2: SIMPLE PENDULUM

Aims
(1)

Explore how repeated measurements can help to reduce uncertainties;

(2)

Gain experience in obtaining data and plotting graphs;

(3)

Determine a value for the acceleration due to gravity g using a simple pendulum, a
stopwatch and a ruler.

Introduction
A simple pendulum consists of an object (the bob) suspended from a rigid support by a lightweight
string. When the pendulum is set in motion the bob oscillates back and forwards along the arc of a circle
(Fig. 1).
Assuming the following conditions the mass of the string is negligible, the bob is a point mass, air and
other frictional terms are neglected, and the amplitude of the motion is kept very small the period T of
the oscillation is given by:

T = 2

... (2.1),

where is the effective length of the pendulum, i.e. the distance from the point of suspension to the
centre of mass of the bob, and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
By measuring T for various lengths
g.

, we can determine a value for g with some associated uncertainty

Fig. 1. A simple pendulum.

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Equation (2.1) can be rewritten as:

T2 =

4 2
g

This equation is now of the form y = mx, where y =

T2 ,

... (2.2).

x = , and m = 4 /g.

 If you plot T2 versus , what do you expect the graph look like? [Reference: 3.1]

Experimental considerations
Planning plays a similar role in experimental physics to what it does when you orchestrate a military
operation. Our objective here is to get a value for g from the slope of the T2 versus graph for a simple
pendulum. We need to think about how to minimise any uncertainties.
To minimise the influence of the weight of the string on the measurements, we use a light strong thread
and make the weight of the bob very large in comparison with the weight of the string. In reality the bob
is not a point mass. But, if its dimensions are small with respect to the length of the string its dimensions
can be neglected provided we take the effective length of the pendulum to be the distance from the
support point at the top of the string to the centre of mass of the bob.
In practice it is often difficult to measure the effective pendulum length without systematic uncertainties.
If there is such a systematic uncertainty, it will be revealed by a plot of T2 against , the measured
pendulum length. The expected straight line plot will not pass through the origin and the offset of the
intercept from the origin on the axis will indicate the systematic uncertainty in . Note that any
systematic uncertainty in will not affect the gradient of the line and it is for this reason that we
determine g from the gradient rather than directly from a measurement of the period for a fixed value of
the string length .
 To minimise uncertainties, is it better to have a long pendulum or a short pendulum? Why?

To measure the period as accurately as possible we note that the pendulum is moving most rapidly as it
passes through the vertical position. Consequently we are likely to have smaller uncertainties in our time
measurements if we use this as a reference position rather than using time measurements made when the
bob is near its maximum displacement.
 Think about the above paragraph, and justify it in your own words. Why are the uncertainties
smaller when the pendulum is moving most rapidly, rather than when it is nearly stationary at the
positions of maximum displacement?

In addition we can obtain a better estimate of the period by finding the time that it takes for 10 (or 100!)
swings then dividing by the number of swings, rather than by trying to determine the period from only a
single oscillation.
 Explain this statement, by referring to Table 2 in the Reference Manual. [Reference: 4.4]
 Checkpoint 1: ask a demonstrator to review your work

22

Procedure (Determination of g)
Draw up a table to record your observations. An example of a suitable table is shown in Table 2.1
together with a dummy set of observations (do not use these dummy observations!).
Adjust the length of the pendulum to be approximately 90 cm. Measure the length of the pendulum (to
the centre of the bob). Record the length in the table. Estimate the uncertainty in the length and record
it in the table.
 The uncertainty in the length is likely to be greater than the limit of accuracy of the ruler. Why?

Set the pendulum swinging. Using the stopwatch, determine the time T10 for 10 periods. Hence
determine the period T1.
 The deviation of the pendulum should be kept within about 5 of the vertical. Why?

Repeat the observation for another 10 periods, obtain a second value for T10 and T1, and record the
results in a table similar to Table 2.1. From the two values of the period, calculate the mean period T
and estimate its uncertainty T.
Then determine T2 and its possible uncertainty.
Table 2.1. Length and period of the simple pendulum.

(m)
0.227 0.002

T10
(s)

T1
(s)

TT
(s)

T
2
(s )

10.8
10.6

1.08

1.06

1.07 0.01

1.14 0.02

How do we calculate T2 and its possible uncertainty?

Calculating T2 is easy, but what about (T2)? If you look in Table 2 in the Reference Section: Treatment
of Uncertainties, you will see that:
z
A
n
if z = A , then
=n
.
z
A
If the case of our timing measurements, z T2, A T and n = 2. Therefore:

(T 2 )
T
T 2
=2
, which can be rearranged to find (T 2 ) = 2
T or (T 2 ) = 2T T .
2
T
T
T
We will often use this result for (T2) so remember both the result, and the technique used to derive it!
 Checkpoint 2: ask a demonstrator to review your work

23

Repeat the above procedure for pendulum lengths of approximately 50 cm, 25 cm, 12 cm and 6 cm.
Draw graph axes to plot T2 against . Choose the scales so that the origin is included. Plot your data
points on the graph, including the error bars for both T2 and . If one or more of your plotted points
departs significantly from the expected linear relationship, repeat measurements for the corresponding
length of the pendulum. [Reference: 3.2]
From the graph draw the line of best fit to the data points, and then determine the gradient of this line,
which we will call the mean slope, or slopemean. After rearranging equation (2.2), the mean value of g can
be calculated as:

g mean =

4 2
=
slope mean

(2.3).

We can now determine the uncertainty in your value for gmean in the following way. [Reference: 4.3]
Draw the lines which have the maximum and minimum gradients while still being consistent with the
possible uncertainties associated with the various readings. Determine the gradients of these lines,
slopemax and slopemin. Then the uncertainty in the slope is approximately:

slope =
Given that g =

slope max slope min

=
2

(2.4)

4 2
(from equation 2.3), how do we determine the uncertainty g? Well, if you look
slope

at Table 2 in Reference Section 4.4, and note that there is no uncertainty in the numerator 42 (it is a
constant), then:

g slope
=
g
slope

(2.5)

Your measured value of g is therefore gmean g. [Remember to use appropriate units, e.g., m s ]
2

Discussion and Conclusion

Here are some things for you to think about and include in your discussion and conclusion!
 Compare your answer for g to the value for Canberra Airport, which has been accurately measured at
-2
9.7960663 m s (courtesy of the Bureau of Mineral Resources). Comment on the likely sources of
error in your estimate for g.
 If the mass of the bob was increased, and all other parameters kept constant, would you expect the
period to change? Why, or why not?
 If you transported the pendulum from Canberra to Jervis Bay, and repeated this experiment, would
you expect the period to remain the same? Why, or why not?
 Checkpoint 3: ask a demonstrator to finish marking your experiment!

24

Extension work (optional, about an hour, +1 Checkpoint)

If performed carefully, this experiment is capable of returning quite small uncertainties. However, you
have probably noticed that your plotted graph does not match Equation (2.2) in terms of showing an
intercept at the origin. In other words, your data is telling you that an assumption somewhere along the
line is faulty!
Examine the apparatus carefully, and explore what physical information about the setup could be
determined from the intercept(s).

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