Multispectral Classification

Assigning each pixel in a remotely sensed

image a label describing real world object.
That is automatically categorizing all pixels in
an image into land cover classes or themes.
uses the spectral information represented by
the digital numbers in one or more spectral
bands, and attempts to classify each
individual pixel based on this spectral
information.
Output is a classified map- a form of digital
thematic map

Multispectral Classification
Urban
Forest
Lake
Agriculture

Classification Types
Common classification procedures can be
broken down into two broad subdivisions
based on the method used
Supervised classification
and
Unsupervised classification.

Supervised Classification
Samples of known identity are used to classify pixels of
unknown identity
The identity and location of some of the land cover types
such as urban, agriculture, wetland are known a priori
through a combination of field work and experience.
These locations or Samples or training sites or training
areas are the homogeneous representative samples of
the different surface cover types (information classes) of
interest.
Multivariate statistical parameters are calculated for these

training sites.

Every pixel is evaluated and assigned to the class which

it most closely resemble digitally (in statistics).
Hard Classification a pixel is assigned to only one class.
Called as supervised as the analyst supervises the
algorithm by providing training sites

Supervised Classification

Unsupervised Classification
The identities of land cover types to be
specified as classes within a scene are generally
not known a priori because ground reference
information is lacking or surface features within
the scene are not well defined.
The computer is required to group pixels with
similar spectral characteristics into unique
clusters according to some statistically
determined criteria.
Analyst then combine and re-labels the spectral
clusters into information classes.

Unsupervised Classification

Basic Steps in Supervised

Classification

Classification Steps
State the objective/nature of classification problem

Define region of interest

Identify classes of interest

Acquire appropriate Remotely sensed and ground reference data

Image processing of Remotely sensed data to extract thematic
information

Radiometric correction
Geometric correction

Select most appropriate bands Or Feature Selection

Select appropriate image classification logic and algorithm

Extract data from training sites.

Separability Analysis
Supervised

Parallelepiped and/or minimum distance

Maximum likelihood

Unsupervised

Chain method
ISODATA

others

Hybrid

Post Classification Smoothening

Accuracy Assessment of classification map

Training Site Selection

Training sample is a set of pixels selected to

represent a potential class , Training sites within

the image that are representative of the classes
of interest are selected.
should be homogeneous.
Mutually exclusive , normal distribution
SIZE: sufficient to compute variance-covariance
matrices required by classification algorithms.

Generally if training data is being collected from n

bands then >10n for each class

Should be well distributed over the entire scene

Feature Space
Each feature vector is a point in the so-called
feature space.
Similar objects yields similar measurement
results (feature vectors). That is Nearby points
in feature space correspond to similar objects.
Distance in feature space is related to
dissimilarity.
Points that belong to the same class form a
cloud in feature space.

Feature Space Cont..

N = the number of bands = dimensions
. an (n) dimensional data (feature) space
Features can be

Raw bands
Derived Images

Measurement
Vector or Feature Vector

Mean
Vector

v1

v2
v
3
M

vn

1
2

3
M

n

Feature Space - 2dimensions

190
85

Band B

Band A

Number of pixels

A. 1-dimensional (Image histogram)

Water
Land

Band y

C. 3-dimensional (Feature space)

255
Vegetation
Soil
Urban

255
Band x
B. 2-dimensional (Scatter plot)

Band y

Ba
n

dz

255

255
Band x

255

Band x

255

Feature Selection
Remotely sensed data is highly correlated in nature
Selection of variables showing strong
discriminatory power and hence to avoid
redundancies in feature set is a key problem in
classification
is termed as feature selection or feature extraction
Select a subset of features that are most
discriminative. Or
Select features which show less overlap between
classes and hence are more discriminative

Feature Selection
the highly correlated bands are rejected,
and those with lesser or no correlation
are selected for efficient analysis.
Methods

OIF
PCA
Graphical
Scatter Plots or Feature Space Plots

Correlation Between different bands of

LISS II Poanta Image

Band 1

Band 2

Band 1

Band 4

Band 4

Band 3
Band 2

Band 4

Band 3

Band 2
Band 1

Band 3

Separability Analysis
From the training data you extract
spectral signatures
If signatures overlap the spectral
information of the data itself cannot
separate or distinguish between classes
Methods

