functions that are symmetric
with respect to the z axis will appear in the expansion (3.54), and these
can be expressed in terms of the Legendre polynomials
Pn (cos ).
(3.55)
214
d = 0.
(3.56)
(3.58)
1 2 2
x + y2
2
1 2 2
1 2 2
= V0 + r + L + r Y.
3
6
= V +
(3.61)
In first approximation, from Eqs. (3.53) and (3.58), the density of the
rotating fluid is
1 = 0 = H 0 Y.
(3.62)
To determine H and L, which are unknowns in the present problem,
we have to use the Poisson equation and impose the condition that
the equal-density surfaces coincide with the equipotential surfaces. The
Poisson equation gives
2 V = 4 1 ,
(3.63)
215
VOLUMETTO III
or, using
simply
2 V0 = 4 ,
V V0 = L Y,
1 = H 0 Y,
(3.64)
(3.65)
(3.66)
2 L Y = 4 H 0 Y.
(3.67)
Dividing by Y , we get
4 H 0 = L00 +
6
2 0
L 2 L.
r
r
(3.68)
L + (1/6) 2 r2
L + (1/6) 2 r2
.
=
+3
r V00
(4/3) r2 D
(3.69)
that is
H =
s = sU ,
(3.70)
L + (1/6) 2 r2
.
(4/3) r D
(3.71)
L =
(3.72)
L0
(3.73)
L00
(3.74)
3 H 0 =
(3.75)
216
(3.76)
we finally obtain
0 =
or
4DH
+ 4 D H 0 + 2r D0 + r D H 00 H 0 ,
r
4 + 4r
H0
H 00
+ r2
H
H
Let us set
+ 2r D0
r H0
= 0.
H
q = r s0 /s;
(3.77)
(3.78)
(3.79)
s0
s
(3.80)
(3.81)
H0
H
= 1 + q,
(3.82)
= q,0
(3.83)
= r q,0
(3.84)
= r q,0
(3.85)
= r q0 + q + q2.
(3.86)
H0
H 00
H0 2
+r
r
H
H
H
0 2
00
0
H
H
H
+ r2
r2
r
H
H
H
00
H
(1 + q)2
1 + q + r2
H
H 00
r2
H
D r q 0 + 5 q + q 2 + 2r D0 (1 + q) = 0,
(3.87)
(3.88)
q = 0, 5.
(3.89)
that is,
217
VOLUMETTO III
V = V (0) + A x2 + y 2 + B z 2 + . . . .
(3.90)
U = V (0) + A x2 + y 2 +
1 2 2
x + y 2 + B z 2 + ,
2
(3.91)
with, obviously,
4A + 2B = 4 (0).
(3.92)
U = const.;
(3.93)
Let us consider
we find (A1 = A, B1 = B)
A1
1 2 2
x + y 2 + B1 z 2 + = const.,
2
(3.94)
s =
1/ A1 2 /2 1/ B1
q
1/ A1 2 /2
= 1
A1 2 /2
.
B1
(3.95)
We then have
s0 (0) = 0
(3.96)
and, a fortiori,
q(0) =
r s0 (0)
= 0.
s(0)
(3.97)
The point
(r, q) = (0, 0).
(3.98)
(3.99)
(3.100)
218
or, by setting
a0 =
a2 =
a4 =
a6 =
...,
0 =
2 =
4 =
6 =
...,
D0 ,
a,
b,
c,
(3.101)
(3.102)
(3.103)
(3.104)
q0 = 0,
,
,
,
(3.105)
(3.106)
(3.107)
(3.108)
D =
q =
a2n r2n ,
(3.109)
2n r2n ;
(3.110)
+2
a2n r
X
2n
2n 2n r
2n 2n r2n 1 +
2n
+ 52n r
2n r2n
2n
2n r
2n
= 0.
(3.111)
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
1+q =
D rq + 5q + q
(3.118)
= 7 D0 r + (9 + )D0 + 7a r4
(3.112)
(3.113)
(3.114)
(3.115)
(3.116)
(3.117)
(11 + 2)D0 + (9 + 2 )a +
+ 7b) r6 + . . . ,
2 r D0 (1 + q) = 4ar2 + (4a + 8b)r4
+ (4a + 8b + 12c)r6 + . . . .
(3.119)
(3.120)
219
VOLUMETTO III
It follows that
7 D0 + 4a = 0,
9 + 2 )D0 + 7a + 4a + 8b = 0,
(11 + 2)D0 + (9 + 2 )a + 7b
+ 4a + 8b + 12c = 0.
(3.121)
(3.122)
(3.123)
M
I0 3 I/2
+
,
r
r3
(3.124)
M
I0 3 I/2
1 2 2
2
+
+
x
+
y
= const.
r
r3
2
(3.125)
by denoting with Rp the polar radius and with Re the equatorial radius,
we get
M
C A
1C A
M
1
+
=
+ 2 Re2 ,
3
3
Rp
Rp
Re
2 Re
2
(3.126)
where C is the moment of inertia with respect to the polar axis 2 and A
the moment of inertia with respect to any equatorial axis, so that
I0 = A +
1
C.
2
(3.127)
Let us denote by f the ratio between the centrifugal force and the gravitational force at the equator and with r1 the average radius of the planet;
in first approximation we then have
f =
2 r13
.
M
(3.128)
1@
2@
1
1
Rp
Re
3C A
1 f
M;
+
3
2 r1
2 r1
Joining the center of the planet with the considered external point.
Above, this quantity was denoted by I.
(3.129)
220
Re Rp
,
Re
we have, again in first approximation,
s1 =
(3.130)
3C A
1
+ f,
2
2 M r1
2
s1 =
(3.131)
s1
(3.132)
8
3
Z r1
0
r4 dr.
(3.133)
Now, we have
Z r1
0
r4 dr =
=
Z r1
0
r2 r2 dr =
1 5
2
r1 D1
3
3
r15 D1
Z r1
Z r1 0
0
Z r1
0
r2 d
1 3
r D
3
r4 D dr,
(3.134)
r D dr .
(3.135)
(3.136)
2
1 5
r1 D1
Z
4
r D dr .
(3.137)
Let us consider again the Clairaut equation (3.87) and evaluate the
expression
p
p
d 5 p
r D 1 + q = 5 r4 D 1 + q + r5 D0 1 + q
dr
q0
+ r5 D
2 1+q
4
rD0
rq 0
5r D
1+q +
(1 + q) +
.(3.138)
=
1+q
5D
10
221
VOLUMETTO III
(3.139)
d 5 p
5 r4 D
1
1 2
r D 1+q =
1+ q
q ,
dr
1+q
2
10
3
1 + q1 =
Z r1
5 r4 D
1+q
Let us set
1+
1
1 2
q
q
2
10
1 + q/2 q 2 /10
1+q
K =
r15 D1
dr.
(3.141)
(3.142)
1 + q1 =
Z r1
0
5 r4 D K dr.
3@
(3.140)
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
2
3
1
1.00018
1.00051
1.00072
1.00066
1.00021
0.99928
0.99782
0.99580
0.99317
0.98995
0.92376
0.8
(3.143)
In the original manuscript, the upper limit of the integral is r; however, it is evident that
the appropriate limit is r1 .
4 @ See the previous footnote.
5 @ In the table below, the author reported only the values for K = 1, 1.00074, 1.00021, 0.98995
corresponding to q = 0, 0.3, 0.5, 0.9, respectively. Particular emphasis is given to the value
for q = 0.3.
222
s =
(3.144)
3
C A
f 3
.
2
M r2
(3.145)
r s0
s
5
f,
2
5
f 2s,
2
5f
2.
2 s
(3.146)
r15 D1
5 f
1 '
2 s1
5 r4 D dr,
(3.148)
5 f
5
5
C
1 '
2 s1
2
2C A
1
s1 f .
2
(3.149)
= 1/288,
(3.150)
= 305,
(3.151)
and thus
s1 = 1/297,
(3.152)
223
VOLUMETTO III
(3.153)
1
M r12 ,
920
(3.154)
(3.155)
'
=
=
=
6378,
6357,
1/297,
5.515.
(3.156)
(3.157)
(3.158)
(3.159)
Let us suppose that the density of the Earth can be expressed in the
form:
= a + b r2 + c r4 .
(3.160)
We want to find the unknown coefficients using the conditions
D1 = 5.515,
1 = 2.5,
I = 0.332 M r12 .
(3.161)
We have
1 = a + b r12 + c r14 ,
1 3
r D1 =
3 1
=
Z r1
0
D1 = a +
(3.162)
a r2 + b r4 + c r6 dr
1 3
1
1
a r + b r15 + c r17 ,
3 1
5
7
that is,
6@
3 2
3
b r + c r14 .
5 1
7
(3.163)
(3.164)
224
Moreover,
Z
8 r1 4
a r + b r6 + c r8 dr
3 0
8 1 5
1 7
1 9
a r + b r1 + c r1 ,
3 5 1
7
9
I =
=
that is,
I
8
=
5
3
r1
(3.165)
1
1
1
a + b r12 + c r14 .
5
7
9
(3.166)
3
3
a + b r12 + c r14 ,
5
7
(3.167)
5
7
3
5
b r12 +
b r12 +
5
9
3
7
c r14
.
c r14
(3.168)
a (1 ) +
br12
3
5
7
5
a+
cr14
5
3
9
7
= 0,
(3.169)
3 2
3
b r1 + c r14 = D1 ,
5
7
5 I
.
2 M r12
(3.170)
= 1 /D1 .
(3.171)
=
Moreover let us put
a (1 ) +
br12
3
5
7
5
a (1 ) + br12
cr14
5
3
9
7
+ cr14
= 0,
(3.172)
= 0,
225
VOLUMETTO III
from which
4
4
8
+
7
63
= 9
a,
10
6
4
63
35
147
2
4
2
+
7
5
35
a.
=
10
6
4
63
35
147
br12
cr14
(3.173)
(3.174)
It follows that
a = ` (175 189 + 30 ) ,
br12 = ` (490 630 + 140 ) ,
cr14 = ` (315 441 + 126 ) .
(3.175)
(3.176)
(3.177)
Finally, we get
=
(175 189 + 30 ) D1
16
(490 630 + 140 ) D1 r2
16
r12
(315 441 + 126 ) D1 r4
+
,
16
r14
(3.178)
with and defined in Eqs. (3.170) and (3.171). For the Earth, from
Eqs. (3.175), it follows that
= 0.83,
= 0.45.
(3.179)
1 = D1
r2
r4
1.977 1.881 2 + 0.354 4
r1
r1
(3.180)
226
The maximum value for the density (at the center of the Earth) then
would be
0 = 1.977 D1 = 1.977 5.515 = 10.90.
(3.181)
From
1.977 1.881 + 0.354 = 0.45,
3
3
1.977 1.881 + 0.354
= 1.000,
5
7
2
2
2
= 0.332,
1.977 1.881 + 0.354
5
7
9
setting
= D1
r2
r4
+ 2 + 4
r1
r1
(3.182)
(3.183)
(3.184)
(3.185)
(3.186)
4.
DETERMINATION OF A FUNCTION
FROM ITS MOMENTS
Let y be a function of x:
y = y(x),
and suppose that, for
x2
>
a2 ,
(3.187)
|y| dx
(3.188)
0 =
y dx,
Z
1 =
x y dx,
227
VOLUMETTO III
Fig. 3.1. The density of the Earth as a function of the distance from its center
(see the text for notation).
... ,
(3.189)
xn y dx,
n =
and set
y eixt dx,
z(t) =
so that
y =
1
2
eixt z dt.
(3.190)
(3.191)
dz
= i
x y eixt dx,
dt
...,
Z
n
d z
n
=
i
xn y eixt dx.
dtn
(3.192)
dtn
= in n .
(3.193)
228
From the assumptions mentioned above, z can be expanded in a absolutely convergent Mac-Laurin series:
z =
(it)n
.
n!
(3.194)
1
2
y =
eixt
(it)n
dt,
n!
(3.195)
y =
cos xt
Z
1
(1)r 2r
sin xt
t2r
dt
(2r)!
(1)r 2r+1
t2r+1
dt.
(2r + 1)!
(3.196)
Example 1. Let y = 1 for 0 < x < 1 and y = 0 for x < 0 and x > 1.
The moments of this function will be
0 = 1, 1 =
1
1
, . . . n =
.
2
n+1
Let us substitute them in Eq. (3.196) and note that, in the present case,
(1)r 2r
1 X
t2r+1
sin t
(1)r
=
,
t 0
(2r + 1)!
t
(1)r 2r+1
1
=
t
X
t2r
t2r
=
(1)r
(2r)!
(2r + 1)!
0
X
0
(3.197)
t2r+1
t2r+2
1 X
(1)r
=
(2r + 1)!
t 0
(2r + 2)!
t2r
(1)r
(2r)!
1 cos t
.
t
(3.198)
We have
Z
y =
=
(3.199)
229
VOLUMETTO III
The first integral takes the values /2 for x < 1 and /2 for x > 1.
The second integral takes the values /2 for x < 0 and /2 for x > 0.
We then have:
for x < 0,
y =
1
1
= 0;
2
2
y =
1
1
+
= 1;
2
2
for x > 1,
y =
(3.200)
1
1
+
= 0;
2
2
as we supposed.
Example 2. Let y = 0 for x < 0 and y = ex for x > 0. Now the
conditions above are not satisfied, and we have to abandon mathematical
rigor somewhat. We have
n = n!.
(3.201)
Substituting in Eq. (3.195), we get
X
0
X
(it)n
1
=
(it)n =
,
n!
1 it
0
(3.202)
which is valid only for t2 < 1, since otherwise the expansion does not
converge. However, let us suppose that we can always write
(it)n =
1
,
1 it
(3.203)
eixt
dt.
1 it
(3.204)
1
2
eix dx
=
a + ix
2 ea , a > 0,
0, a < 0,
(3.205)
x itx
Z ixt
e
dt
1 it
2 ex , for x > 0,
.
0, for x < 0,
(3.206)
230
resulting in
y =
x
e ,
0,
for x > 0,
for x < 0,
(3.207)
as we supposed.
2
Example 3. Let y = ex . We then have
2r+1 = 0,
2r 1
=
!
2
1 3
2r 1
=
...
,
2 2
2
(2r)!
.
=
r! 22r
2r
(3.208)
(3.209)
It follows that
X
0
(1) 2r
t2
t2r
t2r
=
(1)r 2r
= e 4 .
(2r)!
2 r!
0
(3.210)
y =
=
=
t2
1
eixt e 4 dt
2
Z
2
t
1
2
ex
e( 2 +ix) dt
2
Z
1 x2 ( t +ix)2
t
e
d
+ ix
e 2
= ex .
(3.211)
as we supposed.
Example 4. Let us consider the problem of finding the function
whose moments are
0 = 1,
1
1 =
,
4
1
2 =
,
9
...,
n =
1
.
(n + 1)2
(3.212)
(3.213)
(3.214)
(3.215)
231
VOLUMETTO III
We have
z =
X
(it)q
z it =
i z0t + z
it z 0 t + z
X
(it)n
(it)n
=
, (3.216)
n!
(n + 1)! (n + 1)
0
= i
(3.217)
(it)q1
,
q!
(3.218)
q! q
(it)q
= eit 1,
q!
z
eit 1
.
+
t
it2
Then, noting that z = 1 for t = 0, we get
z0 =
z =
1
t
Z t it
e 1
0
it
(3.219)
(3.220)
dt.
(3.221)
1
1 t eit1 1
dt1
eixt dt
2
t 0
it1
Z
Z t
1
cos xt
sin t1
=
dt
dt1
t
t1
0
0
Z
Z t
sin xt
1 cos t1
+
dt
dt1
t
t1
0
0
Z
Z
4
1
d
1
=
[cos (xr cos ) sin (r sin )
0 sin cos 0
r
+ sin (xr cos ) (1 cos (r sin ))] dr
Z
4
1
d
=
0 sin cos
Z
1
y =
For 0 < < /4, the second integral takes the value
0,
,
if x < 0,
if 0 < x < tan .
(3.223)
y =
arctan x
d
x
(3.224)
232
(3.225)
It is easy to check that the function y defined above satisfies the required
conditions.
Example 5. Let y dx be the probability that the distance between
two points (i.e., surface elements) belonging to a circle of unitary radius
lies between x and x + dx. From (7) in Sec. 1.21, the moments of y are
n =
4
(n + 1)!
.
n + 4 (1 + n/2)! (1 + n/2)!
(3.226)
In particular,
0 = 1,
128
,
1 =
45
2 = 1,
... .
(3.227)
(3.228)
(3.229)
X
0
X
0
X
(it)n
n+1
(it)n
=
4
n!
n + 4 (1 + n/2)! (1 + n/2)!
0
2 (n + 1)(it)n
.
(1 + n/2)! (2 + n/2)!
(3.230)
t2
Z t
0
z1 dt =
z1 dt =
X
0
X
0
(1)r 2 (2r + 1)
(1)r 2
t2r+1
,
(r + 1)! (r + 2)!
(1)r 2
t2r+3
(r + 1)! (r + 2)!
(1)s 2
t2s+1
s! (s + 1)!
(1)s 2
(2t/2)2s+1
s! (s + 1)!
t2r
,
(r + 1)! (r + 2)!
X
1
= 2t 2I1 (2t),
(3.231)
(3.232)
(3.233)
233
VOLUMETTO III
whence
Z t
0
I1 (2t)
2
2 2 ,
t
t
2
I 0 (2t)
I1 (2t)
= 2 4 12 +
;
t
t
t3
z1 dt =
z1
and, since
I10 (2t) = I0 (2t)
it follows that
z1 =
1
I1 (2t),
2t
I1 (2t)
2 + 4 I0 (2t)
+
.
2
t
t3
(3.234)
(3.235)
(3.236)
(3.237)
Z t
0
(1)r 4 (r + 1)
z2 dt =
z2 dt =
X
0
t2r+1
, (3.238)
(r + 3/2)! (r + 5/2)!
(1)r 2
t2r+2
,
(r + 3/2)! (r + 5/2)!
(3.239)
(1)r 2
t2r+4
,
(r + 3/2)! (r + 5/2)!
(3.240)
and so on.
Example 6. Let y(r) dr be the probability that the distance between
two points belonging to two concentric spherical surfaces, one with unit
radius and the other with a radius a < 1, lies between r and r + dr. In
this case the moments of y(r) are
0 = 1,
1
1 = 1 + a2 ,
3
,
(1 + a)n+2 (1 a)n+2
n =
,
2(n + 2)a
;
(3.241)
(3.242)
(3.243)
(1 + a)2 X
(1 + a)n (it)n
2a
n! (n + 2)
0
(1 a)2 X
(1 a)n (it)n
,
2a
n! (n + 2)
0
(3.244)
234
z dt =
1+a X
(1 + a)n+1 (it)n+1
2a i 0
(n + 2)!
Z t
z dt =
(1 a)n+1 (it)n+1
1a X
,
2a i 0
(n + 2)!
(3.245)
1 X
(1 + a)n+2 (it)n+2
2a 0
(n + 2)!
1 X
(1 a)n+2 (it)n+2
,
2a 0
(n + 2)!
1 i (1+a) t
e
1 i (1 + a) t
2a
1 i (1a) t
+
e
1 i (1 a) t
2a
i
(1a)
t ei (1+a) t
e
+ i t,
(3.246)
2a
ei (1a) t ei (1+a) t
+ i,
(3.247)
2at
ei (1+a) t ei (1a) t
2at2
(1 + a) ei (1+a) t (1 a) ei (1a) t
i
. (3.248)
2at
=
Z t
z dt =
z =
However,
Z
i r t
ze
dt =
i r t
"
Z t
i r t
z dt
i r ei r t dt
ei (1a) t
2at
Z t
z(t1 ) dt1
0
i
(1+a)
t
e
Z
i r ei (1ar) t 1
!#
+i
dt
2a
t
Z
i r ei (1+ar) t 1
dt
2a
t
r
ei r t dt.
(3.249)
235
VOLUMETTO III
The first and fourth terms on the l.h.s. are indeterminate, and their
mean values are zero. The second term takes the values
r
, for r < 1 a,
2a
(3.250)
r
, for r > 1 a.
2a
The third term assumes the values
r
, for r < 1 + a,
2a
r
,
2a
(3.251)
for r > 1 + a.
for r < 1 a,
r
,
2a
y = 0,
(3.252)
for r > 1 + a;
5.
PROBABILITY CURVES
for r < a b,
r
,
2ab
y = 0,
(3.253)
for r > a + b;
n =
rn y dr =
(a + b)n+2 (a b)n+2
.
2ab(n + 2)
(3.254)
236
In particular,
1
,
a
= 1,
1 =
0
(3.255)
(3.256)
b2
1
,
3 a
= a2 + b2 ,
1 = a +
2
....
(3.257)
(3.258)
y(r) =
y(r) = 0,
Its moments are
n =
0 < r < `,
(3.259)
otherwise.
2`n
.
(n + 1) (n + 2)
(3.260)
In particular
0 = `,
`
1 =
,
3
`2
2 =
,
6
....
(3.261)
(3.262)
(3.263)
(3) Probability density that two points on two co-planar and concentric circumferences with radii a and b < a are at a distance r from
each other:
y =
2r
.
(a2 b2 )2 + 2(a2 + b2 )r2 r4
(3.264)
2r
.
2
4a r2 r4
(3.265)
237
VOLUMETTO III
6.
R =2 sin kx
0
sin x
dx
(3.266)
we deduce
sin (k + 2) x
sin kx
=
+ 2 cos (k + 1) x.
sin x
sin x
(3.267)
Z /2
sin kx
sin x
dx,
(3.268)
we find
y(k) y(k + 2) =
2
sin (k + 1)
sin
.
k+1
2
(3.269)
lim
sin x
dx =
=
that is,
y() =
lim
Z
sin kx
k
Z 0
sin
0
x
x
dx
dx =
,
2
,
2
(3.270)
(3.271)
we get
y(k) =
2
(k + 1 + 2r)
sin
,
2
k
+
1
+
2r
2
0
(3.272)
(k + 1) X
2(1)r
sin
.
2
2
(k + 1) + 2r
0
(3.273)
that is,
y(k) =
2
2
1
1
1
+
...
k+1
k+3
k+5
sin
(k + 1)
.
2
(3.274)
238
1
1
1
+
+ ...,
1+
1 + 2
1 + 3
(3.275)
1
.
2
(3.276)
This is always an increasing function of its argument taking values between 1/2 and 1.
Notice that the identity
() +
1+
1+
= 1,
(3.277)
Z 1
0
dx
,
1 + x
(3.278)
1
,
2
(1) = log 2,
(2) =
.
4
(3.279)
1
1
1
+
+ ... +
1 x
1 x 3
1 x 21
1
, (3.280)
1
1
log (1 ) + 3 log (1 3 ) + . . .
1
+ 21 log (1 21 ) ;
(3.281)
1 h 21
log (1 ) + 23 log (1 3 ) + . . .
i
+ log (1 21 ) .
(3.282)
239
VOLUMETTO III
Note that the imaginary part of each logarithm on the r.h.s. of Eq.
(3.282) is univocally determined when it belongs to the interval (i/2,
i/2). In view of the fact that the terms on the r.h.s. of Eq. (3.282) are
complex conjugate in pairs and that
log (1 r ) = log
2r = cos
2 sin
r
2
+i
r
r
i sin
,
i ,
2
2
(3.283)
(3.284)
() = cos
log 2 sin
3
3
+ cos
log 2 sin
+ ...
(2 1)
(2 1)
+ cos
log 2 sin
3
3
sin
+
sin
+ ...
+
2
(2 1)
(2 1)
+
sin
.
(3.285)
1
3
(3) =
log 2 +
, (4) = . . . .
3
9
(0) =
(3.286)
240
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.20
0.22
0.24
()
0.50000
0.50500
0.51000
0.51498
0.51994
0.52488
0.52979
0.53467
0.53951
0.54431
0.54907
0.55378
0.55843
0.26
0.28
0.30
0.32
0.34
0.36
0.38
0.40
0.42
0.44
0.46
0.48
0.50
()
0.56304
0.56759
0.57201
0.57652
0.58089
0.58521
0.58946
0.59366
0.59779
0.60186
0.60587
0.60982
0.61371
to the case with < 1/2. We then have the results listed in the Table
3.1. 7
For small , the following expansion is useful:
1
1
1
17 7
1
+ 3 + 5
+ ....
2
4
8
4
16
Substituting Eq. (3.275) in Eq. (3.274), we get
(3.287)
() =
y(k) =
2
k+1
2
k+1
sin
(k + 1)
.
2
(3.288)
We infer
y(0) = 0,
y(2) = 2,
1
4
= ,
3
3
1
1
y(6) = 2 1 +
,
3
5
1
1
1
,
y(8) = 2 1 +
3
5
7
1
1
1
1
y(10) = 2 1 + +
,
3
5
7
9
y(4) = 2
.
2
In the original manuscript, only the values corresponding to = 0, = 0.40, and = 0.50
were reported in the Table.
241
VOLUMETTO III
7.
dx = lim
Z /2
sin kx
dx =
sin x
k 0
.
2
(3.289)
INFINITE PRODUCTS
(1) We have
2 2 4 4 6 6
... = .
1 3 3 5 5 7
2
(3.290)
k
k
k
sin k
(1 k) 1
(3.291)
1
1
... =
4
9
16
k
sin x
= (1 k)
x
k
1
4
k
1
9
k
1
16
....
(3.292)
... =
2 53
8
113
143
lim
P1
P2
= 3
(3.293)
P1 (0) = 1,
P2 (0) = 0,
From
P2 = P1
it follows that
1
=
Z
dx
0
P12
Z
dx
0
P12
P10 (0) = 0,
P20 (0) = 1.
(3.294)
(3.295)
242
8.
X
t ext
Bn (x) n
=
t .
t
e 1
n!
0
(3.296)
(3.297)
X
t
Bn n
=
t .
(3.298)
et 1
n!
0
We list the first few Bernoulli numbers and polynomials:
B0 = 1,
B4 =
B8 =
1
,
30
1
,
30
1
B1 = ,
2
B2 =
1
,
6
B5 = 0,
B6 =
1
,
42
B7 = 0,
B10 =
5
,
66
B11 = 0.
B9 = 0,
B3 = 0,
B0 (x) = 1,
B1 (x) = x
1
,
2
B2 (x) = x2 x +
B3 (x) = x3
1
,
6
3 2
1
x + x,
2
2
B4 (x) = x4 2x3 + x2
B5 (x) = x5
1
,
30
5 4
5
1
x + x3 x,
2
3
6
243
VOLUMETTO III
B6 (x) = x6 3 x5 +
B7 (x) = x7
7 6
7
7
1
x + x5 x3 + x,
2
2
6
6
B8 (x) = x8 4 x7 +
B9 (x) = x9
9.
14 6
7
2
1
x x4 + x2
,
3
3
3
30
9 8
21 5
3
x + 6 x7
x + 2 x3
x,
2
5
10
1
1
5 4
x x2 +
,
2
2
42
15 8
3
5
x 7 x6 + 5 x4 x2 +
,
2
2
66
55 9
11 3
5
11 10
x +
x 11 x7 + 11 x5
x + x.
2
6
2
6
POISSON BRACKETS
i
(a b b a) = [b , a] .
h
(3.299)
X a b
i
[x , H] =
X x H
i
qi pi
X x
i
a b
,
qi pi
pi qi
qi
qi +
x H
pi qi
x
pi
pi
(3.300)
(3.301)
= x.
(3.302)
Let us cite the expressions for the Poisson brackets of some quantities:
8@
In the original manuscript, the old notation h/2 is used for the quantity we here denote
by
h.
244
(1) Given
ux = qy pz qz py ,
uy = qz px qx pz ,
uz = qx py qy px ,
(3.303)
(3.304)
(3.305)
(3.306)
[ux , uy ] = [uy , ux ] = uz ,
[uy , uz ] = [uz , uy ] = ux ,
[uz , ux ] = [ux , uz ] = uy ,
(3.307)
(3.308)
(3.309)
it follows that
h
h
h
h
h
u2x , uy = ux uz + uz ux ,
(3.310)
u2x , uz = ux uy uy ux ,
i
etc.,
ux , u2y = uy uz + uz uy ,
(3.311)
(3.312)
ux , u2z = ux uy uy ux ,
etc.,
(3.313)
etc..
(3.314)
(2) Given
qx = r sin cos ,
qy = r sin sin ,
qz = r cos ,
(3.315)
(3.316)
(3.317)
we have
[r , px ] =
[r , py ] =
[r , pz ] =
[cos , px ] =
[cos , py ] =
[cos , pz ] =
qx
= sin cos ,
r
qy
= sin sin ,
r
qz
= cos ,
r
qx qz
sin cos cos
3 =
,
r
r
qy qz
sin cos sin
3 =
,
r
r
r2 qz2
sin2
=
,
r3
r
(3.318)
(3.319)
(3.320)
(3.321)
(3.322)
(3.323)
245
VOLUMETTO III
[sin , px ] =
[sin , py ] =
[sin , pz ] =
[ , px ] =
[ , py ] =
[ , pz ] =
[cos , px ] =
[cos , py ] =
[cos , pz ] =
[sin , px ] =
[sin , py ] =
[sin , pz ] =
[ , px ] =
[ , py ] =
[ , pz ] =
cos2 cos
,
r
cos2 sin
,
r
sin cos
,
r
cos cos
,
r
cos sin
,
r
sin
,
r
sin2
,
r sin
cos sin
,
r sin
0,
cos sin
,
r sin
cos2
,
r sin
0,
sin
,
r sin
cos
,
r sin
0.
(3.324)
(3.325)
(3.326)
(3.327)
(3.328)
(3.329)
(3.330)
(3.331)
(3.332)
(3.333)
(3.334)
(3.335)
(3.336)
(3.337)
(3.338)
(3.339)
(3.340)
(3.341)
246
Ym,n =
q
i
(m+1,n m,n+1 ) k(k + 1) mn. (3.344)
2
2
0
0
0
0
Z =
0
1
0
0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 1 0
0 0 2
q0
1
0
3
X = 0
2
0
0
0
q
i
i
0
2 0
1
0
0
0 0
0
q
X2 =
0
0
2
Y = 32
3
2
3
2
3
2
3
q0
5
2
0
32
3
0
q
5
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
0 ,
3
2
0
5
2
3
2
(3.347)
(3.348)
q0
3
2
5
2
0
32
0
i
3
2
(3.346)
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 4
1
0
q
3
2
0 ,
0
3
2
(3.345)
0
1
2
Z =
0
0
3
2
3
2
i
0
Y = 0 i 32
0
0
0
0
q
32 ,
(3.349)
(3.350)
247
VOLUMETTO III
X +Y
+Z
i
0q
0
21 i
X Y = i 32
0
6
0
0
0
0
0
0q
1
2i
0
1
2i
Y X = i 32
0
0
0q
0
21 i
0 1
2
q0
3
XZ = 0
2
0
0
0 0
0
ZX =
0
2i
YZ =
0
0
0
i
0q
i
0
0
ZY =
0
3
2
0
0
q
0 32
0
0
0 1
q0
0
0
0
3
2
0
q
0
0
3
2
0
0
3
2
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
2
0
0q
0 i
0
0
0
i
2i
0
0
0
0
3
i 2 ,
0
0
q
3
2
0
q
i
0
q
i
0
3
2
(3.353)
0
0
0 ,
2
0
0
(3.354)
0
0
(3.355)
0 ,
2i
(3.356)
0
0
3
2
(3.352)
i 32 ,
0
0
3
2
(3.351)
0
0
q
0
3
2i
0 2
3
2
0
0
0
0
6
0i
0
32 i
3
2
0
0
0
6
0
0
3
2i
i
0q
0
0
6
0
0
0i
0
32 i
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2i
0
0
0
(3.357)
248
[X , Y ] = i (X Y Y X) =
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 1 0
0 0 2
= Z,
(3.358)
q0
1
0
3
[Y , Z] = i (Y Z Z Y ) = 0
2
0
0
0
3
2
3
2
0
1
0 = X,
0
3
2
0
(3.359)
[Z , X] = i (Z X X Z) = 0
10.
0
q
i
0
0
i
3
2
0
3
2
i
0
i
3
2
0 .
0
3
2
0
i
0
(3.360)
9@
In the tables we report the updated value for each quantity. These slightly differ from the
ones given by the author. The values for the last 10 quantities do not appear in the original
manuscript.
