Geometric Series

From our study of Zenos paradox, recall we showed that for any number r,
1 + r + r2 + r3 + + rn1 =

1 rn
1r

and that if if |r| < 1, then

rn =

n=0

1
1r

Here our goal is pretty simple, to replace r with x and observe that we have
written the rational function 1/(1 x) as an infinite series.
1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 +
1x

(1)

and this expansion is valid for all |x| < 1. Because the terms of this series
involve nonegative integer powers of x, this is called a power series.

-1

-1

-0.75 -0.5 -0.25

-0.75 -0.5 -0.25

0
5

0.25

0.5

0.75

-1

-0.75 -0.5 -0.25

0
5

0.25

0.5

0.75

-1

-0.75 -0.5 -0.25

0.25

0.5

0.75

0.25

0.5

0.75

Figure 1: The graph of 1/(1 x) (in red) plotted with the graphs of pn (x) for
n = 2, 3, 9, and 10 (in blue).

How closely do the polynomials, obtained by truncating the series of Eq.

(1), match the graph of 1/(1 x)? In Fig. 1 we plot the graph of 1/(1 x)
and the graph of pn (x) = 1 + x + x2 + + xn , for n = 2, 3, 9, and 10. Not
surprisingly, for larger n, pn (x) is a closer match for 1/(1 x). Note that all
pn (x) match reasonably well, and in the same sense, on the right side of the
graph. However, on the left side for even n the graph of pn (x) overestimates the
graph of 1/(1 x), and for odd n the graph of pn (x) underestimates the graph
of 1/(1 x). This is a consequence of evenness or oddness of xn , the dominant
term of pn (x) for large |x|.
The pn (x) are polynomials, and so defined for all x. The domain of 1/(1 x)
is all real numbers except x = 1, so certainly the polynomials cannot match
1/(1 x) near x = 1. Perhaps surprisingly, the polynomials do not match well
near x = 1. We return to this issue in the next section, on the radius and
interval of convergence.
In this section we find power series for several more functions by modifying
Eq. (1). Try to find the series before consulting the answers.
Example 1 Find a series expansion for 1/(1 + x). For what range of x
is this expansion valid?
Example 2 Find a series expansion for 1/(1 3x). For what range of x
is this expansion valid?
Example 3 Find a series expansion for 1/(1 x2 ). For what range of x
is this expansion valid?
Example 4 Find a series expansion for 1/(2 x). For what range of x
is this expansion valid?

values
values
values
values

Example 5 Find a series expansion for x/(1 + x). For what range of x values
is this expansion valid?

Answers
1. Replace x in eq. (1) with x, obtaining
1
= 1 + (x) + (x)2 + (x)3 + (x)4
1+x
= 1 x + x2 x3 + x4

(2)

This series is a valid representation of the function for | x| < 1, i.e., for |x| < 1.
2. Replace x in eq. (1) with 3x, obtaining
1
= 1 + (3x) + (3x)2 + (3x)3 + (3x)4 +
1 3x
= 1 + 3x + 32 x2 + 33 x3 + 34 x4 +

(3)

This series is a valid representation of the function for |3x| < 1, i.e., for |x| < 1/3.
3. Replace x in eq. (1) with x2 , obtaining
1
= 1 + x2 + (x2 )2 + (x2 )3 + (x2 )4 +
1 x2
= 1 + x2 + x4 + x6 + x8 +

(4)

This series is a valid representation of the function for |x2 | < 1, i.e., for |x| < 1.
4. This one is a bit trickier. In the power series for 1/(1 x), the 1 in the
denominator is crucial. So to handle 1/(2 x) we begin by factoring ot the 2.
1
1
1
1
=
=
2x
2(1 x/2)
2 1 x/2
Now adapt the result of Eq. (3), replacing 3x with x/2

   2  3

1
x
x
1
1
x
1+
+
+
+

=
2 1 x/2
2
2
2
2


1
1
1 3
1 2
=
1 + x + 2x + 3x +
2
2
2
2

(5)

This series is a valid representation of the function for |x/2| < 1, i.e., for |x| < 2.
5. This one is very simple: just multiply the power series of Eq. (2) by x
x
= x (1 x + x2 x3 + x4 + )
1+x
= x x2 + x3 x4 + x5
This series has the same range of validity as that of Example 1: |x| < 1.

(6)