Graphical
Statistical

Graphical Separability
Methods
Cospectral Feature
Space Plots

Training site are

plotted as Ellipses or
rectangles on scatter
Plots or feature space
plots

For classification
ellipses must be
spectrally distinct

Select Appropriate Classification Algorithm

Supervised

Minimum Distance to Mean

Parallepiped
Mahalanobis Distance Classifier
Maximum Likelihood

Minimum Distance To Mean

The mean spectral value in each band for each
category is determined.
The unknown pixel is classified by computing the
distance between the value of the unknown
pixel and each category mean value.
The unknown pixel is assigned to the closest
class.
If the pixel is farther than the analyst defined
distance (Threshold) from any category of mean
it would be classified as unknown.

Minimum Distance To Mean

Based on Euclidean Distance Formula
D = (BVijk- ck)2 + (BVijl- cl)2+.
Where
ck and cl represent the mean vectors for class c measured
in bands k and l and so on

ADVANTAGES
Sine every pixel is spectrally closer to either one sample
mean or other so there are no unclassified pixels.
Mathematically simple and computationally faster.
DISADVANTAGES
Pixels which should be unclassified will become
classified.
Does not consider class variability or in sensitive to the
different degree of class variance in spectral data

Minimum Distance To Mean

Scatter plot Training Data

Minimum Distance to Mean

Classification Rule

Parallelepipeds Classifier
Box decision rule
Based upon the range of values in training data
to define regions in multidimensional space
The range may be defined by the highest and
lowest DN value (Max. & Min. ) or by Mean and
Standard Deviation
The regions appear rectangular in 2-D
The rectangular areas in multidimensional are
called parallelepipeds and hence the name of
the classifier.

Parallelepipeds Classifier
Brightness value from each pixel of the multispectral
imagery are used to produce an n dimensional mean
vector, Mc
Mc = ( ck, c2, c3, c4 , cn)

With ck being the mean value of the training data obtained for
class c in band k out of m possible classes.

Sck is the standard deviation of training data class c in

band k out of m possible classes.
Using one standard deviation threshold, a parallelepiped
algorithm decides BVijk is in class c if and only if
ck - Sck BVijk ck + Sck
where c= 1,2,3m no. of classes
k=1,2,3n
no. of bands

Parallelepipeds Classifier
Therefore, if the low and high decision
boundaries are defined as
Lck= ck - Sck
and
Hck= ck + Sck
The parallelepiped algorithm becomes
Lck BVijk Hck
If the pixel value lies above the lower threshold
and below the high threshold for all n bands
evaluated, it is assigned to that class.
When an unknown pixel does not satisfy any of
the Boolean logic criteria, it is assigned to an
unclassified category.

Parallelepipeds Classifier
ADVANTAGES
Fast and simple.
Gives a broad classification thus narrows down the
number of possible classes to which each pixel can be
assigned before more time consuming calculations are
made.
Not dependent on normal distributions.
Sensitive to variance or spread
DISADVANTAGES
Since parallelepiped has corners, pixels that are actually
quite far, spectrally from the mean of the signature may
be classified or INSENSITITIVE TO COVARIANCE
Regions Overlap

Parallelepipeds Classifier

Stepped Parallelepipeds

Maximum Likelihood Classifier (MLC)

This decision rule assigns each pixel having pattern
measurements or features X to the class c whose
units are most probable or likely to have given rise to
feature vector X
It assumes that training data statistics for each class
in each band are normally distributed.
Training data with bi or tri-modal histograms in a
singe band are not ideal.
It makes use of mean measurement vector Mc for
each class and the covariance matrix of class c for
bands k through l, Vc.

Maximum Likelihood Classifier (MLC)

Based

on the assumptions that the

training sites exhibit normal distribution.
It evaluates both variance and
covariance of the class.

