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THE
GENERAL
AND
SPECIAL
THEORY
BY
ALBERT
FBOFSasOB
EINSTEIN,
07
IH
FBTSICS
THS
tTHITIlBBITT
W.
UHIVEUSITT
NEW
HENRY
HOLT
OF
BEBLIH
BY
TRANSLATED
EGBERT
Ph.D.
LAWSON,
OF
M.Sc.
SHEFFIELD
YORK
AND
1921
COMPANY
19S80
COFYBIGHT,
BT
COMPANY
HOLT
HENBY
AND
PREFACE
THE
of
view,
not
standard
the
The
reader.
in his
The
and
Einstein,
prinzip
be
to
H.
(The
book
Das
the
author's
in
the
of
der
of
parts
(The
Foundations
Ambr.
Barth,
special theory
the
1916;
of
in
of
this
der
allgemeinen
Theory
assumes
relativity.
V
of
theory
A.
Das
some
of
tivity
relaA.
Lorentz,
RelativiUUscollection
Lane's
exhaustive
"
Vieweg
with
relativity, together
is
the
vances
issenschaften (Ad-
Friedr.
invariants,
General
book
in M.
in the
on
Teubner's
W
by
H.
title
G,
B.
also
of
theory
theory
the
the
published
Grundlagen
of
of
the
pains
no
and
special
mathemaiischen
"
general
Die
book
under
Sciences),
RdativiUttsprinzip
the
papers
Relativity)
Mathematical
The
original
published
Fortschritte
Braunschweig.
necessary
found
of
spite
de-
of
ideas
intelligible form,
amount
part
main
of
and,
himself
the
'
that
fair
the
spared
fimdaments
Principle
to
on
are
presimies
book,
present
most
Minkowski'
monographs
in
has
to
mathematical
are
work
will
of
author
endeavour
simplest
'
force
and
patience
the
who,
who
examination,
of
the
apparatus
corresponding
shortness
into
but
theory,
The
matriculation
university
of
education
of
sible,
pos-
readers
mathematical
the
as
philosophical point
the
physics.
theoretical
those
to
and
in
with
conversant
of
of
scientific
far
as
insight
exact
an
interested
are
intended,
Relativity
of
general
is
give
to
theory
from
book
present
dealt
with
in
Son,
the
the
RelativiUltstheorie
Relativity)
familiarity
"
with
Joh.
the
vi
RELATIVITY
whole,
they
in the
actually originated.
clearness, it appeared
sHghtest
attention
I
presentation.
of
precept
L.
that
cobbler.
from
to
the
the
of the
herent
in-
are
I have
hand,
tions
empiricalphysical foundaa
who
wanderer
happy
held
with-
"step-motherly" fashion,
imfamiliar
with physics may
not
for trees.
few
in
theory
the
the other
On
of
to the
having
diffictdties which
subject.
the
matters
of
pretence
reader
readers
whom
the
to
left to
no
treated
purposely
that
be
to
to
of
physicist,
theoretical
brilliant
make
scrupulously
according
elegance ought
paying
elegance
the
to
that
inevitable
me
adhered
Boltzmann,
so
to
of
interest
the
In
should
the
in which
connection
and
sequence
the
May
of
hours
imable
was
book
to
bring
the
see
some
one
suggestivethought!
A.
EINSTEIN
December, igi6
the
IN
THE
TO
NOTE
present
detailed
THIRD
by
book,
entitled
Time
"
the
firm
to mathematicians
by
H.
excellent
and
general theory
Weyl,
of
Raum
Matter),
the
on
relativity,written
Ushed
(1918) an
year
manual
EDITION
"
may
and
Zeit
be
"
Materie
warmly
physicists.
was
(Space
recommended
"
BIOGRAPHICAL
ALBERT
Jewish
the
of
six
school
months
From
1896
to
mathematics
School
school
secondary
some
time
and
having
obtained
Office
The
of
in
Einstein's
Theory
the
the
These
Emission
were
position
may
in
the
be
and
followed
vii
High
teacher.
