Physics of Fatigue

Physics of Fatigue
Professor Darrell F. Socie

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved
Contact Information
Darrell Socie
Department of Design and Production
Office: 227 K1
darrell.socie@aalto.fi
Physics of Fatigue
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Fatigue, How and Why

Physics of Fatigue
Material Properties
Introduction to eFatigue
Physics of Fatigue
2 of 73
Size Scale for Studying Fatigue

Atoms
10-10
Dislocations
10-8
10-6
Crystals
10-4
Specimens
10-2
100
Structures
102
Understand the physics on this scale

Model the physics on this scale
Use the models on this scale
Physics of Fatigue
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The Fatigue Process

Crack nucleation
Small crack growth in an elastic-plastic
stress field
Macroscopic crack growth in a nominally
elastic stress field
Final fracture
Physics of Fatigue
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Mechanisms Crack Nucleation

Nucleation in Slip Bands inside Grain
Nucleation at Grain Boundaries
Nucleation at Inclusions
Physics of Fatigue
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1903 - Ewing and Humfrey

Cyclic deformation leads
to the development of slip
bands and fatigue cracks
N = 1,000
N = 2,000
N = 10,000
N = 40,000
Nf = 170,000
Ewing, J.A. and Humfrey, J.C. The fracture of metals under repeated alterations of stress,
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Vol. A200, 1903, 241-250
Physics of Fatigue
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Crack Nucleation
Physics of Fatigue
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Slip Band in Copper
Polak, J. Cyclic Plasticity and Low Cycle Fatigue Life of Metals, Elsevier, 1991
Physics of Fatigue
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Slip Band Formation
Extrusion
Undeformed
material
Intrusion
Loading
Physics of Fatigue
Unloading
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Slip Bands
Ma, B-T and Laird C. Overview of fatigue behavior in copper sinle crystals II Population, size, distribution and growth
Kinetics of stage I cracks for tests at constant strain amplitude, Acta Metallurgica, Vol 37, 1989, 337-348
Physics of Fatigue
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2124-T4 Cracking in Slip Bands
N = 60
N = 240
N = 1200
Physics of Fatigue
N = 300
N = 2000
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Crack at Particle
Material: BS L65 Aluminum
Loading: 63 ksi, R=0 for
500,000+ cycles, followed by 68
ksi, R=0 to failure. Cracks found
during 68 ksi loading.
S. Pearson, Initiation of Fatigue Cracks in Commercial Aluminum Alloys and the Subsequent Propagation
of Very Short Cracks, RAE TR 72236, Dec 1972.
Physics of Fatigue
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7075-T6 Cracking at Inclusion
Physics of Fatigue
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Subsurface Crack Initiation
Y. Murakami, Metal Fatigue: Effects of Small Defects and Nonmetallic Inclusions, 2002
Physics of Fatigue
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Fatigue Limit and Strength Correlation

Fatigue Strength, MPa
1250
0.6
0.5
1000
750
0.35
500
250
500
1000
1500
2000
Tensile Strength, MPa

From Forrest, Fatigue of Metals, Pergamon Press, London, 1962
Physics of Fatigue
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Crack Nucleation Summary

Highly localized plastic deformation
Surface phenomena
Stochastic process
Physics of Fatigue
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Surface Damage
surface
surface
10 m
bulk
100 m
20-25 austenitic steel in symmetrical push-pull fatigue

(20C, p/2= 0.4%) : short cracks on the surface and in the bulk
From Jacques Stolarz, Ecole Nationale Superieure des Mines
Presented at LCF 5 in Berlin, 2003
Physics of Fatigue
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Stage I and Stage II

loading direction
free
surface
Stage I
Physics of Fatigue
Stage II
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Stage I Crack Growth

S
Single primary slip system
S
individual grain
near - tip plastic zone
Physics of Fatigue
Stage I crack is strongly affected by slip

characteristics, microstructure
dimensions, stress level, extent of near
tip plasticity
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Small Cracks at Notches

notch plastic zone
notch stress field
crack tip plastic zone
Crack growth controlled by the notch plastic strains

Physics of Fatigue
20 of 73
Small Crack Growth
Inconel 718
= 0.02
Nf = 936
1.0 mm
N = 900
Physics of Fatigue
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Crack Length Observations

2.5
Crack Length, mm
F-495
H-491
J-603
I-471
C-399
G-304
1.5
0.5
0
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
Cycles
Physics of Fatigue
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Crack - Microstructure Interactions
da/dN, mm/cycle
10-6
E
D
10-7
A
0.03 0.025 0.02 0.015 0.01 0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
Crack Length, mm
Akiniwa, Y., Tanaka, K., and Matsui, E.,Statistical Characteristics of Propagation of Small Fatigue Cracks in Smooth
Specimens of Aluminum Alloy 2024-T3, Materials Science and Engineering, Vol. A104, 1988, 105-115
Physics of Fatigue
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Strain-Life Data
10m
Strain Amplitude
2
1mm
100 m
fracture
Crack size
0.1
0.01
10-3
10-4
10-5
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
Reversals, 2Nf
Most of the life is spent in microcrack growth in the
plastic strain dominated region
Physics of Fatigue
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Stage II Crack Growth
Locally, the crack grows in shear