Maximum Likelihood Classifier (MLC)

Decision rule applied to the unknown measurement
vector X
Decide X is in class c if and only if
pc pi , where
i= 1,2,3m possible classes
and
pc = {-0.5 loge [det(Vc)]}-[0.5(X-Mc)TVc-1(X-Mc)]
det(Vc) is determinant of covariance matrix
To classify the measurement vector X of an unknown
pixel into a class the max. likelihood decision rule
computes pc for each class. It assigns pixel to the class
which has largest value.

Maximum Likelihood Classifier (MLC)

ADVANTAGES
Most accurate of classifiers (if input sample have
normal distribution) because it takes the most
variables.
Takes variability of classes into account.
DISADVANTAGES
An extensive equation, takes long time to compute.
It is parametric.
Tends to over classify signatures with relatively large
values in the covariance matrix.

Maximum Likelihood Classifier (MLC)

Equal Probability Contours are plotted

Probability of belonging to a class decreases with distance from its mean point

Unsupervised Classification
In essence reverses the supervised classification process.
Spectral classes are grouped first, based solely on the
numerical information in the data, and are then matched
by the analyst to information classes (if possible).
Programs, called clustering algorithms, are used to
determine the natural (statistical) groupings or structures
in the data. Usually, the analyst specifies how many groups
or clusters are to be looked for in the data.
In addition to specifying the desired number of classes, the
analyst may also specify parameters related to the
separation distance among the clusters and the variation
within each cluster.
The final result of this iterative clustering process may
result in some clusters that the analyst will want to
subsequently combine, or clusters that should be broken
down further

Unsupervised Classification
Methods

Chain
ISODATA (Iterative Self Organizing Data
Analysis Technique Algorithm

ISODATA
Step 1: Selection of No. and Centre of clusters or
classes
Step 2: Each point in the feature space is calssified or
labelled to the closest center ( Min. Dist. To mean)
Step 3: Mean is calculated for each cluster
Step 4 : Reclassify each point in the FS using the new
mean
Iterate ( Repeat step 2 4) until mean does not
change within an acceptable value or until
acceptable % of pixels dont change between
clusters.

ISODATA
1

1
2

2
Each pixel is classified to either of the two classes

Pixels and Initial

Cluster centres

1st Iteration

.. Procedure is reiterated
2nd Iteration

2
New cluster centres computed and
all pixels are relabelled

Accuracy Assessment
a classification is not complete until its accuracy has
been assessed
Why?

Curiosity: the desire to know how good something is.

Crucial to know the quality of maps when using them to
make resource decisions
Increase map quality by identifying and correcting sources
of error
can compare the accuracy of various data, processing
techniques, classification schemes, and interpreters

Accuracy Assessment
Comparison to two sources of information

Remote Sensing derived classification map

Reference Test information

The relationship between the two sets of

information's is expressed as a matrix known
as

ERROR MATRIX / CONFUSION MATRIX /

CONTINGENCY TABLE

CLASSIFIED
CLASSIFIED IMAGE
IMAGE

REFERENCE
REFERENCE DATA
DATA

From
Fromairphotos,
airphotos,field
fielddata,
data,etc.
etc.
1 Generate a random sample of points
2 For each point, compare the map class with the true class
3 Construct and analyze an error matrix...

Accuracy Assessment
the error matrix

Reference data labels: the class

Map labels: the category label,

CLASSIFIED IMAGE
IMAGE
CLASSIFIED

label of the truth sample point

of the same sample point,
derived from data collected that
derived from the satellite image
is assumed to be correct
classification (rows).
(columns).
REFERENCE
REFERENCE DATA
DATA
Number of

correctly
classified pixels
shown along the
major diagonal

Off-diagonals

represent errors
of omission and
commission

ERRORS
Omission Error

Error of exclusion
Pixels are not assigned to its appropriate class, or
Pixels are omitted from the actual class they belong
Correspond to non diagonal column elements

Commission Error

error of inclusion
pixel is assigned to a class to which it does not belong, or
pixels were improperly included in that category
represented by non diagonal row element

Accuracy Assessment
the error matrix

Commission errors (errors of inclusion): including an area in a

category to which it does not truly belong.