10 @ In particular, the author gives length in m, mass in g, time in s and electric charge in
esu. Other units are derived from these.
11 @ However, nowadays, fundamental quantities, which are most precisely known, do not
coincide with the ones marked in the following tables.
12 @ With reference to the 8th line of the following table, the present convention for the
atomic mass unit is 12 C mass/12, rather than 16 O mass/16.
249
VOLUMETTO III
Quantity
e (electron charge)
Value
4.803201010 *
0.910941027
h (quantum of action)
6.626071027
h/2
1.054571027
1.380651016
8.31447107
N (Avogadro number)
6.022141023
1.660541024
e/mc
1.75878107
c (speed of light)
2.997921010 *
9648.29
109734.564
3.289841015
2.179871011
0.529181010
9.273781021
1.39959106
4.66841105
1.23990
13.60603
511037
11604.2
14388.1
250
11.
(3.361)
and, since P also belongs to the envelope of such straight lines, x and
y also satisfy the equation given by the derivative of Eq. (3.361) with
respect to time 13 :
(u t x) 1 + tan2
dt
+ u tan = 0;
(3.362)
dt
sin cos ,
d
dt
sin2
d
(3.363)
(3.364)
and, on differentiation,
d2 t d
sin cos ,
d2 dt
d2 t d
y = 2 u sin cos u 2
sin2 ,
d dt
x = 2 u cos2 + u
(3.365)
(3.366)
y = v sin ,
(3.367)
13 @
d2 t d
v
sin = ,
d2 dt
u
(3.368)
251
VOLUMETTO III
that is,
dt
d
log
d
d
dt
log
d
dt
d
v
cos
2
,
u sin
sin
v
=
log tan
2 log sin + const.,
u
2
(tan /2)v/u
= c1
,
(3.369)
sin2
Z
(tan /2)v/u
t = c1
d + c2 .
(3.370)
sin2
=
x = u c1
(tan /2)v/u
cos
d +
(tan /2)v/u + u c2 (3.371)
sin
sin2
y = u c1 (tan /2)v/u .
(3.372)
1
tan /2
1
log tan
+
tan2
d +
2
2
2
4
2
4
sin
(3.373)
and, setting
u = v = 1,
c1 = 1,
c2 = 0,
(3.374)
we get
1
1
log tan
tan2
+ ,
2
2
4
2
4
tan /2
x = t
,
tan
y = tan .
2
We use the last expression to eliminate :
t =
(3.375)
(3.376)
(3.377)
1
1
1
log y y 2 + ,
(3.378)
2
4
4
1
1
1
x = log y + y 2 .
(3.379)
2
4
4
Since, for t = 0, one has x = 0, y = 1, t gives the length of the arc of
the curve between the point (0, 1) and the arbitrary point (x, y). From
Eqs. (3.378) and (3.379), it follows that
t =
t = x+
1
1
y2.
2
2
(3.380)
252
From Eq. (3.379) it is seen that the minimum value of x is 0 (for y = 1);
the point (0, 1), considered as the origin of the arcs, is thus the point in
which the tangent to the curve is vertical.
12.
STATISTICAL POTENTIAL IN
MOLECULES
The potential between electrons in a gas satisfies, statistically, the differential equation
2 V = kV 3/2 .
(3.381)
When the equipotential surfaces are approximately known, V can approximately be determined in the following way. Let
f (x, y, z) = p
(3.382)
(3.383)
we have
dV
p
dp
and, denoting with n the outward normal to the surface,
V =
V
dV
d =
n
dp
dV
p
d = y1 (p)
,
n
dp
(3.384)
(3.385)
where y1 (p) is a known function. While integrating Eq. (3.381) over the
space between two equipotential surfaces corresponding to p and p + dp,
V 3/2 can be moved outside the integral:
Z
Z
S
2 V dS = k V 3/2
where
p
n
p 1
d
(3.387)
n
253
VOLUMETTO III
= y1 V 00 + y10 V 0 dp,
so that, on comparison with Eq. (3.386),
y1 V 00 + y10 V 0 = k V 3/2 y2 .
(3.388)
1
1
+
r1
r2
(3.389)
We then have
p = p2
1
1
1
= p2
p2 .
p
r1
r2
(3.390)
Thus denoting by u and v two unitary vectors in the directions of increasing r1 and r2 , respectively,
p =
p
n
p2
p2
u
+
v,
r12
r22
= | p| ,
(3.391)
(3.392)
S
,
p
(3.393)
(3.394)
254
we have
r1 = u + v,
r2 = u v,
x =
uv
a
(u2 a2 )(a2 v 2 )
, S =
y 2 dx,
(3.396)
a2
s
where the integral is evaluated over the boundary of the meridian semicross section (y > 0). Equation (3.389), which must be satisfied on the
boundary, becomes
.
p = u2 v 2 2u,
(3.397)
y2 =
with
v 2 = u2 2 u p,
v=
u2 2 u p,
u=p +
p2 + v 2 ,
u > 0.
(3.398)
=
=
=
=
p + pp2 + a2 ,
p + p2 + a2 ,
a,
a,
v
v
v
v
=
=
=
=
a,
p a,
ap2 2ap,
a2 2ap.
The first two points are always real; the last two are real and distinct
only when p < a/2, while they coincide in (u , v) = (a , 0) when p = a/2.
Let us introduce the variable
v
t = ,
(3.399)
u
wherein u and v can be expressed in terms of rational functions of t:
2p
2pt
u =
, v =
;
(3.400)
2
1t
1 t2
and, since x = uv/a, it follows that
dx =
2p
t
1
2p 1 + 3t2
d (uv) =
d
=
dt.
a
a (1 t2 )2
a (1 t2 )3
(3.401)
If we evaluate the integral only over the positive values allowed for t, we
find
Z
4p2
a2
(1 t2 )2
4p2 t2
a
(1 t2 )2
1 + 3t2
dt,
(1 t2 )3
(3.402)
where
the
lower
limit
of
the
integral
is
zero
when
p
a/2,
while
it is
p
2 2ap/a when p < a/2; the upper limit is, in any case, a/(p +
a
p
p2 + a2 ).
4p
S =
a3
255
VOLUMETTO III
13.
Let us consider the group U (2) of unitary transformations in two variables and , with determinant equal to 1. If
0 = + ,
(3.403)
= 1, +
= 1,
= 0,
= 1.
(3.404)
= 1 + i 2 ,
= 1 + i 2 ,
in Eq. (3.404), the following relations between real quantities must hold:
1 1
1 2
1 1
1 2
12 + 22 + 12 + 22
12 + 22 + 12 + 22
2 2 + 1 1 + 2 2
2 1 + 1 2 2 1
2 2 1 1 + 2 2
2 1 1 2 2 1
=
=
=
=
=
=
1,
1,
0,
0,
1,
0.
1 = 1 ,
2 = 2 .
256
2 = ,
1 = ,
2 = ,
(3.405)
the elements of the most general unitary matrix with determinant equal
to 1 will read
= x + i , = + i ,
= = + i , = = x i .
(3.406)
A=
x + i + i
+ i x i
AB =
B=
x0 + i 0 0 + i 0
0 + i 0 x0 i 0
x00 + i 00 00 + i 00
00 + i 00 x00 i 00
=
=
=
=
xx0 0 0 0 ,
x0 + x0 0 + 0 ,
x0 + 0 + x0 0 ,
x 0 0 + 0 + x0 ;
(3.407)
in short,
(x , , , ) x0 , 0 , 0 , 0
= x00 , 00 , 00 , 00 .
(3.408)
r = 0, 1, ..., v.
(3.410)
257
VOLUMETTO III
(3.411)
f 2 (v, r)
(we are assuming f to be real) depends only on ||2 +||2 ; that is, setting
||2 = a and ||2 = b,
X ar bvr
(3.412)
2
r f (v, r)
is a function of a + b. For this to happen, it suffices to equate the first
quantity to the v-th power of the second quantity, and thus 14 :
f (v, r) =
v
r
1/2
r!(v r)!/v!,
(3.413)
(3.416)
The author wanted to obtain the formula for the power of a binomial.
258
(x, a, b, c) (1, 0, 0, 0)
= (0, a, b, c) .
(3.417)
(3.418)
dx d d d
,
,
,
dt dt dt dt
= (x, , , ) (0, a, b, c)
= (0, a, b, c) (x, , , ) ,
(3.419)
that is,
dx
= a b c ,
dt
d
= a x c + b = a x + c b = a x,
dt
d
d
= b x,
= c x.
dt
dt
Differentiating the first equation with respect to t, one gets
d2 x
2
2
2
=
a
+
b
+
c
x,
dt2
from which
x = cos t
=
=
=
a2 + b2 + c2 ,
sin
2
a + b2 + c2
b
sin
2
a + b2 + c2
c
sin
a2 + b2 + c2
t
t
t
(3.420)
(3.421)
(3.422)
p
p
p
a2 + b2 + c2 ,
a2 + b2 + c2 ,
(3.423)
a2 + b2 + c2 .
(3.424)
259
VOLUMETTO III
by setting
x = cos
a2 + b2 + c2 ,
p
a
sin a2 + b2 + c2 ,
a2 + b2 + c2
p
b
sin a2 + b2 + c2 ,
a2 + b2 + c2
p
c
sin a2 + b2 + c2 .
a2 + b2 + c2
(3.425)
a2 + b2 + c2 2.
(3.426)
U(x, a, b, c) 1
= a P 1 + b P2 + c P 3 .
(3.427)
As a consequence,
ea P1 + b P2 + c P3
= lim (1 + (a P1 + b P2 + c P3 ))1/
0
U(x, , , ) = U e(0,a,b,c)
= ea P1 + b P2 + c P3 ,
(3.428)
P1 + b0 P2 + c0 P3
= ....
(3.429)
260
Let us set
= e(a P1 + b P2 + c P3 )t e(a
P1 + b0 P2 + c0 P3 )t
.
(3.430)
(3.431)
ex P1 + y P2 + z P3 = e(a P1 + b P2 + c P3 )t e(a
P1 + b0 P2 + c0 P3 )t
(3.432)
1h
+ x3 P13 + y 3 P23 + z 3 P33 + x2 y P12 P2 + P1 P2 P1 + P2 P12
6
(3.433)
+2ac0 P1 P3 + 2ba0 P2 P1 + 2cb0 P3 P2 + . . . .
Since x, y, z are infinitesimals with respect to t and a, b, c, a0 , b0 , c0 are
arbitrary constants, by equating the terms of the same order in the two
sides of Eq. (3.433), we find the relations that P1 , P2 , P3 must satisfy.
261
VOLUMETTO III
1 2
= 1
x + y2 + z2 + . . . ,
2
(a + a0 )t + (cb0 bc0 )t2 + . . . = x + at + . . . ,
(b + b0 )t + (ac0 ca0 )t2 + . . . = y + at + . . . ,
(c + c0 )t + (ba0 ab0 )t2 + . . . = z + at + . . . .
(3.434)
(3.435)
(3.436)
(3.437)
From the last three equations (the first one is an obvious consequence of
these), we can deduce the expansion to second-order of x, y, z. Substituting in Eq. (3.433), we find that, up to first-order terms, it is identically
satisfied. Equating the second-order terms, we get
(cb0 bc0 )P1 + (ac0 ca0 )P2 + (ba0 ab0 )P3
1h
+ (a + a0 )2 P12 + (b + b0 )2 P22 + (c + c0 )2 P32
2
+(a + a0 )(b + b0 )(P1 P2 + P2 P1 ) + (b + b0 )(c + c0 )(P2 P3 + P3 P2 )
(3.439)
262
d ( i)r ( + i)vr
p
d
r!(v r)!
=
=0
r i r1 vr+1
p
r!(v r)!
q
(v r) r+1 vr1
r1 vr+1
p
+
= i r(v r + 1) p
r!(v r)!
(r 1)!(v r + 1)!
q
r+1
vr1
+ i (r + 1)(v r) p
,
(r + 1)!(v r 1)!
d ( )r ( + )vr
p
d
r!(v r)!
=
=0
r r1 vr+1
p
r!(v r)!
q
(v r) r+1 vr1
r1 vr+1
p
+
= r(v r + 1) p
r!(v r)!
(r 1)!(v r + 1)!
q
r+1
vr1
+ (r + 1)(v r) p
.
(r + 1)!(v r 1)!
d ( + i)r ( i)vr
p
d
r!(v r)!
=0
263
VOLUMETTO III
r i r vr
(v r) i r vr
= p
p
.
r!(v r)!
r!(v r)!
Consequently the only non-zero elements of P1 are the diagonal ones,
with
(P1 )m,m = 2 m i.
(3.442)
We then have the following representations:
j = 0
P1 = 0,
j =
P2 = 0,
P3 = 0.
1
2
P1 =
i 0
0 i
P2 =
0 1
1 0
P3 =
0 i
i 0
j = 1
0 2
0
P2 = 2 0
2 ,
0
2
0
0
i 2
0
P3 = i 2
0
i 2 .
0
i 2
0
2i 0 0
P1 = 0 0 0 ,
0 0 2i
j =
3
2
3i
0
P1 =
0
0
0 0
0
i 0
0
,
0 1 0
0 0 3i
P3 =
P2 =
3 0
0
3
0
2
0
3
0
2
0
0
0
3
0
0
i 3
0
0
0
2i
0
i 3
0
2i
0
i 3
0
0
0
i 3
264
j = 2
P1 =
4i 0 0 0
0
0 2i 0 0
0
0 0 0 0
0
0 0 0 2i 0
0 0 0 0 4i
P3 =
P2 =
0 2
0
0
0
2 0 6
0
0
0
6 0
6 0
0 0
6
0
2
0 0
0
2
0
0
2i
0
0
0
2i
0
i 6
0
0
0 i 6
0
i 6 0
0
0
i 6
0
2i
0
0
0
2i
0
It is easy to test that the exchange relations are satisfied by these matrices. In fact, if we also include the vanishing components, the matrices
can be written in the form
(P1 )m,n = 2 m i m,n ,
q
(P2 )m,n =
(P3 )m,n =
(3.443)
It follows that
q
(P1 P2 P2 P1 )m,n =
= 2 (P3 )m,n ,
q
(P2 P3 )m,n = i
j(j + 1) m(m + 1)
2 m i m,m i
j(j + 1) m(m 1)
(P3 P2 )m,n = i
j(j + 1) m(m + 1)
+ 2 m i m,m i
j(j + 1) m(m 1)
265
VOLUMETTO III
q
(P3 P1 P1 P3 )m,n =
= 2 (P2 )m,n .
14.
(3.444)
We choose the parameters in such a way that all the coordinates of the
unit element are zero:
1 = (0, 0, . . . , 0) .
(3.445)
Let us also consider a given representation of the group
U(s) = U (q1 , q2 , . . . , qn ) .
(3.446)
lim
266
i.e., setting
s = (, 0, 0, . . . , 0) , t = (0, , 0, . . . , 0) ,
c = s t s1 t1 ,
(3.449)
(3.450)
s t = c t s,
U(s) U(t) = U(c) U(t) U(s).
(3.451)
(3.452)
we have
dU(s)
,
d
and then the derivative of the outcome with respect to
+ U(c) U(t)
(3.453)
X 2 xi U(s)
dU(s) dU(t)
=
U(t) U(s)
d
d
xi
i
X xi xk 2 U(c)
xi xk
i,k
X xi U(c) U(t)
i
+ U(c)
xi
U(t) U(s)
U(s) +
X xi U(c)
i
U(t) U(s)
.
xi
U(t)
U(s)
(3.454)
2 xi
U(c)
xi
U(s)
U(t)
U(s)
= 1,
xi
=
= 0,
(3.455)
= a1,2
i ,
(3.457)
= Pi ,
(3.458)
= P1 ,
(3.459)
= P2 ,
(3.460)
= U(t) = 1;
(3.461)
(3.456)
267
VOLUMETTO III
that is,
P1 P2 P2 P1 =
X 1,2
ai Pi ,
(3.463)
X r,s
ai Pi ,
(3.464)
15.
(3.467)
5
Z + ...;
4
(3.468)
268
5
Z + ...,
8
(3.469)
(3.471)
(3.472)
(3.473)
5
.
16
(3.474)
15 @
Note that the actual experimental values of the ionization potential for the hydrogen
atom, the (neutral) helium atom, and the once ionized helium atom are 13.5984 V, 24.5874 V,
and 54.4178 V, respectively, corresponding to ionization energies of 0.9995, 1.8072, and 3.9998
(measured in Ry, as used in the text), respectively. The electron affinity of the hydrogen (i.e.,
the difference between the ground state energies of the neutral atom and the once-ionized
atom) is 0.7542 eV.
269
VOLUMETTO III
satisfactory, since for very small Z the quantity b would vanish faster
than a first-order term and it would become negative.
Instead of Eq. (3.467), let us now choose the approximation
5
5p 2
k + Z 2 k,
8
8
b =
(3.476)
5
5p 2
k + Z 2 k;
8
8
(3.477)
and, on differentiating,
5Z dZ
dE = 2 a dZ 2 Z da +
.
8 k2 + Z 2
(3.478)
(3.479)
Z
5 dZ
.
(3.480)
a = Z 1+
16 Z k 2 + Z 2
0
In this formula a becomes negative for sufficiently small values of Z;
in order to eliminate this drawback, it is necessary that, for small Z, b
vanishes as a term of order greater than 2.
Instead of (3.476), let us therefore choose
b =
5
Z ek/Z ,
8
(3.481)
5
Z ek/Z .
8
(3.482)
Differentiation gives
dE = 2 a dZ 2 Z da +
5 k/Z
5k k/Z
e
dZ +
e
dZ;
8
8Z
(3.483)
270
(3.484)
Z
5Z + 5k k/Z
a = Z 1+
e
dZ .
3
(3.485)
16 Z
Since for small Z we must have a ' Z/2, we can choose k such that
0
Z
5Z + 5k k/Z
1
e
dZ = ,
3
(3.486)
16 Z
2
i.e., k = 5/4. However, in this way we obtain a bad approximation.
Indeed, we would have
Z
Z
5
a =
+
+
e1.25/Z ,
(3.487)
2
2
16
5
b =
Z e1.25/Z ,
(3.488)
8
E = Z 2 Z 2 e1.25/Z ,
(3.489)
0
5 p
3
b =
k3 + Z 3 k .
(3.490)
8
Equation (3.465) now becomes
5
5p
3
k 3 + Z 3 k,
(3.491)
E = 2aZ +
8
8
and thus
5Z 2 dZ
dE = 2 a dZ 2 Z da
.
(3.492)
8 (k 3 + Z 3 )2/3
On comparing with Eq. (3.466), we get
da
a
5Z
=
+
,
dZ
Z
16 (k 3 + Z 3 )2/3
from which we deduce
a = Z 1+
Z
0
(3.493)
5 dZ
,
3
16 (k + Z 3 )2/3
(3.494)
271
VOLUMETTO III
16.
y =
2y 0
,
1 + x02 + y 02
z =
1 x02 y 02
. (3.495)
1 + x02 + y 02
x0 + i y 0 = /,
relations (3.495) transform into
.
+
(3.497)
Let us now consider a unitary transformation (with determinant equal
to 1) of the group SU (2) acting on and ; the transformed variables
are given by
x + iy =
2
,
+
x iy =
2
,
+
(3.496)
z =
1 = x + i + i ,
1 = + i + x i
(with x2 + 2 + 2 + 2 ). As a consequence, the point (x, y, z) is transformed into the point with coordinates (x1 , y1 , z1 ):
(x + + ix i)( )
+
(x2 2 2ix) + (2 + 2 2i)
+2
,
+
(x + ix + i)( )
x1 iy1 = 2
+
(x2 2 + 2ix) + (2 + 2 + 2i)
+2
,
+
(x2 + 2 2 2 )( )
z1 =
+
(x + + ix + i) + (x + ix i)
+2
,
+
x1 + iy1 = 2
16 @
In the original manuscript, this group is denoted by 3 ; however, here we use the modern
notation O(3). Note also that sometimes the author uses the same notation for a group and
for its restriction to transformations with determinant equal to 1 (which, in modern notations,
is denoted with an S preceding the name of the group; for example O(3) and SO(3)).
272
that is,
x1 + iy1 = 2 (x + + ix i) z
+ (x2 2 2ix)(x + iy) + (2 + 2 2i)(x iy),
x1 iy1 = 2 (x + ix + i) z
+ (x2 2 + 2ix)(x iy) + (2 + 2 + 2i)(x + iy),
z1 = (x2 + 2 2 2 ) z + 2 (x + + ix + i)(x + iy)
+ (x + ix i)(x iy),
or
x1 = (x2 2 2 + 2 )x + 2(x )y + 2(x + )z,
y1 = 2(x + )x + (x2 2 + 2 2 )y + 2(x )z,
z1 = 2(x + )x + 2(x )y + (x2 + 2 2 2 )z.
(3.498)
This represents a rotation (the most general one) in three-dimensional
space; for each rotation we can choose the constants x, , , in two
ways, related by a sign change in the components of the quaternion.
Note that Eqs. (3.498) correspond to the representation D1 of the group
SU (2). By inverting these relations (and losing, however, the uniqueness), we can consider Dj as representations of O(3); the ones with
non-integer j are twofold, while the ones with integer j are unique, since
in these representations two equal and opposite quaternions correspond
to the same transformation. In the representations Dj with non-integer
j (for example D1/2 ), derived from the inversion of (3.498), to each rotation in the three-dimensional space there correspond two equal and
opposite matrices.
An infinitesimal rotation (through an angle ) about the z axis corresponds to the quaternion
1
1, , 0, 0
2
1
1, 0, 0, ,
2
1
1, 0, , 0 .
2
273
VOLUMETTO III
It then follows that the infinitesimal rotations along the x,y,z axes can
be expressed through the fundamental infinitesimal transformations P1 ,
P2 , and P3 by the simple relations:
1
1
1
P1 , Rx = P3 , Ry = P2 ,
(3.499)
2
2
2
and this holds for an arbitrary representation of U (2), as long as it is
considered as a (unique or twofold) representation of O(3). From Eqs.
(3.439), the exchange relations
Rz =
Rx Ry Ry Rx = Rz ,
Ry Rz Rz Ry = Rx ,
Rz Rx Rx Rz = Ry
(3.500)
then follow. Moreover, from Eqs. (3.443) we deduce the following expressions for the matrices Rx , Ry , Rz in the Dj representations (changing
the sign of m and n, i.e., setting m = j r) :
Rz
= m m,n ,
i m,n
Rx
iq
=
j(j + 1) mn (m+1,n + m1,n ) , (3.501)
i m,n
2
Ry
iq
=
j(j + 1) mn (m+1,n im1,n ) .
i m,n
2
We then have the following matrices:
j = 0
Rz
= 0,
i
j =
Rz
=
i
Rx
= 0,
i
Ry
= 0.
i
1
2
1
2
0
0 12
Rx
=
i
0 21
1
0
2
Ry
=
i
0 2i
i
0
2
j = 1
Rz
i
1 0 0
0 0 0 ,
=
0 0 1
Rx
i
= 22
0
22
0
22
22
,
0
274
Ry
=
i
i
j =
i 22
0
i 22
2
2
i 22
.
0
3
2
3
2
Rz
0
=
0
i
0
0
1
0
2
0 21
0 0
0
0
0
23
Rx
=
23
0
1
0
0
23
0
0
i 23
0
i
0
i 3
Ry
2
=
i
0
0
0
i
0
i 23
0
0
i 23
0
0
1
0
23
0
0
23
0
0
26
0
26
0
0
0
26
0
1
j = 2
2 0
1
0
0
0 0
Rz
=
0
i
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 1 0
0 0 2
Ry
=
j =
0 i
i
0
0 i 26
0 0
0 0
Rx
=
0
1
1
0
0 26
0
0
0
0
0
i 26
0
i 26
0
0
0
i 26
0
i
0
0
0
0
0
0
32
0
0
0
0
i
0
5
2
5
2
0
Rz
0
=
0
i
0
3
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
2
0 12
0 0
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
25
0
0
0
1
0
275
VOLUMETTO III
Rx
25
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
2
0
23
0
0
0
32
0
0
2
0
0
2
0 25
0
0
0
25
0
0
25
0
0
0
0
i 25
0
i 2
0
0
0
i 5
2
Ry
0
=
0
i
0
0
0
0
i 2
0
0
0
0
i 23
0
0
0
i 32
0
i 2
0
i 2
0
i 25
0
0
i 25
0
j = 3
Rz
Rx
=
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0 1 0
0
0 0 2 0
0 0
0 3
0
26
0
0
0
0
0
26
0
210
0
0
0
0
10
2
3
0
0
0
i 6
2
Ry
=
0
i
i 26
0
i 210
0
0
0
0
0
i
10
2
i 3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
3
3
0
0
210
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
2
0
26
0
0
0
0
0
0
i 3
0
0
0
i 3
0
i 3
0
i 210
0
i 210
0
0
0
i 26
0
0
0
0
0
26
0
0
0
0
0
0
i 26
0
276
17.
x0i =
aik xk ,
(3.503)
xi i =
aik i0 xk =
i,k
X
k
xk
aik i0 .
(3.504)
Since this relation must hold for arbitrary values of the x and variables,
we conclude
X
k =
aik i0 ,
(3.505)
i
277
VOLUMETTO III
(, ) 0 , 0
= 0, 0 .
(3.507)
z2 = x2 3 ,
z3 = x1 4 ,
z4 = x2 4 ,
(3.508)
(3.509)
x02 = x1 + x2 ,
x04 = 1 x3 + 1 x4 ,
(3.510)
with = 1 1 1 1 = 1, and
10 = 1 2 ,
30 = 1 3 1 4 ,
20 = 1 + 2 ,
40 = 1 3 + 1 4 .
(3.511)
=
=
=
=
1 z1 + 1 z2 + 1 z3 1 z4 ,
1 z1 + 1 z2 1 z3 1 z4 ,
1 z1 1 z2 + 1 z3 + 1 z4 ,
1 z1 1 z2 + 1 z3 + 1 z4 ,
(3.512)
(3.513)
0
0
0 0
1
0
1
0
0 0 0
1
0
1
,
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
(3.514)
278
z20 = x4 1 ,
z30 = x3 2 ,
z40 = x3 1
(3.515)
transform as zi since, from the unimodularity of 12 and 34 , the variables x1 and x2 transform as 2 and 1 , while 3 and 4 transform as x4
and x3 . Moreover, each linear combination of the vectors z and z 0 will
transform in the same way; in particular this holds for the combination
with components
z100 = z1 + z10 ,
z400 = z4 + z40 .
(3.516)
Let us introduce the quantities ct, x/i, y/i, z/i and consider their transformation law as defined by
ct
x/i
y/i
z/i
z200 = z2 + z20 ,
z300 = z3 + z30 ,
z100 + z400 ,
(z200 + z300 )/i,
z300 z200 ,
(z100 z400 )/i.
z1 + z4
(z2 + z3 )/i
z3 z2
(z1 z4 )/i
Then, we have
(3.517)
(3.518)
1 x3 + 2 x4
i1 x4 + i2 x3
1 x4 2 x3
i1 x3 i2 x4
3 x1 + 4 x2 ,
i3 x2 i4 x1 ,
3 x2 + 4 x1 ,
i3 x1 + i4 x2 ,
(3.519)
ik
i xk ,
= 1, 2, 3, 4.
(3.520)
ik
are Hermitian and satisfy the relation
The matrices ik
1
( + ) = .
(3.521)
2
Furthermore, if is a matrix defined by Eqs. (3.512), the transformed
matrices 1 corresponding to ct0 , x0 /i, y 0 /i, z 0 /i are linear combinations of those corresponding to ct, x/i, y/i, z/i; see the next section.
279
VOLUMETTO III
18.
(3.523)
22 = 1,
1 2 + 2 1 = 0.
(3.525)
(3.526)
(1 + 1) 2 a = 0.
(3.527)
or
280
r = n/2.
(3.529)
It follows that in the case p = 2 solutions exist only if n is even. Assuming n = 2r with integer r, we can choose r arbitrary unitary and
orthogonal vectors of Rr0 as the first r fundamental vectors. On the other
hand, the last r fundamental vectors can be chosen to be the transformed
vectors 18 with 2 1, 2 2, . . ., 2 r. These obviously are orthogonal to the first r fundamental vectors because they belong to Rr00 (which
is orthogonal to Rr0 ), but they are also unitary and mutually orthogonal
since 2 is Hermitian and coincides with its inverse. The matrices 1
and 2 then, have the forms
1 0 ... 0
0 1 ... 0
0 0 ... 1
1 =
0 0 ... 0
0 0 ... 0
0 0 ... 0
1 0 ... 0
0 0 ... 0 0 1 ... 0
2 =
...
...
0
0
...
0
0
1
...
0
(3.530)
... 0
1 0 ... 0
0 1 ... 0
... 0
... ... ... ... ... ...
... 0
0 0 ... 1
... 0
0 0 ...
0 0 ...
... 0
... ... ... ... ...
... 1
0 0 ...
0
...
Thus, for p = 2 and even n, the problem has only one fundamental
solution, while for odd n there is no solution at all.
18 @
281
VOLUMETTO III
(3.531)
3 = i2 1 ,
4 = i2 2
(3.532)
p = i2 p2 .
i+2 =
0 ii
ii 0
(3.533)
i =
i 0
0 i
i = 1, 2, . . . , p 2,
(3.534)
(3.535)
(3.536)
and, since
i1 2 = 2 i+2 2 = 2 (i+2 2 )
= 2 (2 i+2 ) = i+2 = i 2 i ,
it follows that
i 2 = 2 i ,
k 2 = 2 k .
(3.537)
282
so that the matrices satisfy relations analogous to Eqs. (3.523). However, we still have not used some of the relations in Eq. (3.523); in
particular, we have not used the relations involving the matrices 2 and
i+2 (i + 1, 2, . . . , p 2) or, from Eqs. (3.532), relation (3.537) from
which relations (3.538) derive their validity. Now, given the form in
Eq. (3.530) for 2 , Eq. (3.537) implies that the sub-matrices i , i of
dimensions n/2 satisfy the relation
i = i ,
(3.539)
i, k = 1, 2, . . . , p 2.
(3.540)
283
VOLUMETTO III
operators. Going back to normal coordinates, the matrices representing the Hermitian operators can be obtained from the fundamental ones
by means of a unitary transformation, while the matrices representing
non-Hermitian operators can be obtained from the same fundamental
matrices by means of a non-unitary transformation; in general, these
matrices will be non-Hermitian.
Examples. Let us now give some examples of fundamental matrices,
when n = 2t and p = 2t + 1 takes their maximum allowed values. We
always have two fundamental solutions which differ only in the sign of
the last matrix.
n = 1, p = 1
i = 1
n = 2, p = 3
1 =
1 0
0 1
2 =
0 1
1 0
3 =
0 i
i 0
n = 4, p = 5
1
0
1 =
0
0
0
0
3 =
i
0
0 0
0
1 0
0
,
0 1 0
0 0 1
0
0
0
i
i 0
0 1
,
0 0
0 0
0
0
5 =
0
1
0
0
2 =
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0 i
4 =
0 i 0
i 0 0
0
0
1
0
0 1
1 0
.
0 0
0 0
0
1
,
0
0
i
0
,
0
0
284
n = 8, p = 7
1 =
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0
1 0
0
0
0
0 1 0
0
0
0 0 1 0
0
0 0
0 1 0
0 0
0
0 1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
i 0 0
0 i 0
0
0 i
0
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
i
i
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
i 0
0
0 i 0
0 0 i
,
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
2 =
3 =
4 =
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0 0
0
0
0
0 0 0
0
0
0
0 i 0
0
0
0
0 0 i
0
0 i 0 0 0
0
0
0 i 0 0
i 0
0
0 0 0
0 i 0
0 0 0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
i
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
i
0
0
0
0
0
0
285
VOLUMETTO III
5 =
6 =
7 =
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
,
1 0 0 0
0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0
0
0 0
0
,
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0
0 0
0 0 0 0 0 i
0 0
0 0 0 0 i 0
0 0
0 0 0 i 0 0
0 0
0 0 i 0 0 0
.