Macroscopically it grows in tension
Physics of Fatigue
25 of 73
Long Crack Growth
Plastic zone size is much larger than the material

microstructure so that the microstructure does not
play such an important role.
Physics of Fatigue
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Crack Growth Rates of Metals
Material strength does not play a major role in fatigue crack growth
Physics of Fatigue
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Stresses Around a Crack
Maximum Load
monotonic plastic zone
Physics of Fatigue
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Stresses Around a Crack (continued)
Minimum Load
cyclic plastic zone
Physics of Fatigue
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Crack Closure
a
S=0
Physics of Fatigue
S = 175
S = 250
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Crack Opening Load

Damaging portion of loading history
Opening load
Nondamaging portion of loading history
Physics of Fatigue
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Mode I, Mode II, and Mode III

Mode I
opening
Physics of Fatigue
Mode II
in-plane shear
Mode III
out-of-plane shear
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crack growth direction
Mode I Growth
Physics of Fatigue
5 m
33 of 73
Mode II Growth
shear stress
slip bands
10 m
crack growth direction
Physics of Fatigue
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1045 Steel - Tension

Damage Fraction N/Nf
1.0
0.8
Tension
0.6
0.4
Shear
0.2
Nucleation
100 m crack
0
1
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Fatigue Life, 2Nf
Physics of Fatigue
35 of 73
1045 Steel - Torsion

1.0
0.8
f
Damage Fraction N/Nf
Tension
0.6
0.4
0.2
Shear
Nucleation
0
1
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Fatigue Life, 2Nf
Physics of Fatigue
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Things Worth Remembering

Fatigue is a localized process involving the
nucleation and growth of cracks to failure.
Fatigue is caused by localized plastic
deformation.
Most of the fatigue life is consumed growing
microcracks in the finite life region
Crack nucleation is dominate at long lives.
Physics of Fatigue
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Physics of Fatigue
Material Properties
Physics of Fatigue
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Characterization
Stress Life Curve
Fatigue Limit
Strain Life Curve

Cyclic Stress Strain Curve
Crack Growth Curve

Threshold Stress Intensity
Physics of Fatigue
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Bending Fatigue
stress
stress amplitude
F
Bending stress:
Physics of Fatigue
time
stress range
Mc
=
I
40 of 73
SN Curve
Stress Amplitude, MPa
500
Monel Alloy
400
300
200
1x108
2x108 3x108 4x108
5x108
Cycles to Failure
500
400
300
200
105
106
107
108
109
Cycles to Failure
Testing time
@ 30 Hz
Physics of Fatigue
1 hour
1 day
1 month
1 year
41 of 73
Fatigue Strength
Fatigue Life
Alloy
2014-T4
2024-T4
6061-T6
7075-T6
Physics of Fatigue
105
290
297
186
276
106
235
214
152
200
107
186
166
117
166
108
152
145
104
152
109
138
138
90
145
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6061-T6 Aluminum Test Data
Sharpe et. al. Fatigue Design of Aluminum Components and Structures , 1996
Physics of Fatigue
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SN Curve for Steel

104
S
b
= S'f (Nf )
2
1000
fatigue limit
100
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
Cycles
The fatigue limit is usually only found in steel laboratory specimens
Physics of Fatigue
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Very High Cycle Fatigue of Steel

104
surface failures
large inclusions
conventional
fatigue limit
internal
inclusions
1000
100
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
1010
Cycles
Physics of Fatigue
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Fatigue Damage
10000
S
b
= S'f (Nf )
2
1
1000
10
100
100
101
102
103
104
Cycles
S
Nf = '
2 Sf
105
106
107
1
b
Damage S10
Physics of Fatigue
46 of 73
Fatigue Limit Strength Correlation

Fatigue Strength, MPa
1250
0.6
0.5
1000
750
0.35
500
250
500
1000
1500
2000
Tensile Strength, MPa

From Forrest, Fatigue of Metals, Pergamon Press, London, 1962
Physics of Fatigue
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Fatigue Limit Strength Correlation
Physics of Fatigue
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Strain Controlled Testing
Physics of Fatigue
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Cyclic Hardening / Softening
Physics of Fatigue
50 of 73
Stable Hysteresis Loop

Hysteresis loop
Physics of Fatigue
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Strain-Life Data
Stress Amplitude
2
600
500
400

=
+
2 2E
2 K'
300
200
1/ n'
100
0
0
0.004
0.008
0.012
2
During cyclic deformation, the material deforms on a path
described by the cyclic stress strain curve
Strain Amplitude
Physics of Fatigue
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Cyclic Stress Strain Curve
Physics of Fatigue
53 of 73
Strain Amplitude
Strain-Life Data
- 2Nf
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
10-4
10-5
100
101
102
2 Reversals, 2Nf = 1 Cycle, Nf

Physics of Fatigue
103
104
105
106
107
Reversals, 2Nf
54 of 73
Strain Amplitude
Elastic and Plastic Strain-Life Data