CLASSIFIED IMAGE
IMAGE
CLASSIFIED

REFERENCE
REFERENCE DATA
DATA

18 out of 43

pixels were
committed to
the corn
category

corn category

most confused
with forest

Accuracy Assessment
the error matrix

Omission errors (errors of exclusion): excluding an area from a

category to which it does truly belong.

CLASSIFIED IMAGE
IMAGE
CLASSIFIED

REFERENCE
REFERENCE DATA
DATA

7 out of 32

pixels were
omitted from the
corn category

again, corn

category most
confused with
forest

Accuracy Assessment
the error matrix

Representations of map
accuracy:

overall accuracy (of the

classification or map)
users accuracy
(1-commission error)
producers accuracy
(1-omission error)

CLASSIFIED IMAGE
IMAGE
CLASSIFIED

REFERENCE
REFERENCE DATA
DATA

Accuracy Assessment
the error matrix

Representations of map
accuracy:

overall accuracy (of the

classification or map)
users accuracy
(commission error)

25 + 50 + 60 + 100
*100 = 82.7%
284
producers accuracy

CLASSIFIED IMAGE

REFERENCE DATA

(omission error)

Number of correctly classified pixels

(sum of the major diagonal)

Divided by the number of reference

pixels

Accuracy Assessment
the error matrix

producers accuracy
(1-omission error)

Producers accuracy for corn

category:

25
*100 = 78.1%
32

REFERENCE DATA
The analyst (the producer) is sitting
at their desk with their land cover
classification in front of them. They
pick out an area classified as corn.
CLASSIFIED IMAGE

Representations of map
accuracy:

There is a 78% chance that if they

went out to that area on the ground

that it would indeed be a cornfield.

Divide the number of correctly

Omission error of a class =
100- % accuracy of a class

classified pixels in each category by

the number of reference pixels that
were in that category (column total)

Accuracy Assessment
the error matrix

users accuracy
(1-commission error)

Users accuracy for corn category:

25
*100 = 58.1%
43

REFERENCE DATA
Someone (the user) is standing in
the middle of a cornfield with the
satellite classification land cover map.
CLASSIFIED IMAGE

Representations of map
accuracy:

There is a 58% chance that the map

identified the area they are standing
in as corn.

Divide the number of correctly

classified pixels in each category by

the number of pixels that were
classified in that category (row total)

Classification Accuracy

Sample error matrix for accuracy assessment of a land cover classification.

Reference Data
W
Water

Total

226

12

239

Sand

216

92

309

Forest

360

228

599

Urban

108

397

521

Cornfield

48

132

190

78

453

Hayfield

19

84

36

219

359

233

328

429

945

238

307

2480

Total:

Producer's Accuracy (Omission)User's Accuracy (Commision)

W = 226/233 =

97%

W = 226/239 =

94%

S = 216/328 =

66%

S = 216/309 =

70%

F = 360/429 =

84%

F = 360/599 =

60%

U = 397/945 =

42%

U = 397/521 =

76%

C = 190/238 =

80%

C = 190/453 =

42%

H = 219/307 =

71%

H = 219/359 =

61%

Overall accuracy = (226 + 216 + 360 + 397 + 190 + 219) / 2480 = 65%

Kappa (Khat / K )
is a measure of difference between the actual agreement between
the reference data and an automated classifier and the chance agreement
between the reference data and a random classifier
Kappa = ( Observed accuracy - chance agreement)
(1- chance agreement)
The statistic serves as an indicator of the extent to which the percentage
correct values of an error matrix are due to the true agreement versus
chance agreement
A true agreement (observed accuracy) approaches 1 and chance agreement
approaches 0 then Kappa approaches 1
A kappa of 0 suggest that the classification is very poor and the given classifier
is no better than a random assignment of pixels

Where
D- Sum of correctly classified class
pixels

K=ND-P
N2 - P

P sum of (product of row total and

column total)
N - Total no. of Pixels

Note : Overall Accuracy is biased on the correctly classified pixels (the

major diagonal) and excludes the omission and commission errors
Kappa in addition to the correctly classified pixels, includes the off
diagonal elements as a product of Row total and column total

That is all in DIP

Thank You