0 0
0 i 0 0 0 0
0 0 i 0 0 0 0 0
0 i 0 0 0 0 0 0
i 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
(3.542)
11 22 . . . pp ,
(3.543)
and that they form a finite group. In the expression above, i take
the values 0 and 1. Operators (3.543) can be viewed as elements of
a group containing 2p+1 elements. In order to have a representation
of this group, it is sufficient to find p matrices that obey Eq. (3.542);
286
(3.544)
commutes with all the elements of the group; and, since its square is the
identity, in the irreducible representations it will correspond to the unit
matrix or to its opposite. Note that only in this second case the fundamental matrices satisfy the relations (3.542), and this happens for an
arbitrary representation only when it can be decomposed into irreducible
representations corresponding to the second case. Irreducible representations corresponding to the first case are, necessarily, one-dimensional
ones since they are shortened representations of g, i.e., representations
of the Abelian group g 0 that can be obtained from Eq. (3.543) by identifying with a unique element the ones with opposite signs. Group g is
composed of equivalent elements with respect to the invariant subgroup
formed with the unit element and the element in Eq. (3.544). Since the
group g 0 contains 2p elements, the one-dimensional irreducible representations, corresponding to the first case, are exactly 2p . The irreducible
elements obviously are
11 22 . . . pp .
(3.545)
Furthermore, let us assume that there exist s irreducible representations
corresponding to the second case. For the completeness theorem we
must have
n21 + n22 + . . . + n2s = 2p+1 2p = 2p .
(3.546)
Let us suppose that ni are ordered in a non-decreasing way; in this case
n1 is the smallest value of n for which it is possible to find p matrices
obeying Eq. (3.542). If p = 2k is even, we know that such minimum
value is n = 2k = 2p/2 ; then it follows from Eq. (3.546) that only one
287
VOLUMETTO III
p = 2k.
(3.547)
Instead, if p = 2k + 1 is odd, we again have n1 = 2k , but a second irreducible representation of the same dimension must exist. Then, for odd
p, we have two irreducible representations corresponding to the second
case with
p1
n1 = n2 = 2 2 = 2k , p = 2k + 1.
(3.548)
Since a representation in which relations (3.542) are satisfied can be
decomposed in irreducible representations corresponding to the second
case, it is now easy to understand the theorem (see the paragraph NonHermitian operators), i.e., the problem of finding p matrices of dimension n obeying Eq. (3.542) can be solved only if n can be divided by
2k . Moreover, we also understand that such solution is unique (apart
from transformations) if p is even, since in this case the possible decomposition into irreducible matrices is unique. If p is odd, then there are
n/2k + 1 fundamental solutions, since in the decomposition of the representation of dimension n into irreducible representations of the second
kind, with the last one having the same dimension 2k , one of them can
fit an integer number of times between 0 and n/2k .
When n is a multiple of 2k , we can adapt the coordinates to the decomposition into irreducible representations; we then obtain for the
matrices a form which is simpler than the one obtained in the direct
way, since they are formed of partial matrices of dimension 2k which,
with a convenient choice of the coordinates, can be deduced from the
ones already considered for the case n = 2k . 19
19.
1
W
e
e
mc +
+ + 2 px + Ax
i
c
c
c
e
e
mc
+ 3 py + Ay + 4 pz + Az +
= 0, (3.549)
c
c
i
19 @
This section ends with: For the connection between the Dirac matrices and the Lorentz
group, see the section Invariance of the Dirac equations. However, in the five Volumetti
there is no section that deals with this subject.
288
where the matrices are the ones displayed in Sec. 3.18 with n = 4,
p = 5. Let H1 be the operator obtained from H by changing its last
term mc/i into mc/i, and consider the quantity H1 H 20 :
"
W
e
mc +
+
c
c
e
px + Ax
c
2
2
e
e
+ py + Ay
+ pz + Az
+ m2 c2
c
c
e
h
e
h
eh
+ 1 2 Ex + 1 3 Ey + 1 4 Ez
c
c
c
eh
e
h
e
h
2 3 Hz
3 4 Hx
4 2 Hy = 0.
ci
ci
ci
(3.550)
The first five terms give the relativistic Hamiltonian for an electron without spin, while the others represent the corrections induced by spin.
By noting that the square of the matrices 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 2 3 ,
3 4 , 4 2 is 1, so that their eigenvalues are i, and that the classical Hamiltonian, in first approximation, is H1 H/2m, we deduce that
the electron has a magnetic moment e
h/2mc and an imaginary electric
moment eh/2mci.
Let us consider the equivalent, but more convenient, expressions for
Eqs. (3.549):
e
W
e
mc +
+ + 1 mc + 2 px + Ax
c
c
c
e
e
= 0,
+ 3 py + Ay + + 4 pz + Az
c
c
(3.551)
e
e
+ 2 c px + Ax
c
c
e
e
= W .
+ 3 c py + Ay + 4 c pz + Az
c
c
(1 1) mc2
(3.552)
Let us assume that the magnetic field is constant, with intensity H, and
that it is directed along the z axis. We then have
Ax =
20 @
1
y H,
2
Ay =
1
x H,
2
Az = 0,
(3.553)
In the original manuscript, the old notation h/2 is used, while we here denote the
same quantity with h
. Note also that and A are the scalar and vector electromagnetic
potentials, respectively, while in the following E and H denote the electric and magnetic
fields, respectively.
289
VOLUMETTO III
e
e
yH
H (1 1) mc + 2 c px
c
2c
e
+ 3 c p y +
xH + 4 c pz = W .
(3.554)
2c
Let us denote with n the scalar solutions of the Schr
odinger equation
2
2 2 n
h
e n Wn n = 0
2m
(3.555)
and with
xnn0 , ynn0 , znn0
(3.556)
the polarization matrices. Then, Eqs. (3.554) have the explicit forms
e
e 1 + c px
yH
2c
+ c i pz 4 = W 1 ,
e
yH
e 2 + c px
2c
+ c i pz 3 = W 2 ,
e
3 + c i py +
xH
2c
3
(3.557)
e
4 c i py +
xH
2c
4
(3.558)
e
2mc 3 e 3 + c px
yH 1
2c
e
c i py +
xH 1 c i pz 2 = W 3 ,
2c
2
2mc2 4 e 4 + c px
e
yH
2c
(3.559)
e
xH 2 c i pz 1 = W 4 .
(3.560)
2c
Here we neglect the solutions corresponding to the positive electron
(positron), i.e., in first approximation, the ones with large 3 and 4
and small 1 and 2 . Thus, in first approximation, the Dirac equations
are solved by the double system of vector functions n1 and n2 whose
components are the following:
+ c i py +
n
0
0
n
3rd comp.
4th comp.
290
(3.562)
e
e
e + c px
y H 3 + c i py +
x H 3
2c
2c
+ c i pz 4 Wn 1 (H )1
eH
ieH
=
(x py y px ) n +
(x px + y py ) n ;
4mc
4mc
e
e
e 2 + c px
yH 4 c i py
xH
2c
2c
+ c i pz 3 Wn 2 (H )2
eH
=
(x i y) pz n ,
4mc
e
2mc 3 e 3 + c px
yH 1
2c
e
xH 1 c i pz 2 Wn 3 (H )3
c i py +
2c
1
ieH
=
(Wn + e ) (px i py ) n
(x i y) n ,
2mc
2
2
e
2mc 4 e 4 + c px
yH 2
2c
e
+ c i py +
xH 2 c i pz 1 Wn 4 (H )4
2c
i
(Wn + e ) pz n .
=
2mc
2
(b) For n2 :
(3.563)
e
e
y H 3 + c i py +
xH
2c
2c
+ c i pz 4 Wn 1 (H )1
eH
=
(x + i y) pz n ,
4mc
e + c px
291
VOLUMETTO III
e
e
yH 4 c i py
xH 4
e 2 + c px
2c
2c
+ c i pz 3 Wn 2 (H )2
eH
ieH
=
(x py y px ) n
(x px + y py ) n ,
4mc
4mc
2mc2 3 e 3 + c px
c i py +
=
e
xH
2c
e
yH
2c
1 c i pz 2 Wn 3 (H )3
i
(Wn + e ) pz n ,
2mc
e
2mc 4 e 4 + c px
yH 2 + s
2c
e
+ c i py +
xH 2 c i pz 1 Wn 4 (H )4
2c
1
ieH
=
(Wn + e ) (px + i py ) n +
(x + i y) n .
2mc
2
Assume that Wn has degeneracy q and let
2
y1 , y2 , . . . , yq
(3.564)
4 Z
X
=1
yri H y sk
(3.565)
(3.566)
292
1
=
4m2 c2
pz y 1 (Wn + e) pz y 1 d
+
=
1
4m2 c2
y 1 pz (Wn + e) pz y 1 d
1
y 1 (Wn + e) p2x + p2y y 1 d
2
2
4m c
Z
1
4e 1
y
+
i
(px ipy ) y 1 d
4m2 c2
2i
x
y
Z
1
y 1 (Wn + e) p2z y 1 d
4m2 c2
Z
1
4e 1
y
pz y 1 d.
2
2
4m c
2i
z
On setting V = e and noting that, from the Schr
odinger equation,
we get
(3.567)
1
y 1 (Wn V )2 y 1 d
2mc2
Z
h2
y 1 ( V ) y 1 d
4m2 c2
!
Z
1
i
h2
V y 1
1 V y
+
y
d.
4m2 c2
x y
y x
H11 =
(3.568)
(3.569)
Note that the author considers degeneracy coming only from non-spinning properties; as
discussed below (see discussion leading to Eq. (3.574)), the spin makes all the energy levels
two-fold degenerate.
293
VOLUMETTO III
1
=
2mc2
2
h
(Wn V ) (y ) d +
8m2 c2
2
1 2
(y 1 )2 2 V d.
(3.570)
Obviously we understand that when V has a singularity like k/r, in
an infinitesimal region around the singularity P0 we find
Z
(y 1 )2 2 V d = 4 k (y 1 )2 (P0 ).
The expression for H22 can be obtained from Eq. (3.568) by changing
i into i in the third term; but, since the third integral is zero, it then
coincides with the expression for H11 in Eq. (3.570).
Now calculate H12 . We have
H12 =
i
4m2 c2
px + ipy y 1 (Wn V ) pz y 1 d
i
4m2 c2
i h2
4m2 c2
"
V
V
+i
x
y
y 1
y 1
+i
x
y
y 1
z
!#
d.
(3.571)
(3.572)
(3.573)
Thus spin doesnt break the degeneracy of the energy level; however,
the two degenerate levels are shifted by the magnetic field. Note that
294
without a magnetic field all the energy levels are at least two-fold degenerate, and this holds not only in first approximation but is an exact
property. Indeed from a solution of Eqs. (3.557)-(3.560) we can obtain
another solution by setting
10 = 2 ,
20 = 1 ,
30 = 4 ,
40 = 3 .
(3.574)
2
2
= e3 mZ/
h3
mZ eme Zr/h , (3.576)
Wn = Z 2 R h =
y 1 = c eZr/a
5 Wn2
Wn2
1 Wn2
+
2
=
;
(3.577)
2 mc2
mc2
2 mc2
the first term in the sum for Wn is the relativistic correction, while the
second one is the correction for the spin. Note that relativistic effects
are reduced by a factor 5 due to spin. We can deduce Eq. (3.577) from
the known fine-structure formula
Wn =
W
=
mc2
"
2 Z 2
p
1+
(n j 1/2 + (j + 1/2)2 2 Z 2 )2
#1/2
1, (3.578)
W = Wn
2n
3
j + 1/2
2
Wn2
.
mc2
(3.579)
Z 2 2
R hZ 2
2
n
n3
1
3
j + 1/2
4n
R h.
(3.580)
295
VOLUMETTO III
Consider now the case of a central field and let Wn be degenerate only
for the presence of spin, i.e., with a 2k + 1 degeneracy, k > 0 being
the azimuthal quantum number. In first approximation, the degenerate
eigenfunctions will be
y 11 , y 21 , . . . , y (2k+1)1 , y 12 , y 22 , . . . , y (2k+1)2 ,
or, introducing the equatorial quantum number m,
y m1 , y m2 ,
with m = k, k 1, . . . , k + 1, k.
(3.581)
The perturbation matrix is the sum of two terms, the first of which,
containing only the diagonal elements
Z
1
0
0
Hm1,m1
= Hm2,m2
=
(Wn V )2 d
2
2mc
!
Z
1 d2 V
h2
1 dV
+
+
d,
(3.582)
4m2 c2
r dr
2 dr2
depends on m and is an absolute constant to be added to the eigenvalues
of the second matrix H00 . The elements of this second matrix are
Z
h
1 dV
00
Hm1,n1 =
uz mn
d,
(3.583)
2
2
4m c
r dr
where uz is the orbital (angular) momentum along the z axis. Analogously,
Z
h
1 dV
00
Hm1,n2 =
(uy mn + iux mn )
d
(3.584)
4m2 c2
r dr
Z
h
1 dV
00
d = Hn2,m1
,
=
uy nm + iux nm
2
2
4m c
r dr
Z
h
1 dV
00
Hm2,n1
=
d
(3.585)
(u
iu
)
y mn
x mn
2
2
4m c
r dr
Z 1 dV
h
00
=
u
iu
d = Hn1,m2
,
y nm
x nm
4m2 c2
r dr
Z
h
1 dV
00
Hm2,n2
=
d.
(3.586)
uz mn
2
2
4m c
r dr
We can assume that the (2k + 1)-dimensional matrices uz , ux , uy are
given, up to a factor h
, by the matrices Rz /i, Rx /i, Ry /i in Eqs. (3.501),
where j is replaced by k. However, to avoid imaginary quantities, we set
Rz
uz = h
= h
Tz ,
i
Ry
ux =
h
=
h Ty ,
(3.587)
i
Rx
uy = h
= h
Tx .
i
296
We also write
2
h
Qmr,ns
4m2 c2
00
Hmr,ns
=
1 dV
d,
r dr
(3.588)
Tz
Tx iTy
Tx + iTy
Tz
Q =
(3.589)
(3.590)
(3.591)
Qm1,n2 =
(3.592)
(3.593)
Qm2,n1 =
k 1, 1; and k, 2; k 2, 1; and k 1, 2;
k r, 1; and k r + 1, 2; . . . ;
k, 1; and k + 1, 2; k, 2.
...;
(3.594)
The first and the last partial matrices have only one element, and their
eigenvalue is k. The 2k intermediate matrices (r = 1, 2, . . . , 2k) have the
form
kr
p
k(k + 1) (k r)(k r + 1)
k(k + 1) (k r)(k r + 1)
,
k + r 1
(3.595)
and their eigenvalues are k and (k + 1). We then have 2k + 2 eigenfunctions corresponding to the eigenvalue k of Q and 2k eigenfunctions
corresponding to the eigenvalue (k + 1) of Q. The first group of eigenfunctions is represented by the internal quantum number j = k + 1/2
and the second group by the internal quantum number j = k 1/2.
The spin thus splits the energy level in two parts, but the degeneracy
remains for both levels since, even in the best case for which k = 1, the
highest energy level has degeneracy 4 while the lowest has degeneracy
2. This is consistent with Eqs. (3.574): All the energy levels are at least
two-fold degenerate in the absence of a magnetic field.
If in Eq. (3.595) we set
` = k +
1
r,
2
(3.596)
297
VOLUMETTO III
p ` 1/2
(k + 1/2)2 `2
(k + 1/2)2 `2
(` + 1/2)
(3.597)
The quantity ` represents the total (angular) momentum along the z axis,
which is common to the two solutions corresponding to Eq. (3.597).
The eigenfunctions corresponding to j = k + 1/2 are given, in first
approximation, by
1
0` =
2k + 1
k + ` + 1/2 y `1/2,1
k ` + 1/2 y `+1/2,2 .
(3.598)
On varying ` between j (= k + 1/2) and j (= k 1/2), we obtain
not only the solutions deriving from matrix (3.595) but also the ones
with l = (k + 1/2) deriving from the first and the last matrices in
Eq. (3.594). These extreme solutions, corresponding to an (angular)
momentum along the z axis equal to (k + 1/2), are not included in the
solutions with j2 = k 1/2. These 2j2 + 1 = 2k solutions are, instead,
given in first approximation by
00`
1
=
2k + 1
k ` + 1/2 y
`1/2,1
k + ` + 1/2 y
`+1/2,2
(3.599)
where ` is an integer varying from j2 to j2 . Notwithstanding the apparent symmetry between Eqs. (3.598) and (3.599), we have 2k+2 solutions
of the first kind and 2k of the second. Since y s1 and y s2 are defined only
for |s| < k, note that, if we set ` = (k + 1/2) in Eq. (3.599), these relations do not make sense any more; this does not happen for Eq. (3.598)
because in these relations the Schr
odinger eigenfunctions are multiplied
by 0.
From Eqs. (3.582) and (3.588), the corrections to the eigenvalue due
to relativistic effects and to the spin are given, in first approximation,
by:
For j = k + 1/2:
Z
1
(Wn V )2 d
2mc2
!
Z
h2
k + 1 dV
1 d2 V
+
+
d ; (3.600)
4m2 c2
r dr
2 dr2
Wn0 =
For j = k 1/2:
Wn00
1
=
2mc2
(Wn V )2 d
298
2
h
+
4m2 c2
k dV
1 d2 V
+
r dr
2 dr2
d. (3.601)
(2k + 1)
h2
4m2 c2
1 dV
d,
r dr
(3.602)
20.
1 dV
d.
r dr
(3.603)
0
,
(3.604)
0 1
with || = 1. The matrix in Eq. (3.604) is an element of SU (2), and since
we can always require the unitary transformation to have determinant
equal to 1, so that it belongs to SU (2), the considered element of our
group is conjugate to the main element (3.604). Now, all the elements
conjugate to the form (3.604) form a class; more precisely, they form
the most general class of conjugate elements with varying under the
constraint || = 1. Each class is thus characterized by the eigenvalues
and 1/ of an arbitrary element belonging to it; the order of these
eigenvalues is not determined. The angle in
= ei ,
22 @
1
= ei ,
(3.605)
299
VOLUMETTO III
v = 2j,
r = 0, 1, . . . , v,
(3.606)
r = 0, 1, . . . , v.
(3.607)
r = v, v 1, . . . , 0
2j , 2j2 , . . . , 2j .
(3.608)
(3.609)
2j+1 (2j+1)
.
1
(3.610)
Sik xk ,
i, k = 1, 2, . . . , n,
(3.611)
0
Srs
xs ,
r, s = 1, 2, . . . , n0 .
(3.612)
The matrices SS 0 with dimension nn0 are defined as the matrices which
transform the products xi yr into the products x0i yr0 . They obviously form
a representation, denoted by SS 0 , of the same abstract group. From
Eqs. (3.611) and (3.612), we have
x0i yr0 =
X
k,s
0
Sik Srs
x k ys ,
(3.613)
300
SS 0
ir,ks
0
= Sik Srs
.
(3.614)
SS 0
ir,ir
0
= Sii Srr
,
r = 1, 2, . . . , n0 ,
i = 1, 2, ,n;
(3.615)
(3.616)
(3.617)
2j + 2j2 + . . . + 2j
=
2j +1 (2j +1)
2 +1 (2 +1) .
(3.618)
23
(3.620)
(The second part of rules (3.620) can be derived from obvious symmetry
arguments, since, in Eq. (3.618) and in Eq. (3.619), j and j 0 can be
exchanged.)
Note that the main element (3.604) represents a rotation in ordinary
space. On setting
x = cos ,
23 @
= sin ,
= = 0
(3.621)
Equation (3.619) can be obtained from Eq. (3.618) by multiplying the first term in the
first bracket by the first term in the second bracket and the last one in the first bracket by
the second one in the second bracket, and so on.
301
VOLUMETTO III
(3.622)
21.
W (m, m0 ) xm x0m0
(3.623)
has to be invariant under rotations around the z-axis (see the previous
section), that is, when we change xm into
ym = 2m xm .
(3.624)
etc.
(3.625)
(3.626)
q(m, m0 ) xm x0m0 .
(3.627)
302
On the other hand, under the action of such transformation, the components qx , qy , qz from (3.627) must transform as x, y, z under the action
of s; this follows from Eq. (3.625) and expresses the fact that q is a
vector. The quantity in (3.627) is said to be a vector quantity in the
representative space of Dj Dj0 and of Dj Dj0 ; (since the Dj representations are defined except for a (unitary) transformation, D and Dj are
equivalent (in a narrow sense)). In turn, the transformation s acting on
qx , qy , qz is equivalent to Dj . The problem of determining the maximum
number of linear independent combinations of such vector quantities can
be answered in terms of a general rule. Let d be a vector quantity, i.e.,
defined by r components:
d1 = a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1r xr ,
d2 = a21 x1 + a22 x2 + . . . + a2r xr ,
,
dr = ar1 x1 + ar2 x2 + . . . + arr xr ,
(3.628)
(3.629)
(3.630)
and, eventually, other variables remain on which the remaining irreducible representations act. The components y of a covariant quantity
can be expressed by the formula
y = A1 x1 + A2 x2 + . . . + Ak xk + . . . + Ak+l xx+l + . . . , (3.631)
where A1 , A2 , Ak are square matrices of dimension k r , while the Ak+l
are matrices with r rows and pl columns, pl being the number of xk+l
303
VOLUMETTO III
k+l
k+l
variables (xk+l
1 , x2 , . . . , xpl ). On these variables an arbitrary inequivalent irreducible representation of h, present in the decomposition of H,
acts. From the definition of a h-covariant quantity, we must have
...;
sAk = Ak s;
...;
(3.633)
From the fundamental theorem on irreducible representations, 24 assuming that s and sl are inequivalent irreducible representations of the group
g, we deduce that
A1 , A2 , . . . , Ak
Ak+l , . . .
(3.634)
(3.635)
(3.636)
= 1, 2, . . . , k; i = 1, 2, . . . , r,
(3.637)
In the original manuscript, there appears a reference: see W. page 124. Most probably
the author refers to p. 124 of Gruppentheorie und Quantenmechanik by H. Weyl (Hirzel,
Leipzig, 1928). For the English version, see p.153 of H. Weyl, The Theory of Groups and
Quantum Mechanics (translation from the 2nd revised German edition) (Dover, New York,
1931).
304
many times Dj is contained in Dj Dj 0 . According to the rule established previously, we have a non-vanishing value for quantities such as
those appearing in Eq. (3.627) only in the following three cases:
j 0 = j 1,
j 0 = j 6= 0,
j 0 = j + 1,
(3.638)
which expresses the selection rules for the internal quantum number.
Note that, when conditions (3.638) are met, the form (3.627) is determined, except for a constant factor, by arguments based on group theory.25 The selection rules for the magnetic quantum number is simple as
well. The component qz has to remain unchanged when a rotation along
the z axis is performed, so that qz (m, m0 ) must be diagonal. On the
other hand, the quantity qx + iqy acquires a factor 2 when a rotation
is performed, while qx iqy acquires a factor 2 . In turn, the product
0
xm x0m0 acquires a factor 2(m m) under a rotation, so that the allowed
transitions are (for the convention on the sign of m, see its definition in
terms of j in Sec. 3.16):
for qz ,
for qx + iqy ,
for qx iqy ,
m m,
m m + 1,
m m 1.
(3.639)
Let us now determine 26 the vector form (3.627), except for a constant
factor, when it is different from zero (according to form (3.627)). To this
end, let us consider the expression
k
1 0
+ 0 ,
k!
(3.640)
1 = + ,
(3.641)
from which
1 = + ,
25 @
1 = + ,
(3.642)
In the original manuscript, there is here a reference: see W. page 158. Most probably
the author refers again to Weyls book, p.158 (in German) or p.199 (in the Dover edn.).
26 @ In the original manuscript, there is here a reference: see W. p. 154. Most probably the
author refers again to Weyls book, p.154 ( in German ) or p.197 et seq. (in the Dover edn.)
305
VOLUMETTO III
or
1 = + ( ) ,
1 = + ( ) ,
(3.643)
1 = + ( ) ,
(3.644)
( , )
x i y 2 , z ,
x i y 2 , z .
(3.645)
(3.646)
x i y 2 0 ,
x i y 02 ,
z 0 0 , (3.647)
z 00.
(3.648)
(3.649)
where
jm j+m
,
(j m)!(j + m)!
xm =
x0m0
m = j, j 1, . . . , j,
(3.650)
0j m 0j +m
,
(j 0 m0 )!(j 0 + m0 )!
m0 = j 0 , j 0 1, . . . , j 0 ,
(3.651)
(j m)(j m0 ) m+1,m0 ,
(j + m)(j + m0 ) m1,m0 ,
(j + m)(j m) m,m0 .
(3.652)
306
(qx + i qy ) (m, m0 ) =
(j m)(j + m0 ) m+1,m0 ,
(qx i qy ) (m, m0 ) =
(j + m)(j m0 ) m1,m0 ,
qz (m, m0 ) = m m,m0 .
These relations coincide with the ones in Eq. (3.501) for the elementary
rotations (Rx +iRy )/i, (Rx iRy )/i, Rz /i in the representation Dj .
This is not surprising, since such elementary rotations can be viewed as
corresponding to a vector-type quantity in the space of representations
Dj Dj .
For the last transition in Eq. (3.638), we have to multiply the expression (3.640) with k = 2j = 2j 0 2 by the right-hand sides of Eqs.
(3.648); we find, for j j 0 = j + 1:
(qx + i qy ) (m, m0 ) =
(j + m + 1)(j + m0 + 1) m+1,m0 ,
q
(qx i qy ) (m, m ) =
qz (m, m0 ) =
(j m + 1)(j m0 + 1) m1,m0 ,
(j + m + 1)(j m + 1) m,m0 .
We notice that the selection rules (3.639) for the magnetic quantum
number are satisfied. Extending SO(3) to O(3) with the inclusion of the
improper rotations, we have two kinds of irreducible representations, Dj+
and Dj . A polar vector, such as the electric moment, is Dj -covariant
and, in its matrix, the components corresponding to the intersection of
+
307
VOLUMETTO III
22.
Let us turn to the Dirac equations (3.557)-(3.560) and their approximate solutions for a given eigenvalue of the Schr
odinger equation (3.562),
(3.563). We again consider the case of a central field and furthermore
assume a constant magnetic field along the z axis. With reference to Eq.
(3.566), we calculated only the field-independent part of the perturbation matrix, which is the sum of the constant diagonal term H0 in Eq.
(3.582) and of the matrix
2
h
H =
Q
4m2 c2
00
r1
dV
d,
dr
Br1,s1 =
(3.654)
Br2,s2
(3.655)
Br1,s2
(3.656)
=
h
r1 (dV /dr) d
e
h
T,
2mc
B =
(3.657)
(3.658)
(3.659)
Sec. 3.19.
1 dV
d (Q + T )
r dr
(3.660)
308
or, simply,
Q + T = S.
(3.661)
(3.662)
(3.663)
Sm1,m0 2 =
Sm2,m0 1 =
(3.664)
(3.665)
k + (k + 1) ,
` = k +
1
.
2
(3.666)
The last sub-matrix, with the single element k2, k2, has the eigenvalue
k2, k2 :
k (k + 1) ,
` = k
1
.
2
(3.667)
`p
1/2 + (` + 1/2)
(k + 1/2)2 `2
2
2
(k + 1/2) `
(` + 1/2) + (` 1/2)
(3.668)
1
k+
2
+ ` +
1 2
.
4
(3.669)
309
VOLUMETTO III
= k + g 0 `,
k + `
= k + g 00 `,
2k + 2
,
2k + 1
2k
g 00 =
.
2k + 1
g0 =
(3.670)
(3.671)
The eigenvalue of the first kind, as well as the eigenvalues (3.666) and
(3.667), correspond to the internal quantum number j = k + 1/2 for
H 0. In fact, the eigenvalues (3.666) and (3.667) can be cast in the
form (3.670) with ` = k + 1/2 and ` = k 1/2 (with the same value of
g 0 ), respectively. We can thus write the following general formulae for
the weak-field limit:
j = k +
1
2
eigenvalues : k + g 0 `
1
1
1
,
` = k + , k , ..., k
2
2
2
j = k
(3.672)
1
2
k 1 + g 00 `
1
3
1
` = k , k , ..., k +
.
2
2
2
eigenvalues :
(3.673)
2j + 1
;
2k + 1
(3.674)
g 00 < 1,
g 0 + g 00 = 2.
(3.675)
310
g = 1 +
(3.676)
g0 = 1 +
g 00
(3.677)
(3.678)
1
1
+ ` ,
2
2
1
1
`
` +
.
2
2
`+
(3.679)
(3.680)
The eigenvalue (3.666) belongs to the class of Eq. (3.679), while the one
in Eq. (3.667) belongs to that of Eq. (3.680), so that, summing up, we
have two sets of eigenvalues, each with 2k + 1 elements:
1
`+
2
+ `
1
2
(3.681)
1
`
2
1
` +
2
(3.682)
311
VOLUMETTO III
field, while the second kind correspond to the spin oriented along the
opposite direction of the field. From this, the Zeeman effect (PaschenBack effect) follows. Since for large the second term in Eq. (3.661) is
the largest one and T is diagonal as well as (although approximately)
the orbital (angular) momentum along the z-axis, it follows that in first
approximation both ` and the orbital (angular) momentum m are constant. Labelling the eigenvalues according to m, in place of Eqs. (3.681)
and (3.682) we now have:
(m + 1) + m,
(m 1) m,
m = k, k 1, . . . , k;
m = k, k 1, . . . , k.
(3.683)
(3.684)
The sum of the eigenvalues is equal to the sum of the diagonal terms of
S, so that this quantity is always vanishing.
In Fig. 3.2 we show the transition from the anomalous Zeeman effect
to the Paschen-Back effect for k = 1. 29 In the limiting case, for strong
fields, the distance between the energy levels corresponding to the first
kind of eigenvalues is + 1, being the Larmor frequency in units such
that 2k + 1 is the separation of the doublet, while the distance between
the energy levels of the second kind is 1.
23.
Aj =
akj
,
(3.685)
xk
k=1
where akj are functions of x1 , x2 , . . . , x2n . The problem is to find the
common solutions of the following set of equations:
Aj y = 0,
29 @
j = 1, 2, . . . , r.
(3.686)
Figure 3.2 reproduces qualitatively the scheme reported in the original manuscript. We
remark the fact that the analysis made in the text apply only to the weak field limit ( < 1)
and to the strong field limit ( 1). The intermediate region has to be studied by solving
the Dirac equation without approximations (which can only be done numerically). It is
interesting that the author also reports the spectra for the intermediate region in the figure.
30 @ In the original manuscript, there is here a reference: see Franck, Physikal. 15, April
1929. Most probably the author refers to the following paper (in German): Philipp Franck,
Phys. Z. 30 (8), 209 (15 April 1929).
312
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
Fig. 3.2. Transition from the anomalous Zeeman effect to the Paschen-Back effect
for k = 1; note that for = 3 we have = 2k + 1.
313
VOLUMETTO III
Aj Aj 0 Aj 0 Aj y = 0.
(3.687)
On setting
Bjj 0 = Aj Aj 0 Aj 0 Aj ;
Bjj 0 y = 0,
(3.688)
2n
X
akj
xk
k=1
2n
X
k0 =1
akj
a
xk0
akj 0
xk xk0
akj
k,k0
0
akj
akj0
xk0
Aj akj0 Aj 0 akj
where
X 0 akj
2
akj 0
xk0 xk
xk0 xk
k,k0
k0
akj
xk
k=1
xk xk0
akj 0 akj
XX
a
xk0
k0
j0
! 2n
X
0
akj 0
k,k0
k0 =1
k0
j0
k,k0
! 2n
X
0
akj 0
akj
xk0
xk
xk
X
bkjj 0
, (3.689)
xk
(3.690)
X
k
bkjj 0
y
y = 0,
xk
(3.691)
314
give new equations anymore. The set of linear differential equations thus
obtained is then said to be complete.
Let us assume, for simplicity, that the set (3.686) is already complete;
the conditions for this to happen are
Aj Aj 0 Aj 0 Aj =
crjj 0 Ar ,
(3.692)
p1 , p2 , . . . , pn .
(3.693)
n
X
F G
i=1
qi pi
F G
.
pi qi
(3.694)
(3.695)
(3.696)
From Eqs. (3.696) it follows that Eq. (3.694) can be also written as
[F, G] =
X (F, G)
s>r
where
(xr , xs )
[xr , xs ] ,
x1 = q1 , x2 = q2 , . . . , xn = qn ,
xn+1 = p1 , . . . , x2n = pn .
(3.697)
(3.698)
In Eq. (3.697) the sum can be extended over each pair of indices for
which s < r, since the result is the same; the important thing is, evidently, that each pair of variables xr and xs appears only once in the
sum, albeit with an arbitrary order. Let us assume that G is given; then
[F, G] can be regarded as the result of an operation performed on F .
31 @
In the original manuscript, there is here a reference: see for example Goursat, Vorlesungen u
ber die Integration.... However, it is not clear to what paper the author refers.
315
VOLUMETTO III
dF
[f, G] ;
df
(3.699)
X (F, G)
s>r
(gr , gs )
[gr , gs ] ,
(3.701)
from which Eqs. (3.697) and (3.700) can be deduced as particular cases.
For example, to obtain Eq. (3.700), it is sufficient to set b = a + 1,
f1 = g1 , f2 = g2 , . . . , fa = ga , F = F (g1 , g2 , . . . , ga ), G = fb .
Given three functions F, G, H depending on the coordinates, the following Jacobi identity holds:
[F, [G, H]] + [G, [H, F ]] + [H, [F, G]] = 0.
(3.702)
We also note the following rule that stems from Eq. (3.700):
[a b, F ] = a [b, F ] + b [a, F ] .
(3.703)
316
= Aj g = 0,
(3.705)
pi qi
qi pi
i
i
where Aj is a first-order homogeneous linear differential operator. By
varying j from 1 to r, we obtain a set of r equations. The question
is: What conditions must F satisfy for the set to be complete? It is
sufficient to substitute the expression for Aj in Eq. (3.692). From Eqs.
(3.688) and (3.689) it follows that
X
Fr
Fj , Fj 0 =
crjj 0
,
ps
ps
r
X
Fr
Fj , Fj 0 =
crjj 0
,
qs
qs
r
(3.706)
Fj , Fj 0
crjj 0 Fr .
(3.707)
Since crjj 0 are arbitrary functions of the coordinates, from Eq. (3.707)
it follows that, considering a subspace with 2n r dimensions in which
all the functions F are constants, all the Poisson brackets [Fi , Fj ] are
constant as well, so that they are functions of F themselves:
Fj , Fj 0
= fjj 0 (F1 , F2 , . . . Fr ) .
(3.708)
VOLUMETTO III
317
Note that also the 2n r solutions of Eqs. (3.704) with (3.708) form
a group, that is they satisfy equations similar to Eqs. (3.708). As a
particular case, we then have the known theorem according to which,
for a given mechanical problem, the Poisson bracket of two integrals of
motion is itself an integral of motion.
4
VOLUMETTO IV: 24 APRIL 1930
1.
(4.1)
X
X
|M0k |2
|zk |2
E0 =
=
e2 E 2
,
(4.2)
E0 Ek
E0 Ek
1
1
where
z 0 =
zk k .
(4.3)
= 2 e2
X
k
319
|zk |2
.
Ek E0
(4.4)
(4.5)
320
Z
2
|zk | =
z 2 02 d = z 2 .
(4.6)
(2m/
h2 )(Ek E0 ) |zk |2 .
(4.7)
(Ek E0 ) |zk |2 =
B =
n
h2
,
2m
|zk |2 = z 2 ,
(4.8)
|zk |2
=
.
Ek E0
2e2
(4.9)
C =
X
k
We necessarily have
B
AC
(4.10)
(the equality sign holding only in the not realistic case in which zk is
different from zero only for one given value of Ek E0 ), that is,
s
z2 <
n
h2
=
4me2
na0
,
2
(4.11)
where a0 = h2 /me2 is the Bohr radius of the ground state orbit of the
hydrogen atom. As long as we assume that the differences Ek E0 in
the most relevant terms of the expressions A, B, C take nearly the same
value (as happens for H- and He-like atoms but not for Li-like atoms),
the relation (4.11) can be cast in the form
na0
2
<
z
.
(4.12)
2
For hydrogen, we have n = 1; from the Stark effect we deduce that is
approximately given by 4.5a30 , so that
z 2 < 1.06 a20
1@
(4.13)
321
VOLUMETTO IV
(4.14)
Since the ground state of the helium atom is known with a good accuracy,
we could evaluate z 2 directly. Here we shall only make a rough estimate
of this quantity from the known eigenfunction
27 z1 + z2
c exp
16 a0
(4.16)
2@
In the original manuscript, this paragraph ends with the following remark: A more
accurate estimate of z 2 would probably reduce the error for helium which, however, must
be appreciably greater than the one for the limiting case z = . This happens because in
helium the two electrons must jump jointly from one level to another due to their independent
motions; this makes the range of values for Ek E0 wider. This note is followed by a question
mark, reflecting the unclear meaning of his assertion.
322
2.
Z
+ 2 E +
r
= 0.
(4.17)
Z
+ 2 E +
Fx
r
2
= 0.
(4.18)
= r x,
tan =
x
;
y
(4.19)
p
p
1
x = ( ), y = cos , z = sin .
2
We find
2
2
2
2 =
+
+
2
2
2
2
+ 2 | |2 +
|
|
+
| |2
(4.20)
2
2
2
2
2
+2
+ 2
+ 2
;
and, since
2 =
| |2 =
2
,
r
= 0,
we get
2
=
r
2
3
,
2
2 =
| |2 =
3
,
2
2
,
r
2 = 0,
| |2 =
= 0,
r2
1
,
x2
= 0,
2
2
r
2
+
+ 2 + 2 +
2(r2 x2 ) 2
. (4.21)
323
VOLUMETTO IV
On setting
= eim y(, )
(4.22)
( + ) y + ( + ) E y
2
2
4
2
F 2
2 y = 0.
(4.23)
+Z y
4
(4.24)
m2
1
1
F 2
P + E P + (Z + ) P
P = 0,
4
2
2
4
m2
1
1
F 2
Q00 + Q0
Q + E Q + (Z ) Q +
Q = 0.
4
2
2
4
(4.25)
Equations (4.25) are self-adjoint; they can be written in the simple form:
P 00 + P 0
1
m2
Z +
F
1
P + P0 + 2 + E +
P = 0,
4
2
2
4 !
1
m2
Z
F
1
Q00 + Q0 + 2 + E +
+
Q = 0.
4
2
2
4
00
(4.26)
(4.27)
1
1
Z +
P + P0 +
E +
P = 0,
1
1
Z
Q00 + Q0 +
E +
+ Q = 0.
00
Let us put:
3@
P = u e E/2 ,
Q = v e
(4.28)
E/2
(4.29)
324
00
u +u
1
2
Z + 2
E
+u
E
2
= 0, (4.30)
2
(4.31)
and, from (4.30), the coefficients will be determined from the relation
an =
1 h
2E
(Z
+
)
an1 +
(2n
1)
an3 .
2
2n
2n2
(4.32)
(4.33)
(i)
and the order at which each series i for the constants an terminates,
depends on n. Thus for the constants a(0) we have
(0)
a0
= 1,
(0)
a1
(0)
= a2
= . . . = a(0)
n = 0.
(4.34)
We also put
= 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + . . .
2E = Z + k1 + 2 k2 + 3 k3 + . . . .
(4.35)
(4.36)
(0)
a0
= 0,
r > 1.
(4.37)
325
VOLUMETTO IV
n1
(0)
Z an1 ,
n2
(4.38)
n1
1
1 (0)
(1)
(0)
Z an1 + 2 [(2n 1) k1 1 ] an1 + 2 an3 . (4.39)
2
n
2n
2n
= 0,
1
=
(k1 1 ),
2
1
=
(k1 1 ) Z,
8
k1 1 2
1
=
Z +
= 0,
36
18
(4.40)
k1 1 + 2/Z 2 = 0.
(4.44)
a0
(1)
a1
(1)
a2
(1)
a3
(4.41)
(4.42)
(4.43)
2
= 0,
Z2
(4.45)
1 =
2
,
Z2
(1)
a1
1
,
Z2
(1)
a2
1
.
4Z
(4.46)
326
u = 1
v = 1
1
1 2
+
,
Z2
4Z
1
1 2
+
,
Z2
4Z
2E = Z + 0,
=
2
,
Z2
(4.47)
F = 2 .
Note that the third equation (4.47) expresses the fact that, to firstorder, there is no Stark effect for the ground state. Let us now consider
second-order terms; by equating the terms with 2 in Eq. (4.32), we get
a(2)
=
n
n1
1
(2)
(1)
Z an1 +
[(2n 1) k1 1 ] an1
n2
2n2
1 (1)
1
(0)
.
a
+ 2 [(2n 1) k2 2 ] an1 +
2n
2n2 n3
(4.48)
(4.49)
For the series a(2) to be finite, it is simple to show that we must have
(2)
(2)
a5 = 0, from which it follows that a5+r = 0. From Eqs. (4.34), (4.37),
and (4.47), we have
(2)
a0
(2)
a1
(2)
a2
(2)
a3
(2)
a4
(2)
a5
= 0,
1
=
(k2 2 ),
2
k2 2
1
=
Z +
,
8
4Z 4
k2 2 2
1
1
Z +
=
+
3
36
18Z
36Z 3
k2 2 2
1
=
Z +
,
36
12Z 3
k2 2 3
1
1
=
Z +
2
192
64Z
32Z 2
1
k2 2 3
Z
,
=
192
64Z 2
k2 2 4
1
1
=
Z
+
1200
400Z
200Z
k2 2 4
3
=
Z
= 0,
1200
400Z
(4.50)
(4.51)
(4.52)
(4.53)
(4.54)
(4.55)
327
VOLUMETTO IV
from which
9
= 0.
(4.56)
25
However, a relation similar to (4.56), in which the sign of k2 is preserved
and that of 2 is reversed, holds:
k2 2
k2 + 2 9/25 = 0,
(4.57)
2 = 0,
(4.58)
so that
k2 = 9/25,
and
9
11
1
1
(2)
(2)
(2)
, a2 =
, a3 =
, a1 =
. (4.59)
5
4
3
2Z
8Z
3Z
32Z 2
The results obtained to second-order can then be summarized in the
following equations:
(2)
a1
1
1 2
u = 1F
+
2
2Z
8Z
11 2
1
1
9
3
4
2
+
+
+
,
+F
8Z 5
32Z 4
12Z 3
128Z 2
1
1 2
v = 1+F
+
2
2Z
8Z
11 2
1
1
9
2
3
4
+F
+
+
+
, (4.60)
8Z 5
32Z 4
12Z 3
128Z 2
9
2E = Z + F 2
,
4Z 5
9
1
E = Z2
F 2,
2
4Z 4
1
=
F + 0 F 2.
Z2
From Eqs. (4.24) and (4.29), to second order, the complete eigenfunction
is
9
+
2
u() v(),
(4.61)
= exp Z +
F
4Z 5
r
where u and v are given by Eqs. (4.60). Using rectangular coordinates
and neglecting third-order terms in F , we have
9
1
1
= exp Z +
F2 r
1F
x+
rx
5
2
4Z
Z
2Z
9
1
1 3
2
2
2
+F2
r
+
7r
+
15x
+
r
+
15rx
4Z 5
16Z 4
24Z 3
1 2 2
+
r x
.
(4.62)
8Z 2
328
9
F2 r
4Z 5
"
!
9r
3r2
r3
r4
2
1+F
+
+
+
4Z 5
4Z 4
4Z 3
24Z 2
= exp
Z +
r
r2
+
Z2
2Z
+F
P1 (cos )
5r3
r4
5r2
+
+
8Z 4
12Z 3
12Z 2
P2 (cos ) ,
(4.63)
= e
1+F
r
r2
+
Z2
2Z
+F
3r2
r3
r4
+
+
4Z 4
4Z 3
24Z 2
P1 (cos )
5r2
5r3
r4
+
+
4
3
8Z
12Z
12Z 2
P2 (cos ) .
(4.64)
= e
2Zr
1+F
2r
r2
+
2
Z
Z
+F2
11r2
5r3
r4
+
+
6Z 4
6Z 3
6Z 2
P1 (cos )
23r2
3r3
r4
+
+
12Z 4
2Z 3
3Z 2
P2 (cos ) .
(4.65)
329
VOLUMETTO IV
3.
EXPANSION OF LEGENDRE
POLYNOMIALS IN THE INTERVAL
1 x 1
1 = P0 ,
x = P1 ,
2
1
x2 =
P2 + P0 ,
3
3
2
3
3
x =
P3 + P1 ,
5
5
8
4
1
P4 + P2 + P0 ,
x4 =
35
7
5
...
xn =
2n2 (2n 4 + 1)
2n
4.
We have
(n )! n!
Pn2 (x).
! (2n 2 + 1)!
4 See
Sec. 1.42.
In the original manuscript, the explicit form of the products P2 P3 , P2 P4 , P3 P1 , P3 P2 ,
P3 P3 , P3 P4 , P4 P1 , P4 P2 , P4 P3 , P4 P4 are not reported. They are
5@
9
4
10
P1 +
P3 +
P5 ,
35
15
21
2
20
5
= P2 +
P4 +
P6 ,
7
77
11
P2 P3
P3 P2 =
P2 P4
P4 P2
P3 P1
P3 P3
P3 P4
P4 P4
P1 P3 ,
1
4
18
100
P0 +
P2 +
P4 +
P6 ,
7
21
77
231
4
2
20 175
P4 P3 =
P1 +
P3 +
P5
P7 ,
21
11
91 429
1
100
162
20
490
P0 +
P2 +
P4 +
P6 +
P8 .
9
693
1081
99
1287
330
5.
P1
P2
P3
P4
P0
P0
P1
P2
P3
P4
P1
P1
2
1
P0 + P2
3
3
3
2
P1 + P3
5
5
4
3
P 2 + P4
7
7
5
4
P 3 + P5
9
9
P2
P2
3
2
P1 + P3
5
5
2
18
1
P0 + P2 +
P4
5
7
35
P 2 P3
P 2 P4
P3
P3
P3 P1
P3 P2
P 3 P3
P 3 P4
P4
P4
P4 P1
P4 P2
P 4 P3
P 4 P4
y 00 +
2
1
x
y = (x),
(4.66)
(4.67)
00
2
1
x
= 0,
(4.68)
(4.69)
y 00 +
2
1
x
y = (x) + 4x ex
Z
0
(x) x ex dx
(4.70)
y(x) =
G(x, ) () d.
(4.71)
331
VOLUMETTO IV
L =
2
1 ,
x
(4.72)
(4.73)
and its first derivative must have a singularity for x = in such a way
that
d
G(x, )
dx
x=+0
Let us set
d
G(x, )
dx
= 1.
(4.74)
x=0
G(x, ) = 4 e p(x, )
(4.75)
1 =
dx
= ex + 2x ex
2
e2x
dx
x
(4.78)
or, since we can arbitrarily fix the lower limit of the integral,
1 = 2x ex
Z x 2x
e 1
0
dx + 2x ex log x ex .
(4.79)
A particular solution of Eq. (4.76), the one that vanishes for x = 0 along
with its first derivative, is
1
p0 = x ex
2
Z x 2x
e 1
0
1
dx ex +
4
1
1
1
+ x x2
4
2
2
ex . (4.80)
332
It follows from Eq. (4.75) that the Green function can be cast in the
form
G(x, ) = 4 e p0 (x) + ai () (x) + bi ()1 (x),
(4.81)
where the index i takes the value 1 for x < and the value 2 for x > , so
that the problem is reduced to determining the quantities a1 (), b1 (),
a2 (), b2 () which are constant with respect to x. These are determined by the boundary conditions G = 0 for x = 0 and x = , by the
discontinuity condition (4.74) for x = , and by the orthogonality condition between the Green function and the solution of the homogeneous
equation satisfying the boundary conditions. The condition G(0, ) = 0
implies that
b1 = 0.
(4.82)
The condition G(, ) = 0 is satisfied when
b2 = e .
(4.83)
(4.84)
01 ()
1
0 ;
0
()
()
(4.85)
Z 2
e 1
d + e log
e
.
2
(4.86)
In terms of the function a1 - yet to be determined - we have the following expressions for the Green function for x < and x > , respectively:
"
G(x, ) = e
2x ex
Z x 2x
e 1
0
+ 1 + 2x 2x2 ex
+ 2 a1 () x ex ,
G(x, ) = x ex
dx ex
i
x < ;
!
Z 2
e 1
2 e
d e
+ e 1 + 2x 2x2
+ 2 a1 () x ex ,
x > .
(4.87)
+ 2 e x ex (log log x)
(4.88)
333
VOLUMETTO IV
(x) G(x, ) dx = 0.
We find
a1 =
1
5
+ 2
2
2
e C e e log 2,
(4.89)
where C is the Euler constant. We find the final expressions for the
Green function by substitution in Eqs. (4.87) and (4.88):
G(x, ) = e ex + x + (7 2C) x 2 2 x 2 x2
+ 2 e xex
Z x 2x
e 1
dx
x
e ex 2 e x ex log 2,
0
x < ;
G(x, ) = e ex + x + (7 2C) x 2 2 x 2 x2
+ 2 e xex
(4.90)
Z 2
e 1
x ex e 2 e x ex log 2x,
0
x < .
(4.91)
6.
A(x) =
Z
e
x
d.
(4.92)
(4.93)
For > x we can expand the term 1/ in a power series using the
methods of finite difference calculus, by requiring that the first n terms
6 This
334
+
...,
x
x(x + 1)
x(x + 1)(x + 2)
(4.95)
A(x) =
ex
1
x
y ey dy
x+1
y (y 1) ey dy
(x + 1)(x + 2)
...
...
where
In =
In
. . .
,
(x + 1)(x + 2) (x + n)
Z
0
y (y 1) (y n + 1) ey dy.
(4.96)
(4.97)
We find
I1 = 1,
I2 = 1, I3 = 2, I4 = 4, I5 = 14,
I6 = 38, I7 = 216, I8 = 600, . . . .
(4.98)
ex
1
1
d =
1
+
x
x+1
(x + 1)(x + 2)
x
2
4
+
(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)
(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)(x + 4)
14
38
+
(x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 5)
(x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 6)
216
600
+
. . . . (4.99)
(x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 7)
(x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 8)
From this we can deduce the expansion of log (1 + y):
log (1 + y) = y
y2
2y 3 3y 2
y 4 4y 3 + 4y 2
+
+ . . . . (4.100)
4
36
96
335
VOLUMETTO IV
log
1+
y
x
y
y2
2y 3 3y 2
+
x
2x(x + 1)
6x(x + 1)(x + 2)
4
3
y 4y + 4y 2
+ ....
(4.101)
4x(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)
Let us put t = y/x and consider only n terms in the expansion (4.101)
by setting y = n 1, so that x = (n 1)/t except for the case n = 1, for
which we keep y arbitrary. We thus obtain the following formulae for
log (1 + t) with a decreasing degree of approximation:
n = 1:
n = 2:
n = 3:
n = 4:
log (1 + t) = t,
log (1 + t) = t
(4.102)
t2
,
(4.103)
2(1 + t)
t3
t2
+
,
(4.104)
log (1 + t) = t
2+t
3(2 + t)(2 + 2t)
3t2
3t3
log (1 + t) = t
+
2(3 + t)
2(3 + t)(3 + 2t)
4
3t
.
(4.105)
For example, the above expressions give for log 2 (t = 1) and log 10
(t = 9), respectively:
7.
log 2
log 10
1
2
3
4
1.0000
0.7500
0.6944
0.6937
9.00
4.95
2.74
2.56
We have7
7@
In the following,P.N. denotes the number of Partitio Numerorum, that is, the number
of ways one can collect f objects. In the tables, the given partitio is stated in the first row
336
nk
1+
1
1
f = 2 (P.N. = 2)
nk
1+
1
Partitio
Class
(1)(2)
(12)
1+
1
1
-1
2
1
1
f = 3 (P.N. = 3)
nk
1+
3
2+
Partitio
Class
(1)(2)(3)
(12)(3)
(123)
3
1
1
1
2+
1
2
0
-1
1+
1+
1
1
-1
1
f = 4 (P.N. = 5)
nk
1+
6
3+
8+
6
Partitio
Class
(1) . . .
(12) . . .
(12)(34)
(123) . . .
(1234)
4
1
1
1
1
1
3+
1
3
1
-1
0
-1
2+
2
2
0
2
-1
0
2+
1+
1
3
-1
-1
0
1
1+
1+
1+
1
1
-1
1
1
-1
from the third column onwards. Instead, in the second column the classes of the cycles of
permutations of f objects are stated. Finally, in the first column the number of cycles of the
considered class are indicated. In each table, the characters corresponding to a given class
and partitio are shown from the third column on and from the second row downwards.
337
VOLUMETTO IV
f = 5 (P.N. = 7)
nk
1+
10
15+
20+
20
30
24+
Partitio
Class
(1) . . .
(12) . . .
(12)(34) . . .
(123) . . .
(123)(45)
(1234) . . .
(12345)
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4+
1
4
2
0
1
-1
0
-1
3+
2
5
1
1
-1
1
-1
0
3+
1+
1
6
0
-2
0
0
0
1
2+
2+
1
5
-1
1
-1
-1
1
0
2+
1+
1+
1
4
-2
0
1
1
0
-1
1+
1+
1+
1+
1
1
-1
1
1
-1
-1
1
f = 6 (P.N. = 11)
nk
1+
15
45+
15
40+
120
40+
90
90+
144+
120
Partitio
Class
(1) . . .
(12) . . .
(12)(34) . . .
(12)(34)(56)
(123) . . .
(123)(45) . . .
(123)(456)
(1234) . . .
(1234)(56)
(12345) . . .
(123456)
6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
5+
1
5
3
1
-1
2
0
-1
1
-1
0
-1
4+
2
9
3
1
3
0
0
0
-1
1
-1
0
4+
1+
1
10
2
-2
-2
1
-1
1
0
0
0
1
3+
3
5
1
1
-3
-1
1
2
-1
-1
0
0
3+
2+
1
16
0
0
0
-2
0
-2
0
0
1
0
3+
1+
1+
1
10
-2
-2
2
1
1
1
0
0
0
-1
2+
2+
2
5
-1
1
3
-1
-1
2
1
-1
0
0
2+
2+
1+
1
9
-3
1
-3
0
0
0
1
1
-1
0
2+
1+
1+
1+
1
5
-3
1
1
2
0
-1
-1
-1
0
1
1+
1+
1+
1+
1+
1
1
-1
1
-1
1
-1
1
-1
1
1
-1
8@
1+1
2
1
In the following tables the first row lists the irreducible representation considered, the
second row states the corresponding reciprocal system while the third one lists the degree of
the considered representation.
338
f=3
3
1+1+1
1
2+1
2+1
2
1+1+1
3
1
f=4
4
1+1+1+1
1
3+1
2+1+1
3
2+2
2+2
2
2+1+1
3+1
3
1+1+1+1
4
1
f=5
5
1+1+1+1+1
1
2+2+1
3+2
5
4+1
2+1+1+1
4
2+1+1+1
4+1
4
3+2
2+2+1
5
3+1+1
3+1+1
6
1+1+1+1+1
5
1
f=6
6
1+1+1+1+1+1
1
3+1+1+1
4+1+1
10
5+1
2+1+1+1+1
5
2+2+2
3+3
5
4+2
2+2+1+1
9
2+2+1+1
4+2
9
4+1+1
3+1+1+1
10
2+1+1+1+1
5+1
5
3+3
2+2+2
5
3+2+1
3+2+1
16
1+1+1+1+1+1
6
1
f=7
7
1+1+1+1+1+1+1
1
6+1
2+1+1+1+1+1
6
5+2
2+2+1+1+1
14
5+1+1
3+1+1+1+1
15
339
VOLUMETTO IV
4+3
2+2+1
14
4+2+1
3+2+1+1
35
4+1+1+1
4+1+1+1
20
3+1+1+1+1
5+1+1
15
2+2+2+1
4+3
14
2+1+1+1+1+1
6+1
6
8.
3+3+1
3+2+2
21
3+2+2
3+3+1
21
3+2+1+1
4+2+1
35
2+2+1+1+1
5+2
14
1+1+1+1+1+1+1
7
1
(4.106)
(4.107)
Each solution of Eq. (4.107) can be expressed in terms of linear combinations of particular solutions
1
In+1/2 () in (, )
(4.108)
X
an
ikz
i
cos
u = e
= e
=
In+1/2 () Pn (cos ),
n=0
(4.109)
where Pn are the Legendre polynomials. In order to determine the constants an , we can multiply each side of Eq. (4.109) by Pn (cos ) and
340
Z 1
1
in n 2 3
n
2
n! 3 5 2n 1 2n + 1
2n+1 n! n n
i ,
(2n + 1)!
tn Pn (t) dt =
=
(4.111)
2n + 1 (n + 1/2)!
n + 1/2
2
2n + 1
an
2n + 1
r
r
2
an
n
13 (2n + 1)
2 2n+1 n! n
. (4.112)
(2n + 1)!
an = (2n + 1)
n
i .
2
(4.113)
In+1/2 () =
(i)n
2
Z 1
1
(4.114)
Examples:
s
I1/2 () =
s
I3/2 () =
2
sin ,
cos +
(4.115)
1
sin .
(4.116)
X
2n + 1 n
ikz
i In+1/2 () Pn (cos ).
e
=
2
n=0
(4.117)
341
VOLUMETTO IV
1
and expand in powers of . It is simple to see that only the terms with
n+2 ( = 0, 1, 2, . . .) are different from zero. Equating the coefficients
of n+2 on both sides, we find
Z 1
in+2
2 in (1)
n+2
t
Pn (t) dt =
. (4.119)
(n + 2)! 1
! (n + + 1/2)! 2n+2+1/2
Simplifying this expression
1
(n + 2)!
Z 1
1
n+2
Pn (t) dt =
! (n + + 1/2)! 2n+2
1
n++
! =
2
=
=
(4.120)
3 5
1
n + +
2 2 2
2
1
357 (2n + 2 + 1)
n+
2
2
(2n + 2 + 1)!
,
(4.121)
2 (n + )! 22n+2
we get
Z 1
1
(n + )! (n + 2)!
.
! (2n + 2 + 1)!
(4.122)
(n )! n!
! (2n 2 + 1)!
(4.123)
(with 2 n); and, using the normalization condition for the Legendre
polynomials,
Z 1
2
Pn2 (t) dt =
,
2n + 1
1
we deduce the expansion of tn (n 1 t 1) in terms of the Legendre
polynomials:
tn =
X
2n
2n2 (2n 4 + 1)
(n )! n!
Pn2 (t).
! (2n 2 + 1)!
(4.124)
342
9.
k
,
2
k =
ZZ 0 e2
;
m
(4.125)
k
c2
+
.
2
3
(4.126)
1
,
y
1
dy 2
dy
= c ,
y =
2
y
d
d
2y
d2 y
d
= c 2 = c2 y 2 2 .
d
d
=
(4.127)
(4.128)
(4.129)
(4.130)
1
k
= y = 2 + a cos + b sin .
(4.131)
343
VOLUMETTO IV
(4.132)
c
c
c
(4.134)
v
k q 2
k
z + 2 + 2 z + = 0.
c2
c
c
(4.135)
z +
vc
c2
z +
+
k
k
!2
(4.136)
that is,
v 2 c2
1 2
k
2 2
vc
c2
vc3
c4
z 2 z 2 2 2 = 0,
k
k
k
k
(4.137)
(4.138)
The absolute value of equals the initial value of the distance of the
particle from the z axis (along which the particle moves). If we choose
the direction of the axis in such a way that is initially positive (and
thus, assuming ZZ 0 > 0, during the entire motion), we have
c = v .
(4.139)
From the above remark on the direction of the second asymptote, the
angular deflection of the particle will be
= 2 arctan(k/v 2 ).
(4.140)
344
(4.141)
k 2 io
.
v 4 tan2 /2
(4.142)
Z 2 Z 02 e4
Z 2 Z 02 e4
=
,
4m2 v 4 sin4 /2
16W 2 sin4 /2
(4.143)
Z Z 0 e2
,
l
(4.144)
Z 2 Z 02 e4 io
Z 2 Z 02 e4 io
l 2 io
=
=
,
2
2
m2 v 4 tan /2
4W 2 tan /2
4 tan2 /2
(4.146)
l2
.
4 tan2 /2
(4.147)
The relation between the two cross sections is obviously the following:
F 0 () = 2 sin f ().
(4.148)
345
VOLUMETTO IV
Table 4.1. The scattering angle as a function of the parameter (see text).
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
arctan 4/3
/2
arctan 12/5
arctan 4/3
arctan 21/20
tan
= ,
(4.149)
2
2
where = l/.
10.
0 = e+iz ,
(4.150)
9@
2m2 k
h2 r
= 0,
k =
ZZ 0 e2
.
m
(4.152)
346
If one assumes that the scattering potential is small, one can consider
(4.150) as the unperturbed eigenfunction and set
= 0 + 1 ,
(4.153)
2 1 + 2 1 =
(4.154)
In order to make the solution of Eq. (4.154) unique, we have to require: (1) that 1 vanishes at infinity, i.e., must coincide with the
unperturbed 0 for large distances from the scattering center; (2) for
its phenomenological meaning, 1 must represent a diverging spherical
wave. The desired solution can be obtained through the Green method,
using - eir /4r as characteristic function. However, in such a way, convergence problems arise. In order to avoid these, we will assume that the
scattering force acts only for distances less than R, and let R at
the end of calculations. Then, Eq. (4.154) must be rewritten as follows:
2
2m2 k
h2
1 + 1 =
2 1 + 2 1 = 0,
1
1
r
R
eiz ,
for r < R,
(4.155)
for r > R.
(4.156)
v = .
m
We then have
2
1 + 1 =
2 2 k
v2
1 + 1 = 0,
1
1
r
R
eiz ,
for r < R,
(4.157)
for r > R;
2 2 k
v2
1
4
1
1
r
R
1
ei(|r1 r| + z) d,
|r
r|
S
1
(4.158)
where the integral has to be calculated inside a sphere of radius R. (Let
r1 , 1 , 1 be the coordinates of P1 and r, , those of an arbitrary point
of the integration domain.) Let us assume that r1 R and neglect in
i (P1 ) =
347
VOLUMETTO IV
2 k
2 v 2 r1
Z
S
1
1
r
R
ei(|r1 r| + z) d.
(4.159)
Note that we can neglect terms of order 1/r inside the integral; thus we
can set
|r1 r| ' r1 r (cos 1 cos + sin 1 sin cos(1 ))
(4.160)
Z
s
1
1
r
R
(4.161)
We can set 1 = 0 without restrictions, but the integral is not really
simplified. It is useful to choose a different system of polar coordinates,
using the outward bisector of the angle between r and r1 as the polar
axis. The plane containing the z axis and the point P1 is the meridian
plane ( = 0); the polar coordinates in this plane will be
r1 ,
1 =
,
2
2
1 = 0,
(4.162)
and, moreover,
cos = sin(1 /2) cos + cos(1 /2) cos sin ,
(4.163)
so that
z = r sin(1 /2) cos + r cos(1 /2) cos sin ,
(4.164)
|r1 r| ' r1 r (sin(1 /2) cos + cos(1 /2) cos sin ) , (4.165)
z + |r1 r| ' r1 2 sin(1 /2) r cos .
(4.166)
Substitution into the integral in Eq. (4.159) gives
eir1
Z
S
1
1
r
R
(4.167)
Z R
0
r2
1
1
r
R
dr
Z 1
1
R
2 eir1
1
1
r
1
sin (2 R sin(1 /2))
2 eir1
1
. (4.168)
sin(1 /2) 2 sin(1 /2)
2 R sin(1 /2)
348
On taking the limit R , the term with R in the denominator vanishes (assuming 1 6= 0); substituting in Eq. (4.159) and replacing 1
with , we then have
k eir1
.
2 v 2 r1 sin2 (/2)
1 (P1 ) =
(4.169)
f () = r12
11.
(4.171)
u00 +
0 +
1
r
u0 +
0 +
1
r
u = 0
(4.172)
u =
(4.173)
(4.174)
(4.175)
We have
Z
u0 =
u00 =
ZL
L
349
VOLUMETTO IV
1
0 +
z f (z) ezr
r
L
1
zr
+ 0 +
f (z) e
dz;
r
z f (z) ezr +
2
0 =
(4.176)
d zr
e ,
dz
d zr
1 z f (z) ezr + 1 f (z) ezr + z 2 f (z)
e
dz
L
d zr
d zr
e + 0 f (z)
e
dz
+ 0 z f (z)
dz
dz
1 z f (z) + 1 f (z)
d 2
z f (z) + 0 z f (z) + 0 f (z) ezr dz
dz
Z
d 2
+
z f (z) ezr + 0 z f (z) ezr + 0 f (z) ezr dz.