1
Plastic
0.1
0.01
0.001
Elastic
10-4
10-5
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
Reversals, 2Nf
Physics of Fatigue
55 of 73
Strain Amplitude
Strain-Life Curve
1
0.1
'f
'f
= (2Nf )b + 'f (2Nf )c
2 E
0.01
0.001
10-4
'f
E
2Nt
10-5
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
Reversals, 2Nf
Physics of Fatigue
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Transition Fatigue Life
From Dowling, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, 1999

Physics of Fatigue
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Crack Growth Testing
Physics of Fatigue
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Stress Concentration of a Crack
K T = 1+ 2
2a
for a crack
a ~ 10-3
KT ~ 2000
local = 2000 applied
~ 10-9
Traditional material properties like tensile strength
are not very useful for cracked structures
Physics of Fatigue
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Stress Intensity Factor
K = a
K characterizes the magnitude of the

stresses, strains, and displacements in the
neighborhood of a crack tip
2a
Two cracks with the same K will have

the same behavior
Physics of Fatigue
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Crack Growth Measurements
Physics of Fatigue
Crack size
2a
da
dN
a2
a1
Cycles
61 of 73
Crack Growth Data

Crack Growth Rate, m/cycle
10-6
10-7
Kc
10-8
da
= C K m
dN
10-9
m~3
10-10
10-11
10-12
10
KTH
Physics of Fatigue
100
K,MPa m
62 of 73
Threshold Region
a
K TH > a f
w
threshold stress intensity

flaw shape
flaw size
operating stresses
Physics of Fatigue
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Threshold Stress Intensity
From Dowling, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, 1999

Physics of Fatigue
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Non-propagating Crack Sizes

Small cracks are frequently semielliptical surface cracks
2
a
K TH > 1.12
K TH
ac = 0.63
u
Smooth specimen fatigue limit
2
K TH
ac = 2.52
u
Physics of Fatigue
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Non-propagating Crack Sizes

Crack Size, mm
K TH = 5 MPa m
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Ultimate Strength, MPa
Physics of Fatigue
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Stable Crack Growth

10-6
10-7
Kc
10-8
da
= C K m
dN
10-9
10-10
Stable growth region
10-11
10-12
10
KTH
Physics of Fatigue
100
K,MPa m
67 of 73
Crack Growth Data

yield
Ferritic-Pearlitic Steel:
252
273
392
415
10-6
da
= 6.9 10 12 K MPa m
dN
3 .0
Martensitic Steel:
da
= 1.4 10 10 K MPa m
dN
10-7
2.25
Austenitic Stainless Steel:
10-8
5
10
K, MPam
100
da
= 5.6 10 12 K MPa m
dN
3.25
Barsom, Fatigue Crack Propagation in Steels of Various Yield Strengths

Journal of Engineering for Industry, Trans. ASME, Series B, Vol. 93, No. 4, 1971, 1190-1196
Physics of Fatigue
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Aluminum Crack Growth Rate Data
Sharp, Nordmark and Menzemer, Fatigue Design of Aluminum Components and Structures, 1996
Physics of Fatigue
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Crack Growth Data
Crack Length, mm
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
50
100
150
200
Cycles x103
250
300
350
Virkler, Hillberry and Goel, The Statistical Nature of Fatigue Crack Propagation, Journal of Engineering Materials
and Technology, Vol. 101, 1979, 148-153
Physics of Fatigue
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Things Worth Remembering
Method
Stress-Life
Strain-Life
Crack Growth
Physics of Fatigue
Physics
Crack Nucleation
Microcrack Growth
Macrocrack Growth
Size
0.01 mm
0.1 - 1 mm
> 1mm
71 of 73

Physics of Fatigue
Material Properties
Physics of Fatigue
72 of 73
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Physics of Fatigue
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Physics of Fatigue

Professor Darrell F. Socie

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Fatigue, How and Why

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Size Scale for Studying Fatigue

Understand the physics on this scale

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

The Fatigue Process

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Mechanisms Crack Nucleation

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

1903 - Ewing and Humfrey

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Slip Band in Copper

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Slip Band Formation

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

2124-T4 Cracking in Slip Bands

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

7075-T6 Cracking at Inclusion

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Subsurface Crack Initiation

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Fatigue Limit and Strength Correlation

Tensile Strength, MPa

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Crack Nucleation Summary

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

20-25 austenitic steel in symmetrical push-pull fatigue

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Stage I and Stage II

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Stage I Crack Growth

Single primary slip system

Stage I crack is strongly affected by slip

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Small Cracks at Notches

crack tip plastic zone

Crack growth controlled by the notch plastic strains

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Small Crack Growth

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Crack Length Observations

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Crack - Microstructure Interactions

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Stage II Crack Growth

Locally, the crack grows in shear

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Long Crack Growth

Plastic zone size is much larger than the material

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Crack Growth Rates of Metals

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Stresses Around a Crack

monotonic plastic zone

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved

Stresses Around a Crack (continued)

cyclic plastic zone

2004-2014 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved