Frostbite

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This article is about a medical condition. For other uses, see Frostbite (disambiguation).

Frostbite
Classification and external resources

Frostbitten toes two to three days after mountain climbing

ICD-10

T33-T35

ICD-9

991.0-991.3

DiseasesDB

31167

MedlinePlus

000057

eMedicine

emerg/209 med/2815derm/833 ped/803

Patient UK

Frostbite

MeSH

D005627

Frostbite is the medical condition in which localized damage is caused to skin and other tissues due
to freezing. Frostbite is most likely to happen in body parts farthest from the heart and those with
large exposed areas. The initial stages of frostbite are sometimes called frostnip.

Contents
[hide]

1 Classification
2 Signs and symptoms
o 2.1 First degree
o 2.2 Second degree
o 2.3 Third and fourth degrees
3 Causes
o 3.1 Risk factors
4 Treatment
o 4.1 Surgery
5 Prognosis
6 Research
7 References
8 External links

Classification[edit]
There are several classifications for tissue damage caused by extreme cold including:

Frostnip is a superficial cooling of tissues without cellular destruction.[1]

Chilblains are superficial ulcers of the skin that occur when a predisposed individual is
repeatedly exposed to cold
Frostbite involves tissue destruction.

Signs and symptoms[edit]

At or below 0 C (32 F), blood vessels close to the skin start to constrict, and blood is shunted away
from the extremities via the action of glomus bodies. The same response may also be a result of
exposure to high winds. This constriction helps to preserve core body temperature. In extreme cold,
or when the body is exposed to cold for long periods, this protective strategy can reduce blood flow
in some areas of the body to dangerously low levels. This lack of blood leads to the eventual
freezing and death of skin tissue in the affected areas. There are four degrees of frostbite. Each of
these degrees has varying degrees of pain.[2]

First degree[edit]
This is called frostnip and only affects the surface of the skin, which is frozen. On the onset, there
is itching and pain, and then the skin develops white, red, and yellow patches and becomes numb.
The area affected by frostnip usually does not become permanently damaged as only the skin's top
layers are affected. Long-term insensitivity to both heat and cold can sometimes happen after
suffering from frostnip.

Second degree[edit]
If freezing continues, the skin may freeze and harden, but the deep tissues are not affected and
remain soft and normal. Second-degree injury usually blisters 12 days after becoming frozen. The
blisters may become hard and blackened, but usually appear worse than they are. Most of the
injuries heal in one month, but the area may become permanently insensitive to both heat and cold.

Third and fourth degrees[edit]

Frostbite 12 days later

If the area freezes further, deep frostbite occurs. The muscles, tendons, blood vessels, and nerves
all freeze. The skin is hard, feels waxy, and use of the area is lost temporarily, and in severe cases,
permanently. The deep frostbite results in areas of purplish blisters which turn black and which are
generally blood-filled. Nerve damage in the area can result in a loss of feeling. This extreme frostbite
may result in fingers and toes being amputated if the area becomes infected with gangrene. If the
frostbite has gone on untreated, they may fall off. The extent of the damage done to the area by the
freezing process of the frostbite may take several months to assess, and this often delays surgery to
remove the dead tissue.[3]

Causes[edit]
Inadequate blood circulation when the ambient temperature is below freezing leads to frostbite. This
can be because the body is constricting circulation to extremities on its own to preserve core
temperature and fight hypothermia. In this scenario the same factors that can lead to hypothermia
(extreme cold, inadequate clothing, wet clothes, wind chill) can contribute to frostbite. Poor
circulation can also be caused by other factors such as tight clothing or boots, cramped positions,
fatigue, certain medications, smoking, alcohol use, or diseases that affect the blood vessels, such
as diabetes.[4]
Exposure to liquid nitrogen and other cryogenic liquids can cause frostbite as well as prolonged
contact with aerosol sprays (see deodorant burn).

Risk factors[edit]
Risk factors for frostbite include using beta-blockers and having conditions such
as diabetes and peripheral neuropathy.[citation needed]

Treatment[edit]
The decision to thaw is based on proximity to a stable, warm environment. If rewarmed tissue ends
up refreezing, more damage to tissue will be done. Excessive movement of frostbitten tissue can
cause ice crystals that have formed in the tissue to do further damage. Splinting and/or wrapping
frostbitten extremities are therefore recommended to prevent such movement. For this reason,
rubbing, massaging, shaking, or otherwise applying physical force to frostbitten tissues in an attempt
to rewarm them can be harmful.[5]
Warming can be achieved in one of two ways:
Passive rewarming[6] involves using body heat or ambient room temperature to aid the person's body
in rewarming itself. This includes wrapping in blankets or moving to a warmer environment.[7]
Active rewarming is the direct addition of heat to a person, usually in addition to the treatments
included in passive rewarming.[6] Active rewarming requires more equipment, and therefore may be

difficult to perform in the prehospital environment.[5] When performed, active rewarming seeks to
warm the injured tissue as quickly as possible without burning. This is desirable, because the faster
tissue is thawed, the less tissue damage occurs.[5] Active rewarming is usually achieved by
immersing the injured tissue in a water-bath that is held between 40-42C (104-108F). Warming of
peripheral tissues can increase blood flow from these areas back to the body's core. This may
produce a decrease in the body's core temperature and increase the risk of cardiac dysrhythmias.[8]