L dz
(4.177)
takes the same value at the integration limits. In order to satisfy Eq.
(4.173), the following differential equation must hold:
d 2
z f (z) + 0 z f (z) + 0 f (z) = 0.
dz
(4.178)
Equation (4.178) can be cast in the form
1 z f (z) + 1 f (z)
(1 2)z + 1 0
1
2
f 0 (z)
=
=
+
,
2
f (z)
z + 0 z + 0
z c1
z c2
(4.179)
(4.180)
(4.181)
(4.182)
350
c1 1 2c1 0 + 1
,
c1 c2
c2 1 2c2 0 + 1
2 =
,
c2 c1
(4.183)
1 =
2 =
1 + 1 c2
1.
c2 c1
(4.184)
2 = 2 1,
(4.185)
we find
1 + 1 c2
1 + 1 c1
, 2 =
.
c1 c2
c2 c1
On integrating Eq. (4.179), we obtain
1 =
f (z) = (z c1 )1 1 (z c2 )2 1 .
(4.186)
(4.187)
u =
ezr (z c1 )1 1 (z c2 )2 1 dz,
(4.188)
12.
d zr
e (z c1 )1 (z c2 )2 dz = 0.
dz
(4.189)
351
VOLUMETTO IV
separated and that their size is small compared with R. These assumptions are quite reasonable, given that we are interested in studying the
interaction between these atoms and this declines as a finite negative
power of R. In particular, there is no need for a distinction between
the symmetric (with respect to the two electrons) and the antisymmetric solutions (given their mass, we consider fixed protons). In fact, the
separation between ortho-states and para-states decreases exponentially
with R. Since the atoms are neutral, in first approximation the interaction is zero; we then calculate the second approximation using the Ritz
method. The unperturbed wavefunction of the two electrons is, apart
from a normalization factor,
0 = e(r1 + r2 ) ,
(4.190)
where r1 is the distance of the first electron from the first nucleus, and
r2 is that of the second electron from the second nucleus. Thus 0 is
the product of the eigenfunctions of the two electrons; this is because, in
this limit, no resonance occurs. Note that the correct eigenfunctions are
obtained from 0 by interchanging r1 and r2 and taking the sum (symmetric eigenfunction) or the difference (antisymmetric eigenfunction) of
the two expressions. In our units, the unperturbed Hamiltonian is given
by
1
1
1
1
H = 21 22
.
(4.191)
2
2
r1
r2
The perturbation arising from the coexistence of two atoms comes from
their dipole interactions and, for large R, is
H =
2x1 x2 y1 y2 z1 z2
,
R3
(4.192)
(4.193)
W =
(H + H) d
2 d.
(4.194)
02 H d = 0,
(4.195)
352
(H)
Z
Z
02 d
6
= 6
R
02 d,
(H)3 02 d = 0,
(4.196)
(4.197)
Z
0 (H) H (H) 0 d =
Z
(H)2 02 d
(4.198)
1 12c/R6
.
1 + 6c2 /R6
(4.199)
12
6
c + 6 c2 .
6
R
R
(4.200)
(4.201)
In regular units our method then yields the expression 6e2 /a0 R6 for
the potential energy of the polarization forces; this is quite a good result
compared to the exact expression (6.47e2 /a0 R6 ) deduced by Landau
with a different method. Note that, according to a known theorem on
the minimization of the energy of a system in its ground state, our
method gives a value exceeding the exact value. On setting c = 1 in
Eq. (4.193), the perturbed eigenfunction is approximately given by
= e(r1 + r2 ) + (1/R3 )(2x1 x2 y1 y2 z1 z2 ) e(r1 + r2 ) . (4.202)
Obviously, this approximation is worse than that for the eigenvalue.
13.
2
1 2
x
y = 0,
(4.203)
353
VOLUMETTO IV
(4.204)
u00 +
(4.205)
c2 = i,
1 = 2 =
2 + 1
.
2
(4.206)
u = k
ezx z 2 + 1
1/2
dz,
(4.207)
#
+ 1/2 B
ezx z 2 + 1
= 0,
(4.208)
where A and B are the integration limits. The points +i and i are
bifurcation points of the integrand function; on setting z = it, they
assume the values 1 and (4.207) and (4.208) become
Z
u = k
"
itx
eitx t2 1
1/2
+ 1/2
(4.209)
t 1
dt,
= 0.
(4.210)
C
+1/2
(1/2 ) (1/2x)
i (1/2)
1/2
eitx t2 1
dt.
(4.211)
354
H
-1
H
+1
Fig. 4.1. The paths in the complex plane used to define the Hankel functions (see
text).
(4.213)
thus I and N are two real solutions of Eq. (4.203), the first one being
regular for x = 0, while the sum of the squares of the two is regular for
x .
We now calculate the asymptotic behavior of H1 (x) for x (real
x). Let us set
s
t = 1+i ,
(4.214)
x
s
s2
t2 1 = 2i 2 ,
(4.215)
x
x
where s goes from to 0 and then from 0 to . Given the above
conventions, in the first part of the path the quantity log(t2 1) will
take its principal value decreased by 2, while in the second part it will
assume its principal value (that is, the absolute value of imaginary part
lower than ). After obvious manipulations, one finds
r
H1 (x)
2 exp {i (x /2 /4)}
x
( + 1/2)
355
VOLUMETTO IV
Z
0
s 1/2
is 1/2
1+
ds. (4.216)
2x
H1 (x)
14.
2
exp {i (x /2 /4)} .
x
(4.217)
CUBIC SYMMETRY
Rotation
angle
0
Permutation
identity
II - Class 01 (6)
Direction cosines
of the rotation
0
1/ 2
1/2
1/2
0
1/ 2
1/2
0
1/ 2
0
1/ 2
1/ 2
1/ 2
0
1/ 2
1/ 2
1/ 2
0
Rotation
angle
180o
180o
180o
180o
180o
180o
Permutation
(14)
(24)
(34)
(23)
(31)
(12)
Rotation
angle
180o
180o
180o
Permutation
(14) (23)
(24) (31)
(34) (12)
356
Rotation
angle
120o
240o
Permutation
(123)
(321)
(234)
(314)
(124)
(324)
(134)
(214)
Rotation
angle
Permutation
(1234)
(2314)
(3124)
(3214)
(1324)
(2134)
2 j + 1,
(1)j ;
j
j
j
, 1 + rest of
rest of .
3
2
4
We can now evaluate the frequency ns of each irreducible representation; keeping the same order as in the table of Sec. 4.7, for f = 4, we
find
1 rest of
n1 =
1
j
j
+1
rest of
12
2
2
1
j
rest of
,
4
4
j
rest of
3
(4.218)
357
VOLUMETTO IV
1
j
j
1
j
n2 =
rest of
+
rest of
,
(4.219)
4
2
2
4
4
j
1
j
1
j
n3 =
rest of
+
rest of
,
(4.220)
6
2
2
3
3
j
1
j
j
+ rest of
rest of
,
(4.221)
n4 =
4
2
4
4
1
j
1
j
j
rest of
+
rest of
.
(4.222)
n5 =
12
3
3
4
4
Noting that the degrees of the irreducible representations are 1,3,2,3,1,
respectively, we obviously have
n1 + 3 n2 + 2 n3 + 3 n4 + n5 = 2 j + 1.
(4.223)
We observe that, as in the normal representation, for large j the frequencies of appearance of the irreducible representations are proportional to
their degrees. Moreover, if the values of ns for a given value of j are
known, we can obtain the values corresponding to j + 12q from the
following scheme:
j0
j + 12 q
n01
n02
n03
n04
n05
=
=
=
=
=
n1
n2
n3
n4
n5
+
+
+
+
+
1q
3q
2q
3q
1q
n1
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1+1
0+1
...
n2
0
0
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
0+3
0+3
...
n3
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
2
0+2
0+2
...
n4
0
1
0
1
1
2
1
2
2
3
2
1
0+3
1+3
...
n5
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
0+1
0+1
...
358
15.
FORMULAE
n/2 n
R ,
(n/2)!
Sn =
n/2 n1
2
n
Vn = n
R
=
Vn2 .
R
(n/2)!
R
(4.224)
Vn /Rn
4
3
1 2
2 2
8 2
15
16
15
8 2
4
3
1 3
16
Vn =
R
Sn+2 ,
2
Sn =
2
Vn2 ;
R
(4.225)
R
Sn ,
n
Sn =
n
Vn ;
R
(4.226)
Vn /Vn1
Sn /Rn1
Sn /Sn1
Vn =
Vn =
2
Vn2 ,
n
Sn =
2
Sn2 .
n2
(4.227)
a + b 1,
...,
|a b|.
(4.228)
359
VOLUMETTO IV
a+bc
X
(c + a b + s + 1)
s=0
= (c + a b + s) f (a, b, c)
+
a+bc1
X
s=0
16.
The first and second pair of components of the Dirac wavefunction are
relativistic invariants. By choosing the components in such a way that
the equation
W
+ 3 (p) + 1 m c = 0
(4.231)
c
360
is satisfied,
p for given values of px , py , pz we have two positive
p waves (i.e.,
2
2
2
W/c = p + m c ) and two negative waves (i.e., W/c = p2 + m2 c2 ).
At a given point we can set
1
= 11 + 02
mc
00 =
W
+ pz
c
1
1
(px ipy ) 1
mc
mc
W
+ pz
c
1
(px + ipy ) 4 ,
mc
2 + 03 + 14 ,
(4.232)
so that positive waves occur for W > 0 and negative waves for W < 0.
The waves are orthogonal to each other and, furthermore, the transition current between the positive waves or between the negative ones
vanishes.
Let us now choose the components of in such a way that the original
Dirac equation holds instead of Eq. (4.231) 10 :
W
+ 1 (p) + 3 m c
c
= 0
(4.233)
(1 and 2 are the small components for small velocities, while 3 and
4 are the large ones). At a given spatial point and instant of time, we
can set
pz
px + ipy
0 =
1
2 + 13 + 04 ,
W/c + mc
W/c + mc
(4.234)
px ipy
pz
00
=
1 +
2 + 03 + 14 ;
W/c + mc
W/c + mc
p
2 = (0 , 1 , 0 , 0),
4 = (0 , 0 , 0 , 1)
1 , 2 , 3 , 4
= 1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + 4 4 ,
10 For p = 0, the first pair of components of represents the negative states, the second pair
the positive states
361
VOLUMETTO IV
in the representation of Eq. (4.233), the relations between the eigenfunctions and will read (except for a phase factor) as follows:
1 =
1
(1 + 3 ),
2
1 =
1
(1 + 3 ),
2
2 =
1
(2 + 4 ),
2
2 =
1
(2 + 4 ),
2
3 =
1
(1 3 ),
2
3 =
1
(1 3 ),
2
4 =
1
(2 4 ),
2
4 =
1
(2 4 ).
2
(4.235)
with
We then have = and = 1 = ,
0
1/ 2
0
1/ 2
0
1/ 2
0 1/ 2
1/ 2
0 1/ 2
0
0
1/ 2
0
1/ 2
= 1 = (1 + 3 ) .
(4.236)
Given the values (px , py , pz ) = p, let us denote with yp1 and yp2 the
positive plane waves in Eqs. (4.232) and with yp3 and yp4 the negative
ones obtained by replacing W with W ; analogously, we denote by
zp1 and zp2 the positive plane waves in Eqs. (4.234) and by zp3 and zp4
the corresponding negative ones. All these functions are normalized so
that = 1. At a given time, the relations between y and z are the
following:
zp =
Sik ypi ,
(4.237)
1 i
Sik
zp ,
(4.238)
yp =
X
i
where
362
pz
A+
mc
2AB
px ipy
mc
2AB
1
S = S
=
px + ipy
mc
2AB
pz
A+
mc
2AB
pz
A0
mc
2A0 B 0
px ipy
mc
2A0 B 0
px + ipy
mc
2A0 B 0
pz
0
mc
2A0 B 0
(4.239)
with
p
A =
p2 + m2 c2 + mc
, A0 =
mc
B =
p2 + m2 c2 + pz
, B0 =
mc
p2 + m2 c2 mc
,
mc
(4.240)
p2 + m2 c2 pz
.
mc
1 + 3
1 + 3
=
.
2
2
(4.241)
W
+ (p) + 1 m c
c
= 0.
(4.242)
The operators and transform any combination of 4 plane waves corresponding to a given value of p into another such combination. Obviously,
the representation of the matrices describing these operators depends on
363
VOLUMETTO IV
(i) Sz =
saz
sbz
sbz
scz
, Sx =
sax
sbx
sbx scx
, Sy =
B2
saz
BB 0
2+
B(B + B 0 )
px + ipy
mc
2
px ipy
mc
2
B(B + B 0 )
2
0
2 + B BB
B(B + B 0 )
B(B + B 0 )
BB 0
sbz
2
0
(B
+
B
)
BB 0
px + ipy
mc
2
(B + B 0 ) BB 0
scz
2 + B 02 BB 0
B 0 (B + B 0 )
px + ipy
mc
2
sax
px ipy
mc
2
(B + B 0 ) BB 0
BB 0 1
(B + B 0 ) BB 0
px ipy
2 0 mc 0
B (B + B )
2 + B 02 BB 0
B 0 (B + B 0 )
B 0 (B + B 0 )
px
2
2 mc 0
B+B
B + B0
px
2
mc
2
0
0
B+B
B+B
say
sby
sby scy
(4.243)
364
sbx =
scx =
say =
sby =
scy =
pz px
py
i
2
2
m c
+ mc
(B + B 0 ) BB 0
BB 0
pz
mc
(B + B 0 ) BB 0
px
2
2 mc 0
B+B
B + B0
px
2 mc 0
B+B
i
2
B + B0
pz
mc
i
(B + B 0 ) BB 0
py
2
2 mc 0 i
B+B
B + B0
py
2 mc 0
B+B
2
i
B + B0
=
c
pz
mc
i
(B + B 0 ) BB 0
2
pz py
px
i
2
2
m c
mc
(B + B 0 ) BB 0
BB 0
b
with
pz px
py
i
2
2
m c
+ mc
(B + B 0 ) BB 0
BB 0
2
py
2
i
2 mc 0
B + B0
B+B
px
pz py
i
2 2 2
m c
mc
(B + B 0 ) BB 0
BB 0
(ii)
2
B + B0
py
mc
2
B + B0
pz
mc
(B + B 0 ) BB 0
1 =
1a
1b
1b
1c
(4.244)
365
VOLUMETTO IV
B(B + B 0 ) 1
px + ipy
mc
2
B(B +
B0)
(B + B 0 ) BB 0
px + ipy
mc
2
(B +
B0)
BB 0
px ipy
mc
2
B(B + B 0 )
B(B + B 0 )
2
0
B + B0
1a =
1b
(B + B 0 ) BB 0
px ipy
2 0 mc 0
B (B + B )
pz
mc
(B + B 0 ) BB 0
pz
mc
(B + B 0 ) BB 0
2
B + B0
1c =
0
2
B + B0
px ipy px + ipy
mc
mc
BB 0
BB 0
2
B 0 (B + B 0 )
2
B + B0
px ipy
mc
2
(B + B 0 ) BB 0
B 0 (B + B 0 ) 1
px + ipy
mc
2
B(B + B 0 )
366
Sz =
(iii)
za
zb
zb
zc
Sy =
Sx =
ya
yb
yb
yc
xa
xb
xb
xc
(4.245)
with
za
2 BB 0
B + B0
zb =
zc
xa
xb
pz
mc
B + B0
0
pz
mc 0
B+B
2 BB 0
B + B0
pz
mc
B + B0
0
px
mc 0
B+B
0
pz
mc
B + B0
0
px
mc 0
B+B
py
pz px
i
2
2
m c
mc
(B + B 0 ) BB 0
BB 0
BB 0
BB 0
pz px
py
i
2
2
m c
+ mc
(B + B 0 ) BB 0
BB 0
367
VOLUMETTO IV
xc
ya
yb
yc
px
mc
B + B0
0
px
mc
B + B0
0
py
mc
B + B0
0
py
mc 0
B+B
px
pz py
i
2
2
m c
+ mc
(B + B 0 ) BB 0
BB 0
BB 0
BB 0
pz py
px
i
2
2
m c
mc
(B + B 0 ) BB 0
BB 0
py
mc
B + B0
py
mc
0
B + B0
On the other hand, adopting the plane waves in Eq. (4.233) (normalized
to = 1) as the unitary vectors, the matrices representing the operators Sz , Sx , Sy , , 1 , Sz , Sx , Sy can be obtained from those listed
in the previous pages by transforming them with S given in Eq. (4.239).
However, it is simpler to calculate them directly; if we use the following
notations [the velocity of the positive electron is (vx , vy , vz ) that of the
negative electron (vx , vy , vz ); the speed is v in both cases]:
v
p
=
= p 2
,
c
p + m2 c2
px
vx
= p 2
x =
,
c
p + m2 c2
py
vy
= p 2
,
y =
c
p + m2 c2
pz
vz
= p 2
z =
,
c
p + m2 c2
368
Sz =
saz
sbz
sbz
Sx =
scz
sax
sbx
Sy =
sbx scx
say
sby
saz
x2 + y2
p
1
1 + 1 2
z (x + iy )
p
1 2
1+
sbz
x2 + y2
scz
sax =
sbx
1 2
z (x + iy )
p
1 1 2
2
x (x + iy )
scx
x2 + y2
1
1 2
z x
p
1 + 1 2
2 x (x iy )
z x
p
1 1 2
2
2 x (x iy )
p
1
1 + 1 2
1 2
z (x iy )
p
1 1 2
2 x (x + iy )
p
1 + 1 2
z x
x2 + y2
1 +
z x
p
1 + 1 2
1
1+
x2 + y2
1
x2 + y2
z (x iy )
z (x + iy )
z (x iy )
p
,
1 + 1 2
1 +
x (x + iy )
p
1 1 2
z x
2 x (x iy )
p
1
1 1 2
z x
p
1 1 2
sby scy
(4.246)
with
369
VOLUMETTO IV
and so on.
Let us now write the Dirac equation with no (interacting) field:
W
+ (p) + m c
c
= 0.
(4.247)
v
q
u
u
1
+
1 + (p/mc)2
t
up =
s
u0 ,
q
2 1 + 1 + (p/mc)2
p/mc
(4.248)
where the upper sign applies to positive waves and the lower sign to
negative ones. The spin functions thus obtained are normalized in the
invariant sense:
up up
up x up
up y up
up z up
= 1.
(4.249)
0
The spin functions normalized in the ordinary sense (u0
p up = 1) are
instead given by
u0p =
q
4
up
1 + (p/mc)2
v
q
u
u 1 + 1 + (p/mc)2
u
t q
1 + (p/mc)2
(4.250)
v
q
u
u 1 + 1 + (p/mc)2
p
u
t
q
u0 .
1 + (p/mc)2
(4.251)
17.
IMPROPER OPERATORS
u(x, y, z) =
(x, y, z) e2i (1 x + 2 y + 3 z) d1 d2 d3 ,
(4.252)
370
where
Z
(x, y, z) =
(4.253)
(4.254)
r (x, y, z) e2i (1 x + 2 y + 3 z) d1 d2 d3 ,
v(x, y, z) =
(4.255)
where
=
1
1
= q
12 + 22 + 32
(4.256)
F 0 = 1.
(4.257)
v(x, y, z) =
(4.258)
v(x, y, z) =
0
0
0
r e2i 1 (x x ) + 2 (y y ) + 3 (z z )
u(x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) d1 d2 d3 dx0 dy 0 dz 0 ,
(4.259)
Kr (x, y, z, x , y , z ) =
r e2i (1 + 2 + 3 ) d1 d2 d3 ,
(4.260)
where
= x x0 ,
= y y0,
= z z0.
(4.261)
Performing
the integration in (4.260) on a sphere of radius D = 1/ =
q
12 + 22 + 32 and setting
q
R =
2 + 2 + 2 =
(x x0 )2 + (y y 0 )2 + (z z 0 )2 , (4.262)
371
VOLUMETTO IV
we get
Kr (x, y, z, x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) = Kr (R)
Z
Z
2 sin 2sR
(2R)r1 sin t
ds
=
dt. (4.263)
=
R sr1
R2
tr1
0
0
This formula can be used for 1 r < 3; the expression corresponding
to the case r = 1 can be obtained from that corresponding to r = 1 +
by taking the limit 0 or, in an equivalent way, by taking the mean
value of the integral with arbitrary upper limit. We, thus, find
K1 = 1/R2 ,
K2 = /R,
and
(4.264)
(4.265)
F 1 u(x, y, z) =
(4.266)
(4.267)
F 2 u(x, y, z) =
(4.269)
this relation
immediately follows from Eq. (4.255). We can define the
operator 2 by setting
p
2 = 2i F 1 ,
(4.270)
2 = 2i F 1 F 2 =
1
F 1 2 .
2i
(4.271)
2 u(x, y, z) =
1
2 2 R2 i
2 u(x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) dx0 dy 0 dz 0 .
(4.272)
=
F 1,
2
2i
(4.273)
372
u(x, y, z) =
2
18.
1
2 2 R2 i
u(x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) dx0 dy 0 dz 0 .
(4.274)
INTEGRAL REPRESENTATION OF
HYDROGEN EIGENFUNCTIONS
00
2
`(` + 1)
2E +
r
r2
= 0.
(4.275)
Let us set
= rl+1 u;
(4.276)
`+1 0
u +
r
2E +
2
r
u = 0.
(4.277)
This equation has the form of the Laplace equation (see Sec. 4.11) with
the following values for the constants:
0 = 0,
1 = 2 (` + 1),
0 = 2E,
1 = 2.
(4.278)
The values of the constants appearing in Eq. (4.188) needed for the
integral representation of u then are, in the considered case (assume
E > 0),
c1 = i 2E,
c2 = i 2E,
(4.279)
2 = ` + 1 + i/ 2E. (4.280)
1 = ` + 1 i/ 2E,
Substituting into Eq. (4.188), we get, except for a constant factor,
` i/ 2E
` + i/ 2E
t r
u
e
t i 2E
t + i 2E
dt,
C
(4.281)
373
VOLUMETTO IV
i 2E-
i 2E
- i 2 E-
- i 2E
II
Fig. 4.2. The paths in the complex plane to define log(t i 2E) and log(t + i 2E)
(see text).
Z
C
d
et
dt
#
` + 1 i/ 2E
` + 1 + i/ 2E
t i 2E
dt
t + i 2E
= 0
(4.282)
must be satisfied. For real and positive r, this happens if the limits of
the integration domain lie at infinity along the negative real axis. This
fixes the domain C.
u = k
i 2Etr
i/
2E
l
+
i/
2E dt.
(t 1)
(t + 1)
(4.283)
The integration paths I and II are shown in Fig. 4.3 . The logarithm
of t 1 and t + 1 is understood to be real for t 1 > 0 and t + 1 > 0,
respectively, the discontinuity lines being the half-lines 1 + ai and 1 ai
(a > 0), respectively.
374
1+i
II
-1
I
+1
Fig. 4.3. The paths in the complex plane to define the function u in (4.283) (see
text).
19.
v
v
(4.284)
2
2
(4.285)
Differentiating with respect to and equating to zero the resulting expression, we find
l
l
+ cos sin = 0,
(4.286)
11 See
Sec. 4.9.
375
VOLUMETTO IV
20.
1 + cos
=
.
l
sin
(4.287)
r0
,
r
(4.288)
which is repulsive for r > 2r0 and attractive for r < 2r0 . The problem
is to find the cross section for the scattering of the particle at an angle
. In classical mechanics, the equations of motion in polar coordinates
are
r2 = c
1
2r0
2r0
1
r r 2 =
1
=
r2
r3
r2
r
(4.289)
(4.290)
We have
c2 d2 1
,
r2 d2 r
= c2 /r3 ,
(4.291)
r =
r 2
(4.292)
which leads to
d2 1
1
1
+
+ 2
d2 r
r
c
or
2r0
r
= 0,
(4.293)
1
1
+ 2 = 0.
r
c
(4.294)
1
1
= 2 2 + A cos + B sin ,
r
c
(4.295)
d2 1
2r0
+ 1 2
2
d r
c
with
2r0
.
c2
(4.296)
376
2r0 , we have
1
1
= 2 2 + C e + D e ,
r
c
with
=
Finally, for |c| =
2r0 , we have
2r0
1.
c2
1
1 2
=
+ F + G.
r
4r0
(4.297)
(4.298)
(4.299)
2r0
:
(1) >
k
1
r
1
cos ( )
sin ( )
+ 2 2
+
,
2r0
k 2r0
r
2r0
=
1 2 2.
k
2r0
:
(2) =
k
1
1
1
=
( )2 + ( ) .
r
4r0
2r0
(3) <
:
k
1
r
k2 2
1
cosh ( )
sinh ( )
+
,
2r0 k 2 2
2r0 k 2 2
r
2r0
=
1.
k2 2
=
(4.302)
(4.303)
(4.304)
(4.305)
(4.306)
377
VOLUMETTO IV
2
2
1
arctan k 2 =
arctan 2
(2) = 2k 2 =
21.
1
1 .
4r0
.
(4.308)
ya ( + a) = y(),
(4.309)
or
and the determination of the complete set of regular solutions of Eq.
(4.307), corresponding to the complete set of eigenvalues of a, reduces
to the determination of the unique regular solution of
y 00 () = y().
(4.310)
ya (x) dx
Z a+
ya (x) da = 1,
(4.311)
y( + ) d = 1.
(4.312)
y () d
2
A
sin
()3/2 + .
y
4
3
(4.313)
378
3
( )1/2 + . . . ,
2
(4.314)
so that
2
A
sin
()3/2 ( )1/2 +
y
4
3
(4.315)
and thus
Z
3/4
y( + ) d ( )
cos
2
cos
()3/2 ( )1/2 +
3
2
()3/2 + ( )1/2 +
3
Let us set
= 2,
(4.316)
d = 2 d.
(4.317)
For , we have
y
Z
y( + ) d
A
2 3
sin
+ ,
3
2 3
1
cos
+
3
3/2
2 3
cos
+ + .
3
(4.318)
(4.319)
y () d
y( + ) d = A A.
(4.320)
A = 1/ .
(4.321)
Taking the Laplace transform of Eq. (4.310), we can easily get the
integral representation
y =
with
Z ei2
i
t3 /3 et dt,
e
i
2 e 1
5
< 1 < ,
2
6
7
3
< 2 < .
6
2
(4.322)
(4.323)
379
VOLUMETTO IV
Z
1 p3 /3 p/2
3
3
3
1
(I)
y =
e
cos
p sin
p dp.
0
2
2
2
2
Z
1 3 3/2
2 3/2 /3 p2 3/2
(II)
y =
e
e
cos
p
dp.
2
3
(III)
y =
Z
2p2 + 2p3 /3 ()3/2
sin
22.
2
+ p3 ( )3/2 +
dp.
3
3
4
(1) We have
1
=
r
where d = d1 d2 d3 .
1 2i r
e
d,
2
(4.324)
(2) We have
Z "
eikr
r
Z "
eikr
r
k + i
2
k i
2
2 !#1
2 !#1
e2i r d, (4.325)
e2i r d
(4.326)
(4 2 2
8 k
e2i r d
k 2 + 2 )2 + 4k 2 2
(4.327)
1
k
||
2
2
e2i r d
In the original manuscript, this section is incomplete. It ends with the following sentence:
For close to 0, we can expand the integrand function in I in power series of ; we have ...
380
k
k
||
4
2
(3) We have
1
=
r2
e2i r d.
2i r
e
d
(4.328)
(4.329)
F =
is
0,
1/r,
<F >=
for r < R,
for r > R,
(4.330)
cos 2R 2i r
e
d.
2
(4.331)
F =
1,
0,
for r < R,
for r > R,
(4.332)
is
Z
<F >=
(6) We have
r2
Z 3/2
(7) We have
2 2
e / e2i r d.
(4.334)
8k
e2i r d.
+ 4 2 2 )
(4.335)
ekr =
(k 2
(8) Given
Z
f (q) =
Z
f 0 (q) =
() e2i q d,
(4.336)
U(||) () e2i q d,
(4.337)
381
VOLUMETTO IV
q
12 + 22 + 32 , then we have
Z
0
f (q) =
U() () e2i r d
Z Z
Z
0
f (q ) dq
U() e2i (q q) d.
0
(4.338)
Using
Z
U() =
Z
Y (q) =
we get
(4.339)
U() e2i q d,
(4.340)
Y (q 0 q) f (q 0 ) dq 0 .
(4.341)
Z
0
f (q) =
f 0 (q) =
23.
y(|q q0 |) f (q 0 ) dq 0 .
(4.342)
CIRCULAR INTEGRALS
Z 2
2
d
=
, [a > |b| > 0] ,
2
a + b cos
a b2
0
Z 2
d
2
=
, [a > b > 0] ,
2 b2 cos2
a
a a2 b2
0
Z 2
d
2
=
, [a , b > 0] ,
2
2
2
2
ab
a cos + b sin
0
Z 2
d
2
=
n
2 b2 )n/2
(a
+
b
cos
)
(a
0
!
n1
X n 1 n a + a2 b2 r
r
r
2 a2 b2
r=0
(4.343)
(4.344)
(4.345)
(4.346)
382
Z 2
0
24.
d
2
=
,
a + b cos
a2 b2
!
d
2
a + a2 b2
= 2
1+
(a + b cos )2
a b2
a2 b2
2a
=
.
(4.347)
2
(a b2 )3/2
OSCILLATION FREQUENCIES OF
AMMONIA
1
d
implying sin =
.
2
2D
(4.348)
1
2
"
2M
MH
N
q2 + q22 + q32 + 2q1 q2 cos + 2q2 q3 cos
(MN + MH )2 1
+ 2q3 q1 cos ) +
2M
MN
H
q12 + q22 + q32
2
(MN + MH )
383
VOLUMETTO IV
MN MH
cos (q1 q5 + q1 q6 + q2 q6 + q2 q4 + q3 q4 + q3 q5 )
MN + MH
1
1
1
1
+ MH q4 + q5 + q6 + q4 q5 + q5 q6 + q6 q4 . (4.349)
2
2
2
2
1 X
bik q1 qk ,
2 i,k
bik = bki ,
(4.350)
we get
b11
b44
b12
b45
b14
b15
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
b22
b55
b23
b56
b25
b26
b62
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
b33
b66
b31
b64
b36
b34
b43
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
14/15,
1/2,
b21 =
b54 =
b41 =
b16 =
b61 =
b32
b65
b52
b24
b42
=
=
=
=
=
b23
b46
b63
b35
b53
(4.351)
(4.352)
= 14/225 cos , (4.353)
= 1/8,
(4.354)
= 0,
(4.355)
= b51
= 7/15 cos .
(4.356)
The fact that many elements are actually equal is due to obvious symmetry feature; thus we need to know only six typical elements:
b11 = B1 = 14/15, b44 = B2 = 1/2, b12 = B3 = 14/225 cos ,
b45 = B4 = 1/8, b14 = B5 = 0, b15 = B6 = 7/15 cos .
Analogously, the matrix defining the potential energy
V =
1 X
aik q1 qk
2 ik
(4.357)
(4.358)
q1
q2
q3
1
2
=
Q1 +
Q3 ,
r3
r
r3
1
1
1 0
Q1
Q3 +
Q3 ,
=
r3
r6
r2
1
1
1 0
=
Q1
Q3
Q ,
3
6
2 3
(4.359)
(4.360)
(4.361)
384
q4
q5
q6
1
2
Q2 +
Q4 ,
=
r3
r3
r
1
1
1 0
=
Q2
Q4 +
Q4 ,
r3
r6
r2
1
1
1 0
=
Q2
Q4
Q .
3
6
2 4
(4.362)
(4.363)
(4.364)
Then, we find
q12 + q22 + q32 = Q21 + Q23 + Q02
3,
2
2
2
2
2
q4 + q5 + q6 = Q2 + Q4 + Q02
4,
1
1
,
q1 q2 + q2 q3 + q3 q1 = Q21 Q23 Q02
2
2 3
1
1
q4 q5 + q5 q6 + q6 q4 = Q22 Q24 Q02
,
2
2 4
q1 q4 + q2 q5 + q3 q6 = Q1 Q2 + Q3 Q4 + Q03 Q04 ,
q1 q5 + q2 q6 + q3 q4 + q1 q6 + q2 q4 + q3 q5
= 2Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q03 Q04 .
(4.365)
(4.366)
(4.367)
(4.368)
(4.369)
(4.370)
Thus double the kinetic energy takes the following form in the new
coordinates:
2T
=
+
+
=
+
+
+ B2 Q 21 + Q 24 + Q 02
B1 Q 21 + Q 23 + Q 02
4
3
1
1
1
1
Q23 Q02
2B3
+ 2B4 Q22 Q24 Q02
2
2 3
2
2 4
(4.373)
385
VOLUMETTO IV
of the simple oscillations are obtained from the following secular equation:
det
25.
A1 A3 (B1 B3 ) A5 A6 (B5 B6 )
A5 A6 (B5 B6 ) A2 A4 (B2 B4 )
= 0. (4.375)
They are three-component functions of and following the transformation rules of D1 . They correspond to particular values of j, l, m, the
total angular momentum j and the orbital momentum taking the values
0, 1, 2, . . . and j 1, j, j + 1, respectively; for the case j = 0, we instead
only have the value l = 1 for the orbital momentum.
We can set
s
(j + m)(j + m 1) m1
j1 ,
2j(2j 1)
m
j,j1 =
s
(j + m)(j m) m
j1 ,
j(2j 1)
(j m)(j m 1) m+1
j1 ,
2j(2j 1)
m
j,j =
(j + m)(j m + 1) m1
j ,
2j(2j + 1)
m
p
m
j ,
j(j + 1)
s
m
j,j+1
(j + m + 1)(j m) m+1
j
,
2j(2j + 1)
(j m + 1)(j m + 2) m1
j+1 ,
2(j + 1)(2j + 3)
s
(4.376)
(j + m + 1)(j m + 1) m
j+1 ,
(j + 1)(2j + 3)
386
(j + m + 1)(j + m + 2) m+1
j+1 .
2(j + 1)(2j + 3)
The functions obtained are normalized and give rise to the ordinary
representations of the angular momentum. Here m
l are the usual normalized harmonics
s
1
= l
2 l!
sr =
=
y
z
x
sx + sy + sz
r
r
r
1 x iy
1 x + iy
z
(sx + isy ) +
(sx isy ) + sz ,
2 r
2 r
r
(4.378)
where, as usual,
0 1/ 2
0
= 1/ 2
0 1/ 2 ,
0
1/ 2
0
sx
0
0 i/ 2
= i/ 2
0
i/ 2 ,
0
i/ 2
0
sy
1 0 0
sz = 0 0 0 .
0 0 1
(4.379)
Evidently, this operator is a scalar one, so that its commutator with j
and m is zero. The following relations hold:
s
sr m
j,j1 =
s
sr m
j,j
=
s
sr m
j,j+1
j+1 m
,
2j + 1 j,j
j+1 m
+
2j + 1 j,j1
j
m .
2j + 1 j,j
j
m ,
2j + 1 j,j+1
(4.380)
387
VOLUMETTO IV
j+1
2j
+1
j+1
2j + 1
0
s
j
2j + 1
,
2j + 1
(4.381)
=
(sx + isy )
i
2i
x
y
1
+ sz
.
i
z
1
s
i
+
(sx isy )
+i
2i
x
y
(4.382)
1
,
i x
py =
1
,
i y
pz =
1
,
i z
x
y
z
px + py + pz
r
r
r
m
j,l = 0,
(4.383)
we get
"
(sp) m
j,l
x2 + y 2 + z 2
1 x
y
z
=
(sp)
px + py + pz sr m
j,l
2
r
r r
r
r
1
x
y
y
x
=
sy sx (xpy ypx ) +
sz sy (ypz zpy )
r
r
r
r
r
z
x
+
sx sz (zpx xpz ) m
j,l ,
r
r
or
(sp) m
j,l
1
r
x
y
y
x
sy sx lz +
sz sy
r
r
r
r
z
x
+
sx sz ly m
j,l .
r
r
lx
(4.384)
388
1
1 x + iy
1 x iy
m
(sp) j,l =
(lx ily )
(lx + ily )
sz
ir
2 r
2 r
1
x iy
z
+ (sx + isy )
lz (lx ily )
(4.385)
2
r
r
1
z
x + iy
+ (sx isy )
(lx + ily )
lz
m
j,l .
2
r
r
Note that lx , ly , lz are the components of the orbital angular momentum
measured in units of h/2. We thus find:
1
(s ) m
j,j1 =
i
i
(j 1)
r
i
1
(s ) m
j,j = (j + 1)
i
r
+
i
j
r
j+i m
,
2j + 1 j,j
s
j+i m
2j + 1 j,j1
(4.386)
j
m ,
2j + 1 j,j+1
1
i
(s ) m
j,j+1 = (j + 2)
i
r
j
m .
2j + 1 j,j
Equations (4.380) and (4.386) can be generalized by applying the operators sr and (1/i)s to functions of the type f (r)m
j,l , since we evidently
have
m
sr f (r) m
j,l = f (r) sr j,l ,
1
1 0
1
(s ) f (r) m
(s ) m
f (r) sr m
j,l = f (r)
j,l +
j,l .
i
i
i
(4.387)
1 =
,
x =
,
2
2
1 + 3
,
2 = z ,
y =
(4.389)
2
x + iy
3 =
,
z = 2 ,
2
389
VOLUMETTO IV
(4.390)
(4.391)
(4.392)
2 + k 2 = 0,
(4.393)
we get
+i
x
y
1 +
1
2 +
z
2
i
x
y
3 = 0.
(4.395)
A solution of Eq. (4.388) corresponding to given values of j and m can
be cast in the form
v
w m
u m
j,j1 + i m
.
(4.396)
=
j,j +
r
r
r j,j+1
Due to Eq. (4.393), we can expect that, apart from the common factor
r and constant factors, u, v, w are Bessel or Hankel functions of order
j 1/2, j + 1/2, j + 3/2, respectively. In fact, substituting Eq. (4.396)
390
in Eq. (4.388) and using Eqs. (4.387), (4.386), and (4.380), we find
s
ku +
s
kv
j+1
2j + 1
j+1
2j + 1
j
2j + 1
kw +
v0 +
j
v
r
= 0,
s
j
u0 u
r
v0
13
j+1
v
r
j
2j + 1
j+1
w +
w
r
= 0, (4.397)
= 0.
For k 6= 0, combining the first and the third equations (4.397) and their
derivatives, it follows that
u0
j
u
r
j+1
w
r
w0 +
j+1
= 0,
(4.398)
ku +
s
kv
j+1
2j + 1
2j + 1
j+1
v0 +
u0 +
j
v
r
= 0,
(4.399)
j
u
r
= 0.
v 00 +
k2
j(j + 1)
r2
v = 0.
(4.400)
13 For
In0 (x) +
n
In (x) = In1 (x),
x
In0 (x)
n
In (x) = In+1 (x),
x
(4.401)
391
VOLUMETTO IV
x I,
or, setting F =
Fn0 (x)
Fn0 (x)
1
n
2
1
n+
2
Fn (x)
x
= Fn1 (x),
Fn (x)
x
= Fn+1 (x).
(4.402)
It follows that the only solution of Eqs. (4.397) that is regular for r = 0
is given, except for a constant factor, by
s
j+1
k
u =
r Ij1/2 (|k|r)
,
2j + 1
|k|
r Ij+1/2 (|k|r),
v =
s
w =
(4.403)
j
k
r Ij+3/2 (|k|r)
.
2j + 1
|k|
Two independent singular solutions of Eqs. (4.397) are obviously obtained on replacing the Bessel functions with the Hankel functions of
the first or second kind:
s
1,2
v 1,2 =
w1,2 =
j+1
k
1,2
r Hj1/2
(|k|r)
,
2j + 1
|k|
1,2
r Hj+1/2
(|k|r),
s
(4.404)
j
k
1,2
.
r Hj+3/2
(|k|r)
2j + 1
|k|
11,0
01,0
1
1,0
11,1
1
4
r
1
=
4
r
1
=
4
r
1
=
4
=
(1 , 0 , 0) ,
(4.405)
(0 , 1 , 0) ,
(4.406)
(0 , 0 , 1) ;
r
3
cos ,
2
(4.407)
r
3
sin ei , 0 ,
4
(4.408)
392
01,1
=
r
1
1,1
=
r
11,2
01,2
1
1,2
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
3
sin ei , 0 ,
4
r
0,
r
3
sin ei ,
4
9
cos2
8
3
sin ei ,
4
3
cos ;
2
(4.410)
1 3
, sin cos ei ,
8 2
9
sin2 e2i ,
8
(4.411)
r
3
9
=
sin cos ei ,
cos2 +
2
2
3
i
sin cos e
,
2
r
r
3
1
9
sin2 e2i , sin cos ei
=
4
8
2
r
9
cos2
8
1
;
8
2
sin x,
x
r
2
sin x
I3/2 (x) =
cos x +
,
x
x
r
2
cos x
sin x
I5/2 (x) =
sin x 3
+3 2 ;
x
x
x
r
= i
1
H3/2
(x) =
1
H5/2
(x) =
2
H1/2
(x) =
2
H3/2
(x) =
2
H5/2
(x) =
2 ix
e ,
x
1
,
2
(4.412)
,
r !
I1/2 (x) =
1
H1/2
(x)
(4.409)
(4.413)
(4.414)
(4.415)
(4.416)
(4.417)
2 ix
i
e
1
,
x
x
r
2 ix
3
3i
e
i
2 ;
x
x
x
r
2 ix
i
e ,
r x
2 ix
i
e
1 +
,
x
x
r
2 ix
3
3i
e
i
+ 2 .
x
x
x
(4.418)
(4.419)
(4.420)
(4.421)
(4.422)
393
VOLUMETTO IV
" r
sin
r
1
2
2 =
sin
r
1
2
3 =
1 =
sin
r
1
2
cos
+
r
3 =
i
3
sin cos ei +
4
"
3
1
sin2 e2i 2
8
"
3
sin ei
4
(4.424)
r
#
27
sin2 e2i
8
27
sin2 e2i .
8
3
i
sin cos ei +
4
3
sin ei
4
"
27
sin cos ei ,
4
3
sin ei
4
(4.426)
" r
i
3
sin cos ei +
4
(4.425)
27
cos
sin cos ei +
4
r
" r
3
cos
2
3
sin ei
4
27
sin cos ei ,
4
" r
(4.423)
1
sin
3
1 cos2 2 6
=
r
2
cos 1
3
1
+
6
cos2
,
r
2
2
sin
r
"
27
cos
sin cos ei +
4
r
" r
r
3
1
cos2
2
2
3
1
cos2
2
2
cos
+
r
(b) m = 0:
" r
sin
r
3
2
3
2
3
i 3
2
1 + cos +
cos
8
2
1
3
cos2
2
2
3
sin ei
4
!#
(4.427)
394
1
2
27
cos
sin cos ei +
4
r
"
3
sin ei
4
27
sin cos ei .
4
(4.428)
(c) m = 1:
1 =
sin
r
" r
"
cos
+
r
2 =
sin
r
1
2
3 =
" r
r
#
27
sin2 e2i
8
27
sin2 e2i ,
8
i
3
sin cos ei +
4
27
cos
sin cos ei +
4
r
3
sin ei
4
"
1
2
" r
3
2
3
2
3
sin ei
4
(4.430)
3
i 3
2
cos
1 + cos
8
2
(4.429)
27
sin cos ei ,
4
sin
r
1
3
sin2 e2i 2
8
3
1
cos2
2
2
1
3
cos2
2
2
cos
+
r
"r
3
cos
2
(4.431)
(4.432)
(4.433)
(4.434)
(4.435)
395
VOLUMETTO IV
sin
1
Ax =
1 sin2 cos2 2 1 3 sin2 cos2
r
cos
+
1 3 sin2 cos2 ,
r
sin
1
Ay =
sin2 sin cos cos
r
cos
3
3
2
2
+ 2 sin sin cos +
cos sin sin cos ,
1
sin
sin cos cos sin sin
Az =
r
3
3
cos
+ 2 sin cos cos +
sin sin sin cos cos ;
1
sin
sin2 sin cos cos
Bx =
r
3
3
cos
2
2
+ 2 sin sin cos +
cos sin sin cos ,
1
sin
2
2
2
2
1 sin sin 2 1 3 sin sin
By =
r
cos
+
1 3 sin2 sin2 ,
r
1
sin
Bz =
sin cos sin sin cos
r
3
3
cos
sin cos sin cos sin .
+ 2 sin cos sin +
i
f (r) m
l
x
y
s
l+1
f (r) +
f (r)
r
0
l
f (r) f (r)
r
0
(l + m)(l + m 1) m1
l1
(2l + 1)(2l 1)
(l m + 1)(l m + 2) m1
l+1 ,
(2l + 1)(2l + 3)
396
+i
x
y
f (r) m
l
l+1
f 0 (r) +
f (r)
r
(l + m + 1)(l + m + 2) m+1
l+1 ,
(2l + 1)(2l + 3)
l
f (r) f (r)
r
0
f (r) m
l
z
l+1
f (r) +
f (r)
r
(l m)(l m 1) m+1
l1 , (4.436)
(2l + 1)(2l 1)
(l + m)(l m) m
(2l + 1)(2l 1) l1
(l + m + 1)(l m + 1) m
l+1 .
(2l + 1)(2l + 3)
l
f (r) f (r)
r
0
u
u
1
i
,
1 =
y
2 x
u
2 =
,
(4.437)
z
u
1
u
+i
.
3 =
y
2 x
Then, from the previous formulae and from Eqs. (4.376), it follows that
s
f (r) m
l
l
2l + 1
l+1
2l + 1
f 0 (r) +
l+1
f (r)
r
m
l,l1
l
f (r) f (r)
r
0
m
l,l+1
(4.438)
26.
W
+ 1 p + 3 mc
c
= 0.
(4.439)
397
VOLUMETTO IV
First of all, given a 4-valued function P (q), we want to solve the problem
of finding the solutions of the differential equation
W
+ 1 p + 3 mc
c
= P
(4.440)
W2
m2 c2 p2
c2
W
1 p 3 mc
c
P.
(4.441)
1q 2 2
1
|p|,
W /c m2 c2 =
h
(4.442)
1 W
i
+k =
3 mc + 1 P.
(4.443)
2
c
h
As is known, it follows from this that the solution obeying the constraints
defined above has the form
2
1
4
eik|qq |
|q q0 |
1
h2
eik|qq |
q q0
=
|q q0 |
|q q0 |
W
3 mc
c
i
1 P (q 0 ) dq 0 ,
h
(4.444)
which can be simplified by integrating by parts. Using the relation (
acts on the independent variable q 0 )
(q) =
ik
1
|q q0 |
ik|qq0 |
e
|q q0 |
(4.445)
1
eikr 1 W
(q) =
3 mc
4
r
c
h2
1 k + i/r
1 (q q0 ) P (q 0 ) dq 0 .
h
(4.446)
Note that, by changing the sign of k, we get the solution of Eq. (4.440)
representing a converging wave at infinity.
Let us now assume that an electron plane wave interacts with a field
whose potential is V (if this field is described by a scalar potential we
have V = e). The Dirac equation can be written as
W
+ 1 p + 3 mc
c
V
.
c
(4.447)
398
(4.448)
where 0 is the unperturbed wave and 1 , 2 , . . . are calculated iteratively by solving the differential equation
W
+ 1 p + 3 mc
c
n =
V
n1
c
(4.449)
R .
(4.451)
eikR
1
0
0
V (q )
1
u dq 0 .
k 1 t1
h
1 (R; , ) =
W
3 mc
c
(4.452)
Let us assume, for simplicity, that in the scattering field only the scalar
potential is different from zero. In this case, we have V = e, and the
potential does not depend on the spin variables. Thus, we can replace
V (q 0 )u with uV (q 0 ) and take the constant part outside the integral. We
then deduce
Z
1 (R; , ) =
eikR
0
eiq (kt1 kt) V (q 0 ) dq 0
4R
1 W
1 k
3 m
1 t1 u. (4.453)
h c
h2 c2
W
+ hk 1 z + 3 mc
c
u = 0.
(4.454)
399
VOLUMETTO IV
Let us set u = (a, b), a and b being the first and the second pair of values
of u, respectively. In this case, Eq. (4.454) becomes
W
+ mc
c
a + hk z b = 0,
(4.455)
W
mc
c
b + hk z a. = 0.
k z
k z
b, b =
h
a.
W/c + mc
W/c mc
Furthermore,
1 W
3 m
h2 c2
1 W mc2
=
a
c2
h2
1
= 2
h
(4.456)
1 k
1 t1 u
h c
!
1 W + mc2
1 k t1
1 k t1
b, 2
a
b
h c
c2
h
c
h
(4.457)
a0 =
W+
b0 =
we get
mc2
+ (W
h2 c2
mc2 )R z
(4.458)
b,
1 k
1 W
1 R u = a0 , b0 .
3 m
2
2
c
h c
h
Noting that R z + z R = 2 cos , we also have
0 0
a a
1 W mc2
c2
h4
!2
W + mc2
c2
(4.459)
!2
W 2 m2 c4
+2
cos a a
c4
=
2m2
h4
"
W2
(1 + cos ) + (1 cos ) a a. (4.460)
m2 c4
400
Analogously,
2m2
b b =
h4
"
0 0
W2
(1 + cos ) + (1 cos ) b b.
m2 c4
(4.461)
The cross section for scattering along the direction , per unit solid
angle is given by
|1 |2
,
|0 |2
S(, ) = R2
R .
(4.462)
S(, ) =
m2
W2
(1 + cos ) + (1 cos )
8 2
h4 m2 c4
Z
eiq(kt1 kt V (q) dq .
(4.463)
Z
2
m2
iq(kt1 kt
,
S(, ) =
e
V
(q)
dq
4 2 h4
k=
p
.
h
(4.464)
Let us now turn to Eq. (4.463) and consider the Coulomb field
V =
Ze2
.
r
(4.465)
It is known that:
Z
4 Ze2
4 Ze2
=
k 2 |t1 t|2
k 2 4 sin2 /2
Ze2
.
(4.466)
k 2 sin2 (/2)
eikq(t1 t V (q) dq =
=
c2
p,
W
with W 2 =
m2 c4
,
1 v 2 /c2
(4.467)
2c2 v 2
v2
+
cos .
2c2
2c2
(4.468)
401
VOLUMETTO IV
(4.470)
s =
1 v 2 /c2 =
mc2
,
mc2 + E
(4.471)
we find
p v = E (1 + s) ;
(4.472)
2 + 2s2
2 2s2
+
cos .
(1 + s)2
(1 + s)2
(4.473)
Z 2 e4
.
16E 2 sin4 (/2)
(4.474)
For given energy, the relativistic scattering is thus greater than the classical value for small scattering angles but smaller than it for large angles.
Since
2 + 2s2
2 2s2
S
=
+
cos ,
(4.475)
Scl
(1 + s)2
(1 + s)2
the scattering angle for which the classical and relativistic formula
agree is given by
1s
,
(4.476)
cos 0 =
2(1 + s)
so that 0 = 90o for s 1 and 0 = 120o for s 0.
402
Table 4.2. The ratio between the relativistic and the classical electron scattering
cross sections for several values of the scattering angle and of the relativistic factor
s (see text).
= 0o
= 30o
= 60o
= 90o
= 120o
= 150o
= 180o
s=1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
s = 1/2
1.78
1.69
1.44
1.11
0.78
0.53
0.44
s = 1/3
2.25
2.12
1.75
1.25
0.75
0.38
0.25
s=0
4.00
3.73
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.27
0.00
In Table 4.2 we list the ratio between the relativistic and the classical scattering cross sections S()/Scl () for several values of s and for
particular values of .
27.
a =
n
A
N
h
=
c
n 6.7
108 cm.
A
(4.477)
14 @
300N 2
h2
V = 2.09106 V.
220 e
(4.478)
The numerical values of the energies reported in the following differ slightly from those
found in the original manuscript (2.05106 , 150, and 2.08106 , respectively).
403
VOLUMETTO IV
2 2
h2 300
V = 153 V.
m20 e
(4.479)
28.
3.3106
= 2.108106 V.
1.591012
(4.480)
QUASI-STATIONARY STATES
IW =
0 Hp W d.
(4.481)
H 0 = E0 0 +
I W W dW,
(4.482)
H W
= (E0 + W ) W + IW 0 ,
0
0
H W
= (E0 + W ) W
.
(4.483)
0 ,
The problem can be solved exactly; the perturbed eigenfunctions W
which are normalized with respect to dW as assumed for W , are as
follows:
a
1
0
0 + p 2
W
W
= p 2
2
|a| + |b|
|a| + |b|2
Z
W 0
1
p
IW 0 0
dW 0 ,
(4.484)
2
2
W W
|a| + |b|
a =
1
IW
W +
dW 0
|IW 0 |
W0 W
2
b = IW
(4.485)
404
|a|2 + |b|2 ,
Nw =
(4.486)
1
=
NW
IW 0
W 0
dW 0 + a W ,
W0 W
(4.487)
0 ; getting
We can expand the discrete state 0 in the states W
0 =
1
0 dW.
NW W
(4.488)
|IW 0 |2
IW = I,
dW 0
= k,
W0 W
(4.489)
= W + k,
(4.490)
,
I
b = I,
1
2 /|I|2 + 2 |I|2
0 I
0 =
2 /|I|2 + 2 |I|2 ,
N =
W 0
dW 0 + W ,
0
W W
I
0
W
dW.
2 /|I|2 + 2 |I|2
(4.491)
Obviously, we obtain an identity on substituting the second equation of
(4.491) into the third one.
Let us next consider the time dependence of the eigenfunctions, noting
that the above relations hold for t = 0. We then take the following
0 :
expression as the factor defining the time dependence of W
eiEt/h = ei(E0 k)t/h eit/h
(4.492)
and assume that at t = 0 the system is in the state 0 . Using the last
equation in (4.491) and (4.492) and factoring out the time-dependent
405
VOLUMETTO IV
0 ,we have at an arbitrary time,
factor in W
= ei(E0 k)t/h
eit/h
0
W
d,
2
2
2
2
/|I| + |I|
(4.493)
I
eit/h et/2T W d ,
2
+ i|I|
(4.494)
IW
iEt/
h
i(W +k)t/
h t/2T
+
e
1
e
e
dW ; (4.495)
(W + k) + i|I|2
and, on setting
Z
= c 0 eiE0 t/h
cW W eiEt/h dW
(4.496)
i
I
h
i
I eiW t/h c.
(4.497)
I
i(W +x)t/
h t/2T
1
e
e
,
W + x + i|I|2
(4.498)
In other words, using the direct method, the (perturbed) energy eigenvalues remain
undetermined.
16 @ In the original manuscript, the integration differential d appears in the following equation; however, it is evident that it must rather be dW .
406
in the first equation (4.497) does not converge. Equations (4.498) give
an expression for the time-dependent that coincides with the one in
Eq. (4.495), except for the substitution of the arbitrary quantity x by
the determined quantity k.
Let us now assume that for the unperturbed system there exist a
discrete state 0 of energy E0 and two continuum spectra W and W
with energy E0 + W . Consider then a perturbation connecting the state
0 with both set of states W and W :
Z
IW =
0 Hp W d, LW =
0 Hp W d.
(4.499)
H 0 = E0 0 +
I W W dW +
LW W dW,
(4.500)
H W
= (E0 + W ) W + IW 0 ,
H W
= (E0 + W ) W + LW 0 .
(4.501)
1
0
NW
Z
2
ZW
I W 0 W 0
dW 0
W0 W
0 + a W + A W
!
LW 0 W 0
dW 0 ,
W0 W
(4.502)
LW W
IW W
p
,
2
2
|IW | + |LW |
|IW |2 + |LW |2
IW
|IW |2 + |LW |2
Z
W +
dW 0
|LW 0 |
W0 W
2
|IW 0 |2
dW 0
W0 W
(4.503)
407
VOLUMETTO IV
LW
2
|IW | + |LW |2
A =
|IW 0 |2
W +
dW 0
|LW 0 |
W0 W
dW 0
W0 W
(4.504)
0
NW
(4.505)
Z
1
0
ZW
/NW
dW.
0 =
(4.506)
|IW 0 |2
dW 0
+
W0 W
LW = L,
Z
|LW 0 |2
W = k,
dW 0
= k,
W0 W
= W + k,
(4.507)
(4.508)
from which
a =
|I|2
s
0
NW
=
1
ZW
2
ZW
1
0
NW
A =
|I|2
L
,
+ |L|2
(4.509)
2
+ 2 (|I|2 + |L|2 ),
|I|2 + |L|2
I
W 0
dW 0
W I
2
2
|I| + |L|
W 0 W!
Z
L
W 0
+ 2
W L
dW 0 ,
2
|I| + |L|
W0 W
0 +
(4.510)
L W I W
p
,
|I|2 + |L|2
Z
0 =
I
,
+ |L|2
1
1
ZW
d.
2 /(|I|2 + |L|2 ) + 2 (|I|2 + |L|2 )
(4.511)
Equations (4.510) and (4.511) are in strict analogy with Eqs. (4.491);
we can immediately deduce that, if the system is initially in the state
408
+I
Z
+L
W eiEt/h
i(W +k)t/
h t/2T
1
e
e
dW
W + k + i(|I|2 + |L|2 )
(4.512)
W eiEt/h
i(W +k)t/
h t/2T
1
e
e
dW,
W + k + i(|I|2 + |L|2 )
where now
2 2
1
|I| + |L|2 .
(4.513)
=
T
h
The probability per unit time for the transition between the state 0 and
the states W is then 2|I|2 /
h, while that for the transition between the
state 0 and the states W is 2|I|2 /
h, as expected.
We now consider another problem. Let us assume that the system
is initially in the continuum state W and let us calculate the relative
probability for the system to be at time t in the state 0 or in the states
W 0 or W 0 , with W 0 different from W , We may use the usual interpretation, that is, the probability for the system to be in the arbitrary state
Y is unity if
Y d = 1,
so that ||2 is the probability density in the configuration space . However, we prefer to use the concept of number of systems in a considered
state rather than that of the relative probability for the system to be
in that state. Now, although the continuum state W is not strictly
stationary and represents an infinite number of systems, only a finite
number of these has an energy that differs from E0 + W by a finite
quantity. Thus we can expect that only transitions to states next to
W and W will increase in number with time (and we can presume
this increase to be linear). We face the problem by using the stationary
1 , Z 2 and the approximations in Eqs. (4.507) and (4.509).
states ZW
W
1 and Z 2 , we have
Expanding W in the states ZW
W
W
1
I
Z1 + I
0
2
NW |I| + |L|2 W
+
|I|2
L
Z2 .
+ |L|2 W
1
ZW
0
dW 0
0
0
NW 0 (W W )
(4.514)
409
VOLUMETTO IV
in Eq.(4.514):
=
I
1
1
eiEt/h ZW
+ I
0
2
NW |I| + |L|2
+
|I|2
eiE t/h
1
ZW
0
dW 0
0
0
NW 0 (W W )
L
2
eiEt/h ZW
,
+ |L|2
(4.515)
= 1 + 2 ,
I
eiEt/h 0
+ iQ2
Z
IW 0 + LW 0 iEt/h
I
0
e
1 ei(EE )t/h dE 0 ,
2
0
+ iQ
1 = eiEt/h W +
2 =
I
+ iQ2
Z
"
(4.516)
#
IW 0 + LW 0 iE 0 t/h
i(E 0 E0 +k)t/
h t/2T
e
1
e
e
dE 0 ,
0 + iQ2
with
Q =
|I|2 + |L|2 ,
= E E0 + k,
1
2 2
=
Q ,
T
0 = E 0 E0 + k.
The number of transitions per unit time from the state W to the states
W 0 and W 0 with energy close to E depends on the resonance denominator 1/(0 ) in the expression for 1 for sufficiently large values of
the time. Denoting with A the number of transitions per unit time to
410
2 2
|I|2
|I| 2
,
h
+ 2 Q4
B=
2
|I|2
|L|2 2
.
h
+ 2 Q4
(4.517)
Let us now turn to the exact equations (4.502) and introduce some
simplifying notations. We set
Z
= W +
|IW 0 |2
dW 0
+
W0 W
|LW 0 |2
dW 0
W0 W
= W + kW ,
(4.518)
QW
|IW |2 + |LW |2 ,
(4.519)
IW
,
Q2W
A = W
LW
,
Q2W
s
0
NW
2W
+ 2 Q2W ,
Q2W
(4.520)
1
0
NW
0 + W
2
ZW
IW 0
IW
LW
W + W 2 W
Q2W
QW
W 0
dW 0
W0 W
LW 0
W 0
dW 0 ,
W0 W
IW
LW
W
W .
QW
QW
(4.521)
It is useful to introduce some particular combinations of the states W
and W that in several applications have a precise physical meaning. We
thus set
1
2
W = u1W + u2W , W = vW
+ vW
,
(4.522)
where
u1W
u2W
1
i
W
2
2
i
1
W +
2
2
I W 0 W 0
dW 0 ,
0
W
W
IW
I W 0 W 0
dW 0 ;
0
W
W
IW
(4.523)
411
VOLUMETTO IV
1
vW
2
vW
i
1
W
2
2
1
i
W +
2
2
LW 0 W 0
dW 0 ,
LW W 0 W
(4.524)
LW 0 W 0
dW 0 .
LW W 0 W
IW 0
W 0
0
1
2
dW
=
i
I
u
u
W
W
W ,
W0 W
LW 0
W 0
1
2
0
L
v
v
dW
=
i
W
W
W .
W0 W
(4.525)
1
IW
0 + 0
0
NW
NW
+
2
ZW
W
i
Q2W
u1W
IW
+ 0
NW
W
+ i
Q2W
u2W
W
W
LW
LW
1
2
i vW
+ 0
+ i vW
,
0
2
NW QW
NW Q2W
LW 2
IW 1
IW 2
LW 1
u +
u
v
v .
QW W
QW W
QW W
QW W
(4.526)
(4.527)
(4.528)
where
c =
0 ,
NW
c1
IW
= 0
NW
c2
IW
= 0
NW
C1
LW
= 0
NW
C2
LW
= 0
NW
W
i
Q2W
W
+ i
Q2W
W
i
Q2W
W
+ i
Q2W
LW
,
QW
LW
,
QW
IW
,
QW
IW
.
QW
!
!
!
(4.529)
412
(4.530)
LW
=
0
NW
W
+ i
Q2W
(4.531)
0
NW
W
,
2 + i =
QW
QW
|IW |
,
QW
|| =
|LW |
,
QW
||2 + ||2 = 1,
(4.532)
|c2 |2 = 1.
(4.533)
(4.534)
C1
IW
0
NW QW
i
1
2
2
i
|I
|
|L
|
,
W
W
W
0 Q
NW
W
IW LW
= 2i 0
,
NW QW
c2 =
1
2
+
i
Q
W
W .
0 Q
NW
W
(4.535)
413
VOLUMETTO IV
Table 4.3. The maximum value of the ratio |C1 |2 /|c2 |2 as given by Eq. (4.539).
2
3
6
10
100
k
1
; 1/2
; 1/3
; 1/6
; 1/10
; 1/100
p0
1
0.889
0.750
0.490
0.331
0.039
It follows that
|c1 |2 =
2W + 2 (|IW |2 |LW |2 )2
,
2W + 2 Q4W
|C1 |2 =
4 2 |IW |2 |LW |2
,
2W + 2 Q4W
|c2 |2 = 1,
(4.536)
|c1 |2 + |C1 |2 = 1.
|C1 |2
|c2 |2
4|I|2 |L|2
4|I|2 |L|2
=
=
= 1
Q4
(|I|2 + |L|2 )2
!2
|I|2 |L|2
|I|2 + |L|2
0
(4.537)
and always is less than 1 except if |I|2 = |L|2 , when it equals 1. Let us
set
!
|C1 |2
|I|2
p0 =
,
k
=
.
(4.538)
|c2 |2 0
|L|2
We then have
p0 =
4
4k
4
=
,
=
2
(k + 1)
(1 + k)(1 + 1/k)
k + 2 + 1/k
(4.539)
|C1 |2
.
|c2 |2
(4.540)
4 2 |I|2 |L|2
.
2 + 2 Q4
(4.541)
414
The integral p()d plays a special role in some applications. We immediately find
Z
p() d =
2
2
4 2 |I|2 |L|2
2 |I| |L|
=
4
Q2 .