Surgery[edit]
Debridement and/or amputation of necrotic tissue is usually delayed. This has led to the adage
"Frozen in January, amputate in July"[9] with exceptions only being made for signs of infections
or gas gangrene.[10]

Prognosis[edit]

3 weeks after initial frostbite

A number of long term sequelae can occur after frostbite. These include: transient or permanent
changes in sensation, paresthesia, increased sweating, cancers, and bone destruction/arthritis in the
area affected.[11]

Research[edit]
Evidence is insufficient to determine whether or not hyperbaric oxygen therapy as an adjunctive
treatment can assist in tissue salvage.[12]There have been case reports but there has not yet been a
randomized control trial performed on humans.[13][14][15][16][17]
Medical sympathectomy using intravenous reserpine has also been attempted with limited
success.[11] Studies have suggested that administration of tissue plasminogen activator (tPa) either
intravenously or intraarterially may decrease the likelihood of eventual need for amputation.[18]
While extreme weather conditions (cold and wind) increase the risk of frostbite it appears that certain
individuals and population groups appear more resistant to milder forms of frostbite, perhaps due to
longer term exposure and adaptation to cold weather environments.[citation needed]

References[edit]
1. Jump up^ Marx, John (2010). Rosen's emergency medicine: concepts and clinical practice (7th
ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Mosby/Elsevier. p. 1862. ISBN 978-0-323-05472-0.
2. Jump up^ frostbite at eMedicineHealth
3. Jump up^ Definition of Frostbite,
MedicineNet.com, http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=3522, retrieved
4/3/10
4. Jump up^ MedlinePlus Encyclopedia Frostbite

5. ^ Jump up to:a b c Mistovich, Joseph; Haffen, Brent; Karren, Keith (2004). Prehospital Emergency
Care. Upsaddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. p. 506. ISBN 0-13-049288-4.
6. ^ Jump up to:a b Mistovich 2004, p. 504
7. Jump up^ Roche-Nagle G, Murphy D, Collins A, Sheehan S (June 2008). "Frostbite:
management options". Eur J Emerg Med 15 (3): 173
5. doi:10.1097/MEJ.0b013e3282bf6ed0.PMID 18460961. Retrieved 2008-06-30.
8. Jump up^ Marx 2010, p. 1864
9. Jump up^ Golant, A; Nord, RM; Paksima, N; Posner, MA (Dec 2008). "Cold exposure injuries to
the extremities.". J Am Acad Orthop Surg 16 (12): 70415. PMID 19056919.
10. Jump up^ McGillion, R (Oct 2005). "Frostbite: case report, practical summary of ED
treatment.". J Emerg Nurs 31 (5): 5002. doi:10.1016/j.jen.2005.07.002. PMID 16198741.
11. ^ Jump up to:a b Marx 2010, p. 1866
12. Jump up^ Marx 2010
13. Jump up^ Finderle Z, Cankar K (April 2002). "Delayed treatment of frostbite injury with
hyperbaric oxygen therapy: a case report". Aviat Space Environ Med 73 (4): 392
4.PMID 11952063.
14. Jump up^ Folio LR, Arkin K, Butler WP (May 2007). "Frostbite in a mountain climber treated with
hyperbaric oxygen: case report". Mil Med 172 (5): 5603. PMID 17521112.
15. Jump up^ Gage AA, Ishikawa H, Winter PM (1970). "Experimental frostbite. The effect of
hyperbaric oxygenation on tissue survival". Cryobiology 7 (1): 18. doi:10.1016/00112240(70)90038-6. PMID 5475096.
16. Jump up^ Weaver LK, Greenway L, Elliot CG (1988). "Controlled Frostbite Injury to Mice:
Outcome of Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy.". J. Hyperbaric Med 3 (1): 3544. Retrieved 2008-0630.
17. Jump up^ Ay H, Uzun G, Yildiz S, Solmazgul E, Dundar K, Qyrdedi T, Yildirim I, Gumus T
(2005)."The treatment of deep frostbite of both feet in two patients with hyperbaric
oxygen".Undersea Hyperb Med. 32 (1 Suppl). ISSN 1066-2936. OCLC 26915585.
Retrieved2008-06-30.
18. Jump up^ Bruen, KJ; Ballard JR; Morris SE; Cochran A; Edelman LS; Saffle JR (2007).
"Reduction of the incidence of amputation in frostbite injury with thrombolytic therapy". Archives
of Surgery 142 (6): 54651. doi:10.1001/archsurg.142.6.546. PMID 17576891.