Q2
Q4
(4.542)
h
for the unstable state 0 and the partial annihilation probabilities
1
2 2
=
|I| ,
T1
1
2
=
|L|2
T2
1
k 1
=
,
T1
k+1 T
1
1 1
=
, (4.543)
T2
k+1 T
p() d =
=
2
h p0
2
h
k
=
T 4
T (k + 1)2
2
h k
2
h 1
=
.
T1 k + 1
T2 k + 1
(4.544)
VOLUMETTO IV
415
to 1/2h (number of particles per unit time 18 ) and, in the same way,
W represents an ingoing or outgoing flux of protons equal to 1/2
h. By
1
2
contrast, the non-stationary states uW and uW defined in Eq. (4.523)
represent at large distances only outgoing or ingoing flux of -particles,
1 and v 2
respectively, whose intensity is again 1/2
h. Analogously, vW
W
defined in Eq. (4.524) represent an outgoing or ingoing flux of protons.
Let us now assume that a plane wave of -particles with definite energy,
representing a unitary flux per unit area, interacts with the parent nucleus; the problem is to study the scattering of the -particles and to
determine for what number of -particles the nucleus disintegrates. To
this end, we have to consider a stationary state representing the incident
plane wave plus a diverging spherical wave of -particles plus a diverging
spherical wave of protons. Such a state can be obtained as a sum of particular solutions. The particular solutions corresponding to the parent
nucleus plus -particles with azimuthal quantum number different from
zero represent the usual scattering processes, which have the well-known
form given by the theory of scattering from a Coulomb field. However,
the considered state must be composed also of particular solutions representing incident -particles with l = 0 as well as of a diverging wave
of -particles with l = 0. Moreover, due to the coupling with 0 and
with the states W , this state must also be composed of an excited 0
state (at a certain degree of excitation) as well as of a diverging wave
of protons. Such a particular solution will have the same form as Eq.
(4.534), with the constants taking the values as in Eq. (4.535) except for
a proportionality factor. Now, c2 can be determined from the condition
that the incoming flux of -particles is due to the incident plane wave.
This incoming flux equals |c2 |2 /2
h. On the other hand, the number of
-particles with l = 0 impinging on the nucleus per unit time is equal
to the flux through a circular cross section, normal to the propagation
direction of the wave, with radius /2 ( being the wavelength of the
-particles). Since the incident wave represents a unit flux per unit area,
we have
2
|c2 |2
h2
2
=
=
=
,
(4.545)
2h
2
4
M 2v2
from which, apart for a phase constant,
h
.
(4.546)
c2 = 2 2
2
We can then obtain c, c1 and C1 from Eqs. (4.535) by multiplying the
values given there by the value of c2 in Eqs. (4.546) and dividing by the
18 @
416
h2 2 + 2 (|IW |2 |LW |2 )2
,
2
2 + 2 Q4W
h2 4 2 |IW |2 |LW |2
,
2
2 + 2 Q4W
h2
, = 2
h/M v.
2
(4.547)
(4.548)
2 4 2 |I|2 |L|2
,
4 2 + 2 Q4
(4.549)
2
p().
4
(4.550)
Since 2 /4 gives the cross section for -particles with vanishing azimuthal quantum number, p() is the probability that one of such particles
will induce a disintegration. For = 0, that is, the most favorable
value for the energy, this probability reaches a maximum; the expression
for p(0) is given in Eq. (4.539). It is interesting to note that p(0)
can take the value 1 for k = 1. In other words, if the state 0 has
the same probability to emit a proton or an -particle and the energy
of the incident -particles takes its most favorable value, then all the
incident particles with vanishing azimuthal quantum number will induce
disintegration.
It is often impossible to measure the cross section S() for particles
R
with definite energy E0 +k +. In these cases, only the quantity S()d
is measurable. Using Eq. (4.544), we get
Z
S() d =
2 p(0)
h
h2
k
2
h
=
=
p(0).
2
2T 4
2T (k + 1)
4 2T
(4.551)
417
VOLUMETTO IV
29.
x
y
z
x + y + z
r
r
r
1 x + iy
z
1 x iy
=
1 + 2 +
3 ,
r
r
2
2 r
= cos cos x + cos sin y sin z
1 x x + iy
p
=
1
2 r x2 + y 2
x2 + y 2
1 z x iy
p
2 +
3 ,
r
2 r x2 + y 2
= sin x + cos y
x + iy
x iy
i
i
p
= p 2
3 .
1
2 x + y2
2 x2 + y 2
(4.552)
The (r, , ) components of the spherical harmonics (4.376) can be obtained from Eqs. (5.163); it is then useful to cast Eqs. (4.552) in the
form
1 x + iy
z
1 x iy
r =
1 + 2 +
3 ,
r
2 r
2 r
=
1
sin
1
sin
1 x x + iy
x2 + y 2
1 z x iy
1
2 +
3 ,
2
r
r
r
r
2
2 r
i x + iy
i x iy
1
3 .
r
2
2 r
(4.553)
5
VOLUMETTO V
1.
Sx
0
0
=
0
0
Tx
0
1
=
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0 0
,
0 1
1 0
0
0
Sz =
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Sy
0
0
0
0
0 0 0
0 1 0
,
1 0 0
0 0 0
0
0
,
0
0
0 0
0 0
=
0 0
0 1
0
0
Tz =
0
1
0
0
=
1
0
Ty
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
,
0
0
0
0
,
0
0
1
0
,
0
0
Sy Sx
Ty Tx
Tx Sx
Ty Sx
Tz Sx
etc.
419
=
=
=
=
=
Sz ,
Sz ,
0,
Tz ,
Ty ,
(5.1)
420
1
3
j, j 0 = 0, , 1, , . . . .
2
2
(5.2)
p = p0 + px x + py y + pz z =
p0 + pz px i py
px + i py p0 pz
(5.3)
(5.4)
(5.5)
(5.6)
(5.7)
02
02
02
2
2
2
2
p02
0 px py pz = p0 px py pz .
(5.8)
In fact, we have
i.e.,
1@
In the original manuscript, there is a note here: Instead of S and T , it is more convenient
to use two different symbols, for example, P and Q. However, although such a notation
may be quite confusing, we prefer to use the original notation since the matrices considered
here are 2x2, while those considered at the beginning are 4x4.
421
VOLUMETTO V
One can show that the most general Lorentz transformation can be
derived from Eq. (5.6) and that each transformation is obtained twice,
by simultaneous sign change of S and T . Transformations (5.6) are all
the proper transformations that satisfy Eq. (5.8), so that they are all
the real or imaginary Lorentz transformations. If we want to restrict
ourselves to study only real transformations, we have to impose some
relations between S and T . The most general rank-2 Hermitian matrix
corresponds to the most general real 4-vector p; thus, if we want Eq. (5.6)
to define a real transformation, p0 must be Hermitian if p is Hermitian
as well. Then, for an arbitrary Hermitian matrix p, we have
S p T = (S p T ) = T p S = T p S ,
i.e.,
S p = p S T 1 ,
and, on setting R = S T 1 , R = T
R p = p R.
(5.9)
(5.10)
S:
(5.11)
= S,
= S.
(5.12)
(5.13)
However, the second case has no physical relevance, since the related
transformations reverse the time axis. The most general physically interesting transformation is then
p0 = S p S ,
(5.14)
In the original manuscript, this group is denoted by u2 ; however we use the modern
notation of SU (2).
422
1
=
2i
0 1
1 0
Sz =
Tx
1
=
2
0 1
1 0
,
1
2i
Sy
Ty
1
Tz =
2
0 i
i 0
1 0
0 1
1
=
2i
1
=
2
1 0
0 1
0 i
i 0
(5.15)
0 :
(b) Representations of D1/2
Sx =
1
2i
0 1
1 0
1
Sz =
2i
Tx
1
= +
2
0 1
1 0
Sy =
1 0
0 1
Tz = +
,
1
2
1
2i
Ty
1
= +
2
1 0
0 1
0 i
i 0
0 i
i 0
(5.16)
The relations between the infinitesimal spatial rotations and the infinitesimal space-time rotations are as follows:
D1/2 :
(Tx , Ty , Tz ) = i (Sx , Sy , Sz ) ,
0
D1/2
:
(Tx , Ty , Tz ) = +i (Sx , Sy , Sz ) .
(5.17)
423
VOLUMETTO V
= y .
(5.18)
0 = y (S T )1 = y (S T )1 y
(5.19)
(5.20)
S 1 = S0 Sx x Sy y Sz z ,
(5.21)
we get
T 1
(S )
so that
and thus
= S0 Sx x + Sy y Sz z ,
(5.22)
y (S T )1 y = S
(5.23)
0 = S ,
(5.24)
0 . Conversely, if transforms as D 0 ,
i.e., transforms according to D1/2
1/2
1
p = =
+ x x + y y + z z ,
(5.25)
2
so that
p0 = S S = SpS .
(5.26)
From Eq. (5.14), it follows that the 4-vectors associated with p and p0 are
connected by Lorentz transformations. If = , x = x ,
y = y , z = z , we shall have the table
,
,
ct,
x ,
x ,
x,
y ,
y ,
y,
z ,
z ,
z,
(5.27)
x
y
z
c t x
y
z
(5.28)
424
1
+
x
c t
x
+
y +
z .
y
z
(5.29)
(5.30)
From the first row in (5.27) (which clearly hold for any vector transforming like and ), we can see that the r.h.s. of Eq. (5.30) is the
divergence of a vector and thus an invariant. It then follows that also
is an invariant, that is,
S 1 0 =
(5.31)
0 = S ,
(5.32)
+
x +
y +
z
c t x
y
z
(5.33)
W
e
+ A0
c
c
W
e
+ A0
c
c
e
+ p + A
c
+ mc = 0,
(5.34)
e
p + A
c
+ mc = 0,
W
e
+ A0
c
c
e
+ 3 p + A
c
+ 1 mc = 0.
(5.35)
425
VOLUMETTO V
2.
PROTONNEUTRON SCATTERING
2m
`(` + 1)
2 (E V )
r2
h
u = 0.
(5.36)
= A, for r < R,
= 0, for r > R.
(5.37)
For r < R, a solution of Eq. (5.36) that is regular at the origin is then
s
r < R,
1
u = I`+1/2
r
2m
(E + A) r ,
h2
(5.38)
while, for r > R, we have to find the solution among the linear combinations of
s
1
I`+1/2
r
2m
E r ,
h2
1
N`+1/2
r
(5.39)
2m
E r ,
h2
3@
2m
E,
h2
k02 =
2m
(E + A)
h2
(5.40)
426
C
` I`+1/2 (k0 r),
r
u` =
C
` a I`+1/2 (kr) + b N`+1/2 (kr) ,
r
r < R,
(5.41)
r > R,
x
2
0
I`+1/2 (k0 r) N`+1/2
(kr)
k0 0
I
(k0 r) N`+1/2 (kr) ,
k `+1/2
k
0
0
I
(kr) I`+1/2
(k0 r) I`+1/2
(kr) I`+1/2 (k0 r) .
b =
k0 `+1/2
(5.42)
We shall determine the constants C` in such a way that, far from the
origin, the quantity
x
2
u =
u` P` (cos )
(5.43)
`=0
describes a plane wave (I) eikz = eikr cos plus a diverging wave (S). As
is known,
I =
r
`
i (2` + 1)
`=0
I
(kr) P` (cos ),
2kr `+1/2
(5.44)
X
`
`=0
1
H`+1/2
(kr) P` (cos ),
r
(5.45)
1
with H`+1/2
= I`+1/2 + iN`+1/2 . We thus infer
C` =
`
i`
(2` + 1)
a + ib
2ibi` 2` + 1
=
a + ib 2
,
2k
(5.46)
.
2k
The effect of the scattering center on the `-th order spherical wave is
completely determined by the angle ` describing the relative phase between u` and I`+1/2 at large distances:
tan ` = b` /a` ,
(5.47)
427
VOLUMETTO V
` =
e2i` 1 i`
2` + 1
2
.
2k
(5.48)
For convenience, we here list the first half-order Bessel and Neumann
functions :
r
2
sin x,
r x
2
sin x
I3/2 (x) =
cos x +
,
x
x
r
2
cos x
sin x
I5/2 (x) =
sin x 3
+3 2 ;
x
x
x
I1/2 (x) =
N1/2 (x) =
r
2
cos x,
x
2
cos x
sin x
,
x
x
r
2
sin x
cos x
;
N5/2 (x) =
cos x 3
3 2
x
x
x
N3/2 (x) =
r
1,2
H1/2
1,2
H3/2
1,2
H5/2
= i
r
2 ix
e ,
x
2 ix
=
e
1
x
r
2 ix
=
e
i
x
(5.49)
(5.50)
i
,
x
3
3i
2 ,
x
x
(5.51)
where the upper sign applies to the Hankel functions of the first kind,
and the lower sign to those of the second kind.
3.
Here are the numerical values of xi that are solutions of I`+1/2 (xi ) = 0,
apart from xi = 0:
428
4.
4.1
I1/2 :
1.000,
2.000,
3.000,
4.000;
I3/2 :
4.494
,
7.726
,
10.904
,
14.066
;
I5/2 :
5.763
,
9.095
,
12.324
;
I7/2 :
6.985
,
10.416
.
(5.52)
with
=
eEi /kT ,
(5.53)
Ei eEi /kT ,
(5.54)
0 =
X
i
(5.55)
A = 1/.
(5.56)
where, clearly,
Let us now define the entropy S as
S =
Z T
1 dE
0
T dT
Knowing that
0 = kT 2
dT.
d
,
dT
(5.57)
(5.58)
429
VOLUMETTO V
S =
1 dE
dT
T dT
=
=
E
1
E
1 0
+
E
dT
=
+
dT
T
T2
T
T2
Z
E
d
E
+k
= k log + .
(5.59)
T
Since this expression is zero for T = 0, as one can easily check, we simply
obtain
S = k log +
= k log
E
1
= k log eE/kT
T
A
1
.
P (E)
(5.60)
4.2
Perfect Gases
= A eEs /kT ,
ns
1 + ns
= A eEs /kT ,
1
(Fermi), (5.61)
1 Es /kT
e
+1
A
1
ns =
(Bose). (5.62)
1 Es /kT
e
1
A
ns =
1
ns
ns log
(Fermi),
1 ns
1 ns
s
X
1 + ns
1 + ns
log
S = k
+ ns log
(Bose).
1
ns
s
S = k
log
(5.63)
(5.64)
U
.
T
(5.65)
430
U
,
T
U
R log N + R
T
(5.67)
4.3
Monoatomic Gas
Let us assume that the ground state is far away from the other energy
levels, and let g be its degeneracy [g = (2j + 1) or g = (2j + 1)(2i + 1) if
we have a weakly coupled nuclear spin]. It is well known that, at high
temperatures and sufficiently low densities,
A =
N h3
g v (2 m kT )3/2
(5.68)
3
R T.
2
(5.69)
and
U =
From Eq. (5.67), it follows that
S = R
+
4.4
3
5
log T + log v + log g +
2
2
3
log (2 m k) log N 3 log h .
2
(5.70)
Diatomic Gas
Let us assume that the electric moment vanishes, while there could be
a non-vanishing nuclear spin contribution. In this case, at sufficiently
431
VOLUMETTO V
N h3
v (2 m kT )3/2 (g0 0 + g1 1 )
3
g0 0 U0R + g1 1 U1R
3
+ R T = U R + R T.
g0 0 + g1 1
2
2
(5.71)
(5.72)
In the previous relations, 0 and 1 are the state sums relative to the
even and the odd rotational states, respectively; U0R and U1R are the
rotational energies that would result if there existed only even or odd
energy levels, respectively; and, finally, g0 and g1 are the statistical
weights of the even or odd energy levels (depending on the nuclear spin),
respectively. For nuclei of different kinds, we then have
g0 = g1 = (2i + 1)(2i0 + 1),
(5.73)
while, for identical nuclei, one of the following two cases applies:
g0 = i(2i + 1),
g1 = (i + 1)(2i + 1),
or
g0 = (i + 1)(2i + 1),
g1 = i(2i + 1),
(5.74)
depending on the statistics followed by the two nuclei and on the parity
of the electronic term. Both 0 and 1 , as well as U0R /RT and U1R /RT ,
are functions of
= T0 /T,
(5.75)
with T0 being defined by
k T0 = h2 /8 2 I,
(5.76)
1
1
+ + ...,
2
6
1 =
1
1
+ + ...,
2
6
= 0 + 1 =
1
1
+ + ...,
(5.77)
432
Table 5.1. Some thermodynamic quantities for a diatomic gas (see text).
T0
T
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 + 1
1
1.01
1.04
1.14
1.46
2.68
0
0.41
0.61
0.91
1.41
2.67
1
1.42
1.65
2.05
3.87
5.35
U0R
RT
0
0.08
0.19
0.44
0.77
0.93
U0R = RT
U1R = RT
0 U0R + 1 U1R
(0 + 1 )RT
0
0.63
0.71
0.79
0.86
0.93
... ,
3
U1R
RT
2.00
1.60
1.23
0.96
0.94
1 + ... .
3
(5.78)
1
RT0 ,
3
(5.79)
U = RT
2
3
+ ....
(5.80)
The entropy may be computed from Eq. (5.65), neglecting terms that
vanish faster than T0 /T :
3
T
log T + log
log v + log g
2
T0
7
3
+ + log (2 m K) log N 3 log h ,
2
2
S = R
(5.81)
where
g = (2i + 1)(2i0 + 1),
g =
1
(2i + 1)2 ,
2
433
VOLUMETTO V
4.5
3
S = R
log T + log v + B .
(5.83)
2
The constant R is 1.97 cal mol1 K1 , 4 while the numerical constant B
depends on g and on the atomic weight P = N m. On substituting the
numerical values, we get 5
B = 5.575 + log g +
3
log P.
2
(5.84)
P = 1,
B = 4.189.
(5.85)
g = 1,
P = 4,
B = 3.496.
(5.86)
For helium:
For atomic sodium, contributions arising from nuclear spin are
g = 2,
P = 23,
B = 0.179.
(5.87)
5
log T + log v + B .
(5.88)
S = R
2
Now, the constant B depends on g (see Eq. (5.82)), on the molecular
weight P = N M = M/MH , and on the temperature T0 at which the
rotational degrees of freedom unfreeze:
3
log P.
2
(5.89)
B = 7.28.
(5.90)
P = 2,
T0 ' 85 K,
434
4.6
39.5
p0
.
g P 3/2 T 5/2
(5.93)
It is given by
1
(U T S) =
(U T S + P V )
N
N
5
T
T
= kT
log
+ log
log P .
2
T0
T1
uTs =
(5.94)
435
VOLUMETTO V
5.
5.1
1 dn (x2 1)n
,
2n n!
dxn
P0 (x) = 1,
P1 (x) = x,
3 2 1
P2 (x) =
x ,
2
2
5 3 3
P3 (x) =
x x,
2
2
35 4 15 2 3
P4 (x) =
x x + ,
8
4
8
63 5 35 3 15
P5 (x) =
x x + x,
8
4
8
231 6 315 4 105 2
5
P6 (x) =
x
x +
x ,
16
16
16
16
429 7 693 5 315 3 35
P7 (x) =
x
x +
x x,
16
16
16
16
35
6425 8 3003 6 3465 4 315 2
x
x +
x
x +
.
P8 (x) =
128
32
64
32
128
6.
(5.96)
(5.97)
(5.98)
(5.99)
(5.100)
(5.101)
(5.102)
(5.103)
(5.104)
(5.105)
SPINOR TRANSFORMATIONS
Let us consider again the formulae of Sec. 5.1 to complete the discussion.
Let the 4-vector
p = (p0 , px , py , pz )
(5.106)
be associated with the rank-2 matrix
p = p0 + px x + py y + pz z .
(5.107)
The most general real Lorentz transformation can be obtained by associating the vector p0 with the vector p such that the corresponding
matrices satisfies
p0 = S p S , det S = 1.
(5.108)
436
(5.109)
If q is a covariant 4-vector
(q0 , qx , qy , qz ) (ct, x, y, z) ,
(5.110)
qx = px ,
(5.111)
we can set
q0 = p0 ,
qy = py ,
qz = pz ,
(5.112)
(5.113)
det S = 1.
(5.114)
0 = S ,
(5.115)
y ,
(5.116)
2 2 ,
1 ,
1 ,
2 ,
1 .
(5.117)
1
(b a + b x a x + b y a y + b z a z ) ,
2
(5.118)
(5.119)
437
VOLUMETTO V
x ,
y ,
z ;
x ,
y ,
z ;
(5.121)
ct,
x,
y,
z;
i y ,
z ,
i ,
x .
0
It follows that the 4-vectors transform according to D1/2 D1/2
= D1/2,1/2
(apart from a change in the coordinates). There are also some special
cases in which higher-order tensors have particular symmetry properties,
and then their components do not transform according to irreducible representations. Thus, one of the ten components of the rank-2 symmetric
tensor is an invariant, while the other nine components transform as
D1,1 . Similarly, three of the six components of the emisymmetric rank-2
tensor transform as D1,0 D1 , and the other three components as
D0,1 D10 .
The formulae in Eqs. (5.121) show how the product of the components
of a quantity times the components of a quantity transforms in
some typical cases. This produces the irreducible representation D1/2,1/2 .
We will now consider the transformation law for products of quantities
of the same kind or . In this case, we will have non-irreducible
representations, which are equivalent to
D1/2 D1/2 = D0 + D1
0
0
or D1/2
D1/2
= D0 + D10 ,
0 0 = S 1 S = .
438
= 1 1 + 2 2 ,
i y = 1 2 2 1 ,
i y = 1 2 2 1 .
(5.122)
(5.123)
1 2 ,
2 1 ,
2 2 ,
x iy,
ct z,
ct z,
x iy,
(5.124)
substituting into the l.h.s. of Eq. (5.123), where we find products of the
kind (i ` )(k m ), and eliminating the invariant quantity 1 2 2 1
(this quantity is, in fact, invariant since it transforms as c2 tt1 xx1
yy1 zz1 , which is an invariant), we find
1 1 c(tx1 xt1 ) + i(yz1 zy1 ) + ic(ty1 yt1 )
+(zx1 xz1 ),
1
(1 2 + 2 1 ) c(tz1 zt1 ) i(xy1 yx1 ),
(5.125)
2
2 2 c(tx1 xt1 ) i(yz1 zy1 ) + ic(ty1 yt1 )
+(zx1 xz1 ).
The terms on the left transform as the components of the electromagnetic
field; more precisely,
Ex , Ey , Ez c(tx1 xt1 ), c(ty1 yt1 ), c(tz1 zt1 );
(5.126)
Hx , Hy , Hz yz1 zy1 , zx1 xz1 , xy1 yx1 ,
so that Eqs. (5.125) can be written as
1 1 (Ex iHx ) + i(Ey iHy ),
1
(1 2 + 2 1 ) Ez iHz ,
2
2 2 (Ex iHx ) + i(Ey iHy ).
Using Eq. (5.116), we can derive the analogous formulae
1 1 (Ex + iHx ) + i(Ey + iHy ),
(5.127)
439
VOLUMETTO V
1
(1 2 + 2 1 ) Ez + iHz ,
2
2 2 (Ex + iHx ) + i(Ey + iHy );
x Ex iHx ,
y Ey iHy ,
(5.128)
(5.129)
z Ez iHz ;
x Ex + iHx ,
y Ey + iHy ,
(5.130)
z Ez + iHz .
If we now set = (, ), from Eqs. (5.129) and (5.130) it follows:
1 x
1 y
1 z
2 x
2 y
2 z
Ex
Ey
Ez
Hx
Hy
Hz
Hx ,
Hy ,
Hz ,
Ex ,
Ey ,
Ez .
(5.131)
= 1 .
(5.132)
W
+ p + mc
c
= 0,
(5.133)
x i y z ,
2 x y z ,
y i z x ,
3 i x y z ,
z i x y .
(5.134)
440
We thus obtain the following transformation rules for all the possible
combinations of the products r s :
i x y z ct,
x i y z x,
(5.135)
y i z x y,
z i x y z.
i x Ex ,
i y Ey ,
i z Ez ,
(5.136)
i y z Hx ,
i z x Hy ,
i x y Hz ,
x y z 1.
(5.137)
Let us set
F 1 = ,
F 5 = i x y z ,
F 2 = x ,
F 6 = i y z ,
F 3 = y ,
F 7 = i z x ,
F 4 = z ,
F 8 = i x y ,
F 9 = i x ,
F 12 = +i y z ,
F 10 = i y ,
F 13 = +i z x ,
F 11 = i z ,
F 14 = +i x y ,
F 15 = ,
F 16 = x y z .
If we set, in general,
Fp =
p
Frs
r s ,
(5.138)
r,s
the Hermitian matrices Frs will be unitary. Moreover, from the properties of the group of the 32 different matrices of the form
3
n0 xn1 yn2 zn ,
(5.139)
441
VOLUMETTO V
p p
Frs
Fr0 s0 = 4 rr0 ss0
(5.140)
16
1 X
F p F p.
4 p=1 rs
(5.141)
p=1
7.
Let m
` be the ordinary spherical functions normalized in such a way
that the phase constants yield the usual representation of the angular
momentum with respect to the x, y, z axes, e.g.,
s
m
`
= (1)
2` + 1 (` m)! m
P (cos ) eim ,
4 (` + m)! `
(5.142)
t
.
2` `!
dt`+m
(5.143)
We have
m m
m
,
` = (1) `
(5.144)
m
`
2` + 1 (` + m)! m
P (cos ) eim .
4 (` m)! `
(5.145)
Skm =
k + m 1/2 m1/2
`
,
2k 1
(1)k+`+1
k m 1/2 m+1/2
`
.
2k 1
(5.146)
442
` + 1,
1
=
4
`,
k = j(j + 1) `(` + 1) +
for j = ` + 1/2,
(5.147)
for j = ` 1/2.
=
=
=
=
=
k 1,
(k 1)k,
(k + m 1/2) (k m + 1/2) , (5.148)
(k + m 1/2) (k m 1/2) ,
(k 1 a)(k + a).
q
q
Jz Skm = m Skm .
m , and S m :
(c) Relations between Skm , Sk
k
m
Sk
= z Skm ,
Skm
= i y (1)
(5.150)
k+`+m1/2
Skm .
(5.151)
h
i
m
f (r) Sk
h
i
d
k1
dr
r
d
k+1
+
dr
r
m
f (r) Sk
,
(5.152)
f (r) Skm .
6@
1
j= ,
2
` = 0.
443
VOLUMETTO V
1/2
S1
00 ,
=
r
1/2
S1
1 0
,
3 1
2 1
3 1
2 1
,
3 1
1 0
3 1
11 ,
r
1/2
S2
=
r
1/2
S2
3/2
S2
2 0
,
3 1
1 1
,
3 1
0, 1
1
1 1
3 1
2 0
3 1
1/2
S2
1 1
,
5 2
` = 1.
1
1
cos ,
sin ei ,
2
8
1
1
sin ei ,
cos ,
8
2
!
3
sin ei .
8
k = 2;
3/2
S2
1
1
sin ei ,
cos .
4
4
3
sin ei , 0 ,
8
0,
3
j= ,
2
` = 1.
1
1
cos ,
sin ei ,
4
4
k = 2;
3/2
S2
1
j= ,
2
k = 1;
1/2
S1
1
=
0 = , 0 ,
4
1
0
.
= 0, 0 = 0,
4
1/2
S1
3
j= ,
2
4 2
5 2
3
sin cos ei ,
8
2 0
,
5 2
3 1
5 2
` = 2.
3
sin2 e2i ,
8
444
=
r
1/2
S2
=
r
=
r
3/2
S2
=
r
1
2
3
1
cos2
,
2
2
3 1
,
5 2
2 0
5 2
9
sin cos ei ,
8
4 2
,
5 2
1 1
5 2
3
sin2 e2i ,
8
9
sin cos ei ,
8
1
2
3
1
cos2
2
2
3
sin cos ei .
8
(f) Matrices of the operators x/r, y/r, z/r in the basis of the ordinary
spherical functions:
x iy m
` = sin ei m
=
`
r
+
x + iy m
` = sin ei m
=
`
r
s
s
(` m + 1)(` m + 2) m1
`+1 ,
(2` + 1)(2` + 3)
(` m)(` m 1) m+1
`1
(2` 1)(2` + 1)
z m
= cos m
=
`
r `
(` + m)(` + m 1) m1
`1
(2` + 1)(2` 1)
(` + m + 1)(` + m + 2) m+1
`+1 ,
(2` + 1)(2` + 3)
(` m)(` + m) m
(2` 1)(2` + 1) `1
(` m + 1)(` + m + 1) m
`+1 .
(2` + 1)(2` + 3)
(g) Matrices of the operators x/r, y/r, z/r in the basis of the spherical
functions with spin:
1
x iy m
Sk =
r
2k 1
1
+
2k + 1
s
s
1
k+m
2
1
km+
2
2
+
(2k 1)(2k + 1)
3
m1
k+m
Sk1
2
3
m1
km+
Sk+1
2
km+
1
2
k+m
1
m1
Sk
,
2
445
VOLUMETTO V
x + iy m
Sk =
r
1
2k 1
2k + 1
1
km
2
k+m+
2
+
(2k 1)(2k + 1)
z m
S
=
r k
(1)k+`+1
2k 1
1
2
3
m+1
km
Sk1
2
k+m+
1
km
2
1
2
k+m
s
3
m+1
Sk+1
2
km
(1)k+`+1
1
+
k+m+
2k + 1
2
2
m
m Sk
.
+
(2k 1)(2k + 1)
1
m+1
k+m+
Sk
,
2
1
m
Sk1
2
1
m
km+
Sk+1
2
Skm
2k 2
2k 1
1
k+m
2
1
+
|2k 1|
(Lx + iLy )
Skm
Lz Skm
2k 2
2k 1
1
k+m
2
k+m+
s
1
2
3
m1
k+m
Sk+1
,
2
k+m
km
1
1
km
|2k 1|
2
2k 2
=
m Skm
2k 1
1
|2k 1|
1
km+
Skm1
2
1
2
1
Skm+1
2
3
m+1
km
Sk+1
,
2
km
1
m
Sk+1
.
2
Skm
2
2k 1
1
k+m
2
|2k 1|
(x + iy )
Skm
2
2k 1
1
k+m
2
k+m+
1
2
1
km+
Skm1
2
3
m1
k+m
Sk+1
,
2
km
1
Skm+1
2
446
z Skm
|2k 1|
8.
1
1
km
+
|2k 1|
2
2
=
m Skm
2k 1
1
k+m
2
3
m+1
km
Sk+1
,
2
1
m
km
Sk+1
.
2
INFINITE-DIMENSIONAL UNITARY
REPRESENTATIONS OF THE LORENTZ
GROUP
bx = i Tx ,
....
(5.153)
These will be Hermitian matrices in a unitary representation, and viceversa, and also obey the commutation relations 7
[ax ,
[bx ,
[ax ,
[ax ,
7@
ay ]
by ]
bx ]
by ]
=
=
=
=
i az ,
i az ,
0,
i bz ,
(5.154)
In the original manuscript the commutator is denoted with round brackets: (a, b). However we prefer to use the modern notation [a, b]. In the margin of the paper, the transformation properties of the matrices a, b (related to the transformation properties of the
electromagnetic field) are also given: (ax , ay , az , bx , by , bz ) (Ex , Ey , Ez , Hx , Hy , Hz )
(Hx , Hy , Hz , Ex , Ey , Ez ).
447
VOLUMETTO V
[bx , ay ] = i bz ,
etc.
Every representation considered here acts on an infinite-dimensional
space whose unitary vectors are identified by two numbers, j and m
(for the representations of the first class we have j = 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, . . .,
m = j, j 1, . . . , j, whereas for the second class j = 0, 1, 2, . . ., m =
j, j 1, . . . , j). Moreover, every representation is also labeled by a real
number Z0 that can take any value, both positive and negative, whose
meaning will be clear in what follows. For the simplest representation
Z0 = ax bx + ay by + az bz = 0; the non-zero elements of ax iay , ax + iay ,
az , bx iby , bx + iby , bz can be deduced as follows8 :
q
(j + m + 1)(j m),
(j + m)(j m + 1),
< j, m | az | j, m > = m,
1q
(j + m + 1)(j + m + 2),
< j, m | bx iby | j + 1, m + 1 > =
2
q
1
< j, m | bx iby | j 1, m + 1 > =
(j m)(j m 1), (5.155)
2
q
1
< j, m | bx + iby | j + 1, m 1 > =
(j m + 1)(j m + 2),
2
1q
< j, m | bx + iby | j 1, m 1 > =
(j + m)(j + m 1),
2
1q
< j, m | bz | j + 1, m > =
(j + m + 1)(j m + 1),
2
q
1
< j, m | bz | j 1, m > =
(j + m)(j m).
2
Note the relations
a2x + a2y + a2z = j (j + 1) ,
b2x + b2y + b2z = j (j + 1) + 3/4;
(5.156)
ax bx + ay by + az bz = 0,
b2x + b2y + b2z a2x a2y a2z = 3/4.
8@
(5.157)
In the original manuscript, the following scalar products are denoted by round brackets:
(. . . | . . . | . . .). However, we prefer to use here the Dirac notation < . . . | . . . | . . . >.
448
W0
e
+
c
c
e
+ p + C
c
m = 0
(5.158)
(5.159)
[x , bx ] = i 0 ,
[x , by ] = 0,
[x , bz ] = 0,
etc.
From the first of these it follows that 0 depends on j:
0 = cj ,
(5.160)
etc.,
0 = b2x 0 2 bx 0 bx + 0 b2x .
(5.161)
(5.162)
1 2
1 2
cj =
j m2 + 2j + 1 (cj+1 cj )
j m2 (cj cj1 ) ,
2
2
449
VOLUMETTO V
(5.163)
Thus from Eq. (5.160), the second of Eqs. (5.159), and (5.155) we can
univocally derive the matrices 0 , x , y , z , apart from a constant
factor:
0 = j +
1
,
2
iq
(j + m + 1)(j + m + 2),
2
q
i
(j m)(j m 1),
2
iq
(j m + 1)(j m + 2),
2
q
i
(j + m)(j + m 1),
2
iq
(j + m + 1)(j m + 1),
2
iq
(j + m)(j m),
< j, m | x iy | j + 1, m + 1 > =
< j, m | x iy | j 1, m + 1 > =
< j, m | x + iy | j + 1, m 1 > =
< j, m | x + iy | j 1, m 1 > =
< j, m | z | j + 1, m > =
< j, m | z | j 1, m > =
4Z02 + (j + 1)2
2(j + 1)
(j + m + 1)(j + m + 2),
Z0 q
(j + m + 1)(j m),
j(j + 1)
q
4Z02 + j 2 q
2j
4Z02 + (j + 1)2
(j m)(j m 1),
2(j + 1)
(j m + 1)(j m + 2),
Z0 q
(j + m)(j m + 1),
j(j + 1)
450
4Z02 + j 2 q
4Z02 + (j + 1)2
< j, m | bz | j + 1, m > =
2(j + 1)
< j, m | bz | j, m > =
(j + m)(j + m 1),
2j
(j + m + 1)(j m + 1),
Z0
m,
j(j + 1)
q
< j, m | bz | j 1, m > =
9.
4Z02 + j 2 q
2j
(j + m)(j m).
1 2
2
2
2
c2 t2
x2
y 2
z 2
(5.164)
A(q, t) =
(5.166)
(5.167)
where R = X 2 + Y 2 + Z 2 and X = x x0 , Y = y y 0 , Z = z z 0 ,
T = t t0 . Moreover, we can also assume that F (R, T ) is different from
zero only for T R/c.
The function F must satisfy the homogeneous equation associated
with Eq. (5.165) (in respect to the variables q, t or q 0 , t0 ) except that
for T = 0 and thus for R = 0, where it should have an appropriate
451
VOLUMETTO V
singular behavior. The function that satisfies the desired conditions also
has a singular behavior at the boundary of the integration field, i.e,
for T = R/c, so that the integral in Eq. (5.166) has to be evaluated
as the sum of an integral over the negative optical cone and a fourdimensional integral on the interior of the same optical semi-cone. We
find the following formula, which we shall verify later on:
1
4
1
R
p q0, t
R
c
dq 0
c
4
I1 ()
p(q 0 , t0 ) dq 0 dt0 ,
T >R/c
(5.168)
with I1 denoting the Bessel function of order 1 and
A(q, t) =
(c2 T 2 R2 ).
(5.169)
Z t
u(t0 ) dt0 ,
(5.170)
with u(t0 )dt0 being the contribution to the two integrals on the r.h.s.
of Eq. (5.168) coming from all points in the t0 integration region lying
between t0 and t0 + dt0 . We now want to show that u(t0 ) can be cast in
the form
dv(t0 )
u(t0 ) =
,
(5.171)
dt0
the function v(t0 ) being such that it can be expressed as the sum of two
integrals computed in the region t0 = constant, one over the spherical
surface |q q 0 | = R = cT = c(t t0 ) and the other over the region inside
the same sphere. More precisely, we can set
Z
4c T
1 A(q 0 , t0 )
1 A(q 0 , t0 )
1
+
4 0
cR
t0
R
R
Z 4 c3 T 3
3
1
1 A(q 0 , t0 ) I1 ()
0 0
+
A(q
,
t
)
d
R2
2
4 0
c
t0
0
I
()
I
()
1
1
cT A(q 0 , t0 )
dq 0 ;
(5.172)
3
v(t0 ) =
452
1
u(t ) =
4
0
0
0
0
A(q , t )
t02
cR
c 2 A(q 0 , t0 )
R
R2
2c
1
R
c A(q 0 , t0 )
0 0
+
c
A(q
,
t
)
+
d
R2
R
R
8
2
R
Z 4 c3 T 3
3
c
I1 ()
(2 + ) A(q 0 , t0 )
4 0
0
X I1 () A(q 0 , t0 )
0 0 I1 () I1 ()
dq 0
+
+
A(q
,
t
)
0
0
3
x
(x,y,z)
1
4T
Z 4c2 T 2
0
(2 + ) A(q 0 , t0 ) d
4
c3 T 3
3
I1 ()
(2 + ) A(q 0 , t0 ) dq 0 .
(5.173)
In deriving this relation we have used the differential equation for I1 (),
I100 ()
1
+ I10 () +
1
1 2
I1 () = 0,
(5.174)
I1 ()
1
= ,
lim
I1 () I10 ()
1
= .
3
(5.175)
lim v(t0 ).
t0
(5.176)
t0 t
(5.177)
t0
(5.178)
453
VOLUMETTO V
It follows that
(5.179)
so that we have proven Eq. (5.168), since a posteriori we can verify that
the assumption above is realized when A(q, t) is defined by Eq. (5.168)
and p(q, t) vanishes for sufficiently small values of t. However, we note
that, even if the latter were not the case, A(q, t) in Eq. (5.168) would
again have the same form as Eq. (5.170), provided that we encounter
no convergence problems.
Instead of Eq. (5.168) another particular solution of Eq. (5.165) can
also be used. This is easily obtained by inverting the time axis:
1
4
1
R
p q0, t +
R
c
dq 0
c
4
I1 ()
p(q 0 , t0 ) dq 0 dt0 .
T <R/c
(5.180)
In general, we obviously have that B 6= A, and the difference B A
obeys the homogeneous differential equation (5.165) with p = 0.
The solutions (5.168) and (5.180) can also be used to determine the
general integral of the homogeneous equation
B(q, t) =
(2 + ) A = 0.
(5.181)
0).
A(q,
(5.182)
A1 (q, t) =
(5.183)
such that, knowing A1 , one can determine A for t > 0. If we now set
(2 + ) A1 = p(q, t),
(5.184)
p is going to be singular for t = 0 and will vanish for t > 0 and t < 0.
The function A1 is precisely the particular solution of Eq. (5.184) that
can be cast in the form (5.168). As far as the singular function p(q, t) is
concerned, it consists of a single layer at t = 0 having the density
s0 =
1
A(q, 0)
c2
(5.185)
1
A(q, 0).
c2
(5.186)
454
On substituting these densities into Eq. (5.168) and using Eq. (5.183),
for t > 0, we get
Z
2 2
3 3
4c t
c t I ()
3
1
c
1
A(q, t) =
s0 (q 0 ) d
s0 (q 0 ) dq 0
4t 0
4 0
"
#
Z 4c2 t2
Z 4 c3 t3
3
c
I1 ()
1
0
0
0
s1 (q ) d
s1 (q ) dq , (5.187)
t 4t 0
4 0
where
(c2 t2 R2 ),
(5.188)
while the integrals are evaluated over the spherical surface or in the
region inside the sphere of radius ct and center at q.
On substituting the expressions (5.185) and (5.186) for s0 (q) and
s1 (q), after some further transformation, we find
1
A(q, t) =
4c2 t2
Z 4c2 t2 "
0
0 , 0) +
t A(q
3 3
R2
1
2
A(q 0 , 0)
0 ()
A(q 0 , 0)
2 ct 3 c t [I] () I
+ R
d +
A(q 0 , 0)
R
4 0
3
1 I1 () 0
A(q , 0) dq 0 (t > 0).
(5.189)
c2 t
10.
W V
+ 1 p + 3 mc = 0;
c
(5.190)
455
VOLUMETTO V
k = (2j + 1)(j `) =
` + 1, for j = ` + 1/2,
`, for j = ` 1/2;
u(r) m
Sk ,
r
v(r) m
Sk ,
(1 , 2 ) = i
r
(3 , 4 ) =
(5.192)
(5.193)
(5.191)
u2 + v 2 dr = 1,
(5.194)
d
k
1
u =
W V + mc2 v,
dr
r
hc
d
k
1
+
u =
W V mc2 u.
dr
r
c
h
(5.195)
(5.196)
y 00 +
`(` + 1)
2Z
x
x2
y = 0.
(5.197)
lim
x0
y
= 1,
x`+1
(5.198)
(2` + 1)!
2Zx
I
2
2Zx
.
2`+1
(2Z)`+1
(5.199)
E = mc2
Z 2 2
1+
(S + k 2 Z 2 2 )2
!1/2
mc2 ,
(5.200)
with
S = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
S = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
9@
for k > 0,
for k < 0.
(5.201)
456
First approximation:
E =
Z2
Z4
1
3
Rh 3
2
n
n
|k|
4n
2
1
( Rh = 5.82cm ).
Doublet shift:
E =
Z4
2 Rh = Z a30
n3 `(` + 1)
with
r3 =
11.
`+
1
2
2 Rh
(5.202)
r3 2 Rh,
(5.203)
Z3
1
.
3
3
a0 n `(` + 1/2)(` + 1)
(5.204)
2it
(5.205)
I0 e2it .
10
1
+ A = 0,
c t
10 @
(5.208)
457
VOLUMETTO V
such that it can be cast in a form similar to Eq. (5.205) and satisfies the
constraint that at large distances it describes a diverging wave (method
of stationary waves). Alternatively, we can also compute the radiation
emitted by the system by supposing that at the initial time the region
of interest is free of any radiation and then determining the frequency
distribution of the radiation after a time t (method of variation of parameters).
In either case, knowing the currents is sufficient to define the radiating
system, while in order to evaluate how much energy has been radiated
one must know the vector potential. We will then consider only the
relations between I and A which, being vectorial quantities, transform
according to a representation equivalent to D1 . By choosing suitable
linear combinations of the ordinary vector components, it is convenient
to introduce the quantities I = (I1 , I2 , I3 ) and A = (A1 , A2 , A3 ), which
transform exactly according to D1 :
I1 = 1/ 2 (Ix + iIy ) , A1 = 1/ 2 (Ax + iAy ) ,
I2 = Iz ,
I3 =
A2 = Az ,
1/ 2 (Ix + iIy ) ,
A3 =
(5.209)
1/ 2 (Ax + iAy ) .
k > 0,
(5.210)
and label them with the continuous index k and with the discrete indices
j and m having the usual meaning. It is easy to see that, for every value
of k and for fixed (integer) j and m, there exist three regular independent
solutions of Eq. (5.210) except when j = 0, in which case there is only
one solution. In fact, if we introduce the orbital momentum ` (in units
of h
), for every value of k we clearly find 3(2`+1) independent solutions
of Eq. (5.210), which are regular at the origin. These are obtained by
setting one of the components of V equal to
1
`
Vi = I`+1/2 (kr) m
` ,
r
i = 1, 2, 3;
m` = `, ` 1, . . . , `, (5.211)
i0 6= i.
(5.212)
458
(5.213)
except for the case ` = 0 when only the D`+1 system survives. Every
irreducible representation Dj appears, then, three times and yields regular solutions of Eq. (5.210) for a given value of k. Such a representation
can, in fact, be obtained from ` = j + 1, j, j 1, except for the solution
with j = 0, in which case it appears only once and derives from ` = 1.
Thus, in the general case, for any k, j, and m we have three solutions
of Eq. (5.210), but we now need to establish a criterion to discriminate among them, which is necessary in order to list all the possible
independent solutions of Eq. (5.210). The simplest way to achieve this
stems from the previous considerations and consists in introducing an
orbital momentum ` that can only take the values j + 1, j, j 1 (only
` = 1 for j = 0). Actually, this is not really the most convenient choice,
since it does not make any distinction between longitudinal and transverse waves, which, in contrast, is a rather significant feature especially
in practical applications. In fact, as is well known, the regular solutions
of Eq. (5.210) may be expressed as combinations of two particular sets
of solutions. The first set consists of longitudinal waves satisfying the
additional condition
V = 0,
(5.214)
from which it follows that
V = v,
(5.215)
while the second set consists of transverse waves satisfying the condition
V = 0.
(5.216)
(5.217)
Because of its symmetry properties under parity transformations, it follows that the longitudinal wave is a combination of the solutions of Eq.
(5.210) corresponding to ` = j + 1 and ` = j 1. The other combination of the same solutions that is orthogonal to the longitudinal wave
459
VOLUMETTO V
(it exists for j > 0) is a transverse wave which, for a reason that will
be explained later, we will call an electric multipole wave of order j.
Finally, the solution for ` = j (which also exists only for j > 0) is again a
transverse wave that will be called a magnetic multipole wave of order
j. By performing explicitly the computations underlying the previous
proofs, we find the following expressions for waves of the three different
kinds:
(a) longitudinal waves:
s
L
Vk,j,m
k
r
"s
j
I
(kr) m
j,j1
2j + 1 j1/2
#
j+1
I
(kr) m
j,j+1 ;
2j + 1 j+3/2
(5.218)
k
r
"s
j+1
I
(kr) m
j,j1
2j + 1 j1/2
#
j
I
(kr) m
j,j+1 ;
2j + 1 j+3/2
(5.219)
k
I
(kr) m
j,j .
r j+1/2
(5.220)
XZ h
j,m
L
L
E
E
M
M
Ik,j,m
Vk,j,m
+ Ik,j,m
Vk,j,m
+ Ik,j,m
Vk,j,m
dk,
(5.221)
460
XZ
j,m
=
A
ikct
Ak,j,m eikct + A0
Vk,j,m
dk,
k,j,m e
=L,E,M
XZ
j,m
(5.222)
ikct
ikc A0
Ak,j,m eikct Vk,j,m
dk.
k,j,m e
=L,E,M
(5.223)
The constraint requiring the (Cartesian) components of A to be real
gives
m
A0
k,j,m = (1) Ak,j,m ,
+ for = L, E,
for = M.
(5.224)
With the same prescription, we can obtain the expansion for I0 from
Eq. (5.221).
Let us set
L
Vk,j,m
= vk,j,m .
(5.225)
The scalar function v is given in Eq. (5.217). However, the functions
vk,j,m are not normalized with respect to dk, whereas the same functions
multiplied by k, pk,j,m = kvk,j,m , are. Let us expand the scalar potential
and its time derivative in terms of vk,j,m and put
=
XZ
j,m
XZ
j,m
(5.226)
(5.228)
From the gauge condition 11 = c A, and the fact that the transverse waves have zero divergence and noting that vk,j,m = 2 vk,j,m
= k 2 vk,j,m , we get
ikct
ikct
k,j,m eikct 0k,j,m eikct = ik AL
+ A0L
. (5.229)
k,j,m e
k,j,m e
11 @
For the sake of clarity, here and in the following we shall call Eq. (5.208) the gauge
condition rather than the continuity equation (for the potentials) as it was labeled in the
original manuscript.
461
VOLUMETTO V
We also set
=
XZ
j,m
(5.230)
Since, due to the gauge condition, the first of Eqs. (5.207) can be cast
in the form
1
2 A 2 = 4 ,
(5.231)
c
on expanding in terms of the scalar solutions of (5.210), we find
k,j,m eikct + 0k,j,m eikct
ikct
ikct
= ik AL
A0L
+
k,j,m e
k,j,m e
4
k,j,m .
k2
(5.232)
XXZ
H =
j,m
XXZ
j,m
Ek,j,m
Vk,j,m
dk
(5.234)
Hk,j,m
Vk,j,m
dk.
(5.235)
(5.236)
E
i k Vk,j,m
,
we easily find
4
k,j,m ,
k2
ikct
ikct
= i k AE
A0E
,
k,j,m e
k,j,m e
L
Ek,j,m
=
E
Ek,j,m
(5.237)
M
ikct
ikct
Ek,j,m
= i k AM
A0M
;
k,j,m e
k,j,m e
L
Hk,j,m
= 0,
E
ikct
ikct
Hk,j,m
= i k AM
+ A0M
,
k,j,m e
k,j,m e
M
ikct
ikct
Hk,j,m
= i k AE
+ A0E
.
k,j,m e
k,j,m e
(5.238)
462
(5.239)
X Z 2
j,m
1
2
k4
|k,h,m |2 dk
1
(q) (q 0 ) dq dq 0 ,
|q q 0 |
(5.240)
Z
2
1 X 2 E 2
dk.
k Ak,j,m + AM
k,j,m
2 j,m 0
(5.241)
Let us now go back to our oscillating system (5.205) in order to evaluate the radiated energy by using the method of variation of parameters.
The electrostatic energy periodically oscillates between finite values with
frequency , and we thus neglect it. Considering the radiated energy,
let us assume that it is zero at the initial time, so that initially we have
M
AE
k,j,m = Ak,j,m for all values of k, j, m. From the second of Eqs. (5.207)
and from Eqs. (5.222) and (5.223), it follows that
ikct
A Yk,j,m eikct A 0Y
k,j,m e
Y
0Y
= (4 ic/k) Ik,j,m
e2it + Ik,j,m
e2it ,
(5.242)
ikct
A Yk,j,m eikct + A 0Y
= 0, Y=E,M,
k,j,m e
+ for Y = E,
for Y = M.
(5.243)
We thus derive
2 ic Y
0Y
A Yk,j,m =
Ik,j,m ei(kc2)t + Ik,j,m
ei(kc+2)t ,
(5.244)
k
!
2 c
ei(kc2)t 1
ei(kc+2)t 1
Y
0Y
AYk,j,m =
Ik,j,m
+ Ik,j,m
(5.245)
.
k
kc 2
kc + 2
For t the main contributions to the integral in Eq. (5.241) come
from values of k close to k0 = 2v/c, apart from quantities that do
not exceed finite constant values. For k close to k0 it follows from Eq.
(5.245) that
4 sin(k k0 )ct/2 Y
Ik0 ,j,m ,
Ak,j,m =
k
kk
0
(5.246)
463
VOLUMETTO V
WR = 4 2 c t
(5.247)
IkE0 ,j,m + IkM0 ,j,m .
j,m
X
WR
= 4 2 c
IkE0 ,j,m + IkM0 ,j,m .
t
j,m
(5.248)
The radiated energy can thus be computed by decomposing the oscillating system into transverse electric and magnetic multipoles of different
orders and assuming that they radiate without interfering with each
other. Naturally, the longitudinal multipoles do not radiate any energy.
Every multipole corresponds to a given spherical wave with definite intensity distribution and polarization state along certain directions. In
the quantum interpretation the numbers j and m represent the total angular momentum and its component along the z direction of the emitted
quantum (in units of h
). The knowledge of these numbers does not determine completely the emitted wave, since this can be an electric multipole
wave or a magnetic multipole wave. This ambiguity is due to the fact
that different kinds of coupling between orbital momenta and intrinsic
momenta of the emitted quantum are possible. As is well known, the
intrinsic momentum is
h along the direction of motion and cannot be
zero.
From Eq. (5.248), the intensity of a definite multipole is given by
Y
wj,m
= 4 2 c IkY0 ,j,m ,
Y = E, M,
(5.249)
or, computing the coefficient IkY0 ,j,m with the usual rule for the coefficients of expansion in terms of a set of orthogonal functions
Y
wj,m
Z
2
= 4 c Vk0 ,j,m I0 dq .
2
(5.250)
The case in which the system has atomic dimensions very small compared with the wavelength of the emitted radiation (2/k0 ) is of parY
ticular practical relevance. It is then possible to evaluate wj,m
in first
approximation by substituting (into the integral appearing in the exY ) every Bessel function entering in the expressions of
pression for wj,m
Y
Vk0 ,j,m by the first term of its series expansion. Of course, it is assumed
that the radiating system is placed near the origin of the coordinate system. In the case of electric multipoles we have Bessel functions of order
464
j + 3/2 as well as j 1/2; we can then neglect, inside the integral, the
former functions and retain only the first term in the expansion of the
latter ones. We are only interested in Bessel functions of order n + 1/2
with integer n; and for these, in first approximation, we have
r
2 2n n!
xn+1/2 + . . .
(2n + 1)!
r
2
1 1
1
=
1
xn+1/2 + . . . .
3 5
2n + 1
In+1/2 =
(5.251)
2 2j
j1 m
r
j,j1 I0 dq ,
c
1
1 1
8 c
= 1 2 2
3 5
(2j + 1)2
Z
2
2 2j+2
j m
r j,j I0 dq .
E
wj,m
= 1
M
wj,m
(5.252)
(5.253)
(5.254)
j(2j + 1) rj1 m
j,j1 ,
(5.255)
j1
m
j,j1 I0 dq
rj1 m
j,j1 I0 dq
1
rj m
j I0 dq
j(2j + 1)
Z
1
= p
rj m
j I0 dq
j(2j + 1)
Z
2 i
1
rj m
= p
j 0 dq. (5.256)
j(2j + 1) c
=
465
VOLUMETTO V
2 2j+2
j m
.
r
dq
0
j
E
wj,m
= 1
(5.257)
(5.258)
A = A0 e2it + A0 e2it ,
with the additional constraint that the scalar and vector potential describe a diverging wave at infinity. We set
A0 =
XX
0 =
j,m
= L, E, M.
(5.259)
(5.260)
j,m
The functions Uk0 ,j,m and uk0 ,j,m are obtained from Vk0 ,j,m (given in
Eqs.(5.218), (5.219), and (5.220)) and vk0 ,j,m (given in Eq. (5.225)) by
replacing the Bessel functions with the Hankel functions of the first kind.
The condition that at infinity there exists only a diverging wave implies
that the following limits exist:
Aj,m () = Bj,m
,
j,m () = j,m .
(5.261)
(5.262)
From the gauge condition (5.208), we derive, in analogy with Eq. (5.206),
c
0 =
A0 .
(5.263)
2 i
12.
HYDROGEN EIGENFUNCTIONS
2
2E +
r
= 0,
(5.264)
466
1
n
1
n
Fig. 5.1. The contour line for the integral defining the hydrogen eigenfunctions.
and, by setting = (y/r) m
` , we get
`(` + 1)
2
2E +
r
r2
00
y +
y = 0.
(5.265)
1 1
,
2 n2
n = ` + 1, ` + 2, . . . ,
N y = A r`+1
where
t+
1
n
`n
2`+1
1
n
n
n+`
A =
2i
2`
+1
2
Integration using the method of residues leads to
Ny =
n`1
X
(1)p
p=0
(5.266)
`+n
etr dt,
(5.267)
(n ` 1)(n ` 2) (n ` p)
(2` + 2)(2` + 3) (2` + 1 + p)
r`+1+p r/n
e
.
p!
(5.268)
2
n
(5.269)
(2` + 1)!
2`+1
(n ` 1)! n2`+4
.
(n + `)!
(5.270)
1 3
n ,
4
9 n5
,
4 n2 1
(5.271)
(5.272)
467
VOLUMETTO V
N 2 = 225
n7
.
(n2 1)(n2 4)
(5.273)
1s :
N y = r er
2s :
Ny =
1 2
r
2
2
2 3
r r2 +
r
3
27
3s :
Ny =
2p :
N y = r2 er/2
Ny =
N=
2 .
!
27
.
N=
2
r/3
N=
3p :
1
.
2
er/2
N=
1
r r3
6
2
r/3
24 .
3d :
Ny = r e
2187
.
32
N=
3 r/3
N = 81
15
.
8
nn+1
2n
rn er/n .
(n + `)!(n ` 1)!
(5.274)
INDEX
particles
scattering with a nucleus, 177
network method, 18
Action
4-dimensional, 97
quantum of, 50
Admittance, 17
Ammonia
oscillation frequencies, 382
Angular momentum, 441, 463
Atomic eigenfunctions, 454
Atomic weight, 433
Atoms
many-electron, 190
two-electron, 267
Azimuthal quantum number, 245, 425
Balmer
formula, 127
term, 294
Bernoulli
numbers, 242
polynomials, 242
Bessel equation, 452
Bessel functions, 339, 354, 389, 459
half order, 427
zeros, 427
integral representation, 352
Binomial coefficients, 55, 150, 195197
Blackbody, 120
Bohr
magneton, 249
radius, 249
Boltzmann
constant, 50, 249
law, 57, 144
Born method, 345
relativistic limit, 396
Bose-Einstein statistics, 429
Capacitance, 15, 31
gravitational, 61, 64
Capacitor
oscillating discharge, 31
Center of mass, 12
Central field
selection rules, 301
Centrifugal force, 128
Charge
circular distribution, 28
energy of, 33
density, 19, 33, 456
Circular integrals, 381
Clairaut
equation, 216
problem, 212
Clapeyron equation, 49
Classical mechanics, 51
Coil, 32
electromagnetic energy, 32
finite length, 36, 41
self-induction, 32
Commutation relations, 419
Commutators, 243, 265
Conductor
electric, 6, 18
energy of, 11
self-induction, 43
Conformal transformations, 74
Conjugate momenta
for the relativistic electron, 99
Continuity equation, 456
Coulombs law, 155
Crickets simile, 53
Curl theorem, 14
Current density, 6, 456
linear, 18
surface, 18
Current intensity, 7, 15, 18, 29
Current line, 7, 30
Current
alternate, 6, 15, 18
circular distribution, 29
elementary, 19
DAlembert operator, 450
De Broglie waves, 154
Definite integrals, 69
Density
of mass, 18, 55
Depopulation rate
for atoms in an e.m. field, 132
Differential equations, 156
complete set of, 311
Differential operators
formulae involving, 14
Dirac equation, 287, 439
central field, 454
plane wave solution, 359
Dirac equations, 424
Dirac matrices
and the Lorentz group, 279
Disintegration of light nuclei resonances, 414
Displacement current, 20
Divergence theorem, 14, 211
Earth
angular velocity, 129
flattening factor, 128
moment of inertia, 127, 130, 220
rotation of its axis, 130
Eccentricity, 65, 67
Electric charge, 155
Electric dipole moment
for an atom in its ground state, 319
Electric energy of a radiation, 122
481
482
Electric field, 19
Electric lines, 15
Electric moment, 430
Electric resistivity, 7
Electromagnetic field
energy of, 461
radiated energy, 462
spin of, 463
Electromagnetic oscillators, 122
Electromotive force, 7, 10, 30
Electron distribution in heavy atoms, 105
Electron gas, 252
Electron scattering by radiation, 150
Electron
charge, 249
electromagnetic mass, 78
mass, 249
origin of its mass, 78
relativistic equations of motion, 98
self-energy, 79
spinning, 287
Electrostatic energy, 11, 462
Electrostatic stress, 25
Ellipsoid
fluid, 66
gravitational attraction by, 58
gravitational attraction, 63
gravitational capacitance, 61, 64
prolate, 63
Energy conservation, 10
Entropy, 10
for a system in equilibrium, 428
Equatorial quantum number, 245
Equilibrium
of a rotating fluid, 66
Equipotential surfaces, 13, 58, 214, 252
Error function
series expansion, 150
Euler constant, 333
Factorial, 47
Faraday constant, 249
Fermi-Dirac statistics, 429
Fine structure formula, 455
Fine-structure formula, 294
Formulae
involving differential operators, 14
Fourier integral expansion, 379
Free energy
of a diatomic gas, 434
Frequency cutoff, 125
Function determination
from its moments, 226
Gas
diatomic, 430
monoatomic, 430
perfect, 429
Gauge
condition, 456
Lorenz, 160, 456
transformations, 160
Gravitating masses, 12
Gravitational potential, 127
Green function, 330
Green theorems, 14
Group velocity, 154
Group
O(3), 271, 298
SU (2), 298, 421
continuous, 265
infinitesimal transformations, 265
Lorentz, 276, 419, 446
of rotations, 271, 355, 421
permutations, 335, 355
Hamiltonian
for the electromagnetic field, 122
for the relativistic motion of the electron,
97, 123
Hankel functions, 353, 389
half order, 427
Harmonic function, 76
polynomial expansion, 85
Harmonic functions, 76
Harmonic group, 28
Harmonic oscillator, 402
energy levels, 90
quantization, 87
selection rules, 88
zero point energy E0 , 88, 90
Heat well, 53
Heat, 8, 10
displacement, 55, 71
one-dimensional propagation, 71
propagation along a bar, 53
propagation along a finite bar, 72
propagation in an isotropic and
homogeneous medium, 71
propagation, 20, 71
specific, 71
transmission coefficient, 55, 71
Homography, 14
Homothetic, 62, 66
Homothety, 2, 33
Huygens principle, 210
Hydrogen atom
eigenfunctions, 372
in an electric field, 322
polarization forces, 350
spontaneous ionization, 161
Hydrogen eigenfunctions, 465
Hysteresis
in the limit skin effect, 26
Impedance, 17
Inertia
moment of, 219
INDEX
Infinite products, 241
Infinitesimal transformations, 422
Integral logarithm
series expansion, 333
Integrals, 146
definite, 69
Interaction energy, 5
Interatomic potential, 105
Joule effect, 7, 21, 27
Keplerian motion
kinematics, 137
perturbed (adiabatic approximation), 141
perturbed, 137
revolution period, 138
Laplace transformation, 348, 378
Laplaces equation, 60, 348, 353, 372
Laplacian
in cylindrical coordinates, 85
in parabolic coordinates, 322
in spherical coordinates, 83
Larmor
frequency, 249, 309
wave number, 249
Legendre polynomials, 82, 329, 339, 435, 441
multiplication rules, 329
Lines of force, 60
Longitude, 129
Longitudinal multipoles, 463
Lorentz
contraction, 78
group, 276, 279
transformations, 419, 435
Lorenz
gauge, 160, 456
Magnetic energy of a radiation, 122
Magnetic field, 18
influence on the melting point, 48
Magnetic permeability, 7, 26, 30, 49
Magnetization, 18
magnitude of, 19
Matrices, 76
Matrix
associative product, 92
diagonalization of a, 90
Mean distances
of line elements, 38
of surface elements, 38
of volume elements, 38
Melting temperature, 49
Method
of periodic solutions, 465
of residues, 466
of sources, 71
of stationary waves, 457, 465
of variation of parameters, 457, 462
Molecular weight, 433
Molecule
483
potential in a, 252
Moment of inertia, 13, 56, 127, 219
Moments of a function, 226
Multipole radiation
classical theory, 456
Neumann functions, 354
half order, 427
Neutron, 425
Newtons
gravitational constant, 127
law, 18, 59, 212
potential, 12, 18, 213
Observables and matrices, 133
Occupation number, 434
Operators
improper, 369
Orthogonal functions, 377
Orthogonal transformations, 276
Oscillator
specific heat, 50
Parabolic coordinates, 322
Paschen-Back effect, 311
Paulis principle, 105
Perfect gas, 429
constant R, 433
Permutations, 335
Perpetual motion, 49
Phase velocity, 154
Photon spin, 463
Planck law, 308
Planck relation, 121
Plane wave, 154
expansion in spherical harmonics, 339
in the Dirac theory, 359
Poisson brackets, 243, 314
Poisson equation, 214
for the local potential in an atom, 116
Polarizability
atomic, 117
Potential scattering, 375
Potential
advanced, 5
electric, 6, 11, 15
mean, 35
in a molecule, 252
Newtonian, 12, 18, 213
retarded, 4, 188, 451
Poynting theorem, 27
Pressure
hydrostatic, 49
Probability, 55
curves, 235
mean error, 45
Proton, 425
Quantization rules, 87
Quasi-stationary states, 403
Quaternions, 256, 272
484