For
private
tutor,
he
naturalised,
the
in
he
Swiss
Patent
occupied
the
tiU
to
the
years
1909.
important
most
this
period.
The
Special
of Energy,
Absorption
some
studied
becoming
and
Movement,
his
studies.
mentioned:
Inertia
year.
Technical
back
date
he
land
Switzer-
to
Einstein
was
involved
of Relativity,
Brownian
his
intended
engineer
theories
these
Amongst
of
ideas
where
accompanied
become
which
1902,
main
as
Germany.
proceeded
he
1879
sijrteenth
(Gymnasium)
meanwhile
post
he
at
he
afterwards
his
Albert
as
in
Munich,
continue
to
physics
Zurich,
in
he
1900
and
in
until
whence
later
bom
German-
Wiirtemberg,
Munich,
at
of
son
was
spent
were
MUan,
to
parents
Uhn,
Gymnasium
the
leaving
After
He
parents.
town
attended
is the
EINSTEIN
schooldays
His
NOTE
Theory
of
Quantum-Law
of Light
later
(1905).
by
the
viii
RELATIVITY
During
the
the
of
latter
similar
chair
continued
afterwards
his
received
Einstein
there
the
call to
Science, Berlin,
as
is
able
freely to
his studies
at
the
here
that
the
he
on
17).
Professor
Berlin, and,
for
Institute
Professor
His
was
two
first
sons
in
of
Academy
Van't
Berlin
Hoff.
himself
Academy,
in
also
physics
and
his
completing
lectures
Physical
the
at
addition, he
Einstein
various
on
University of
is Director
Research
wife, whom
has
he
of
of this
elder
Recently Professor
cousin, with
married
marriage,
Zurich, the
whom
been
from
fellow-student
when
of
the
the
Kaiser
Gesellschaft.
Wilhelm
f
in
of
Theory of Relativity(1915-
Einstein
specialbranches
accepted
devote
to
succeeded
General
work
1912.
1914,
to
successor
Einstein
was
until
Prussian
Professor
it
until
he
activities
the
at
being appointed
Ordinarius
Professor
the
at
occupied
of
year
he
191
Extraordinarius
Professor
as
the
he
Zurich,
the
Theory ofRelativity.
to
1909
Professor
University
remained
In
interval
of
post
University
to
both
being
is
at
married
in 1903,
There
of whom
sixteen
now
married.
Berne
Serbia.
Einstein
he
twice
were
are
years
a
ing
liv-
of age.
widowed
living in Berlin.
R.
W.
L.
NOTE
TRANSLATOR'S
IN
enlarge
to
book
which
At
not
with
Germany's
"The
of
for
valuable
additions
biographical
end
the
of
references
note
book,
guide
subject
to
E.
friend
the
those
book,
the
been
and
This
who
these
included
of
at
the
Enghsh
list, which
is
exhaustive,
readers
from
and,
hst
eral
Gen-
written
have
Author,
subject.
than
tender
to
Professor
W.
has
III,
the
of
of
one
Appendix
Apart
Index
an
by
plied
sup-
wish
to
intended
is
as
the
pursue
farther.
desire
artists.
on
the
to
kindly
himself,
translation.
to
suggestive
more
of
the
to
original.
Einstein
Relativity,"
this
specially
the
me
remarks,
additions
Confirmation
Experimental
Theory
in
celebrated
most
those
to
portrait
for
prefatory
Professor
request.
my
English-
necessary
Author's
appear
the
to
hardly
is
attention
do
me
the
on
draw
to
except
translation
it
public,
reading
on
this
presenting
Curtis,
Dr.
my
S.
R.
best
Mihier,
A.R.C.SC.,
Arthur
thanks
Hohnes,
to
D.Sc,
F.R.A.S.,
leagues
col-
my
and
also
A.R.C.Sc.,
Mr.
to
my
F.G.S.,
RELATIVITY
of
the
Imperial
reading
for
for
and
of
expression
their
of
course
have
its
for
thanks
bestowed
their
also
and
on
to
The
University
June
12,
of
1920
Sheffieid
owe
Methuen
Messrs.
advice,
the
and
for
during
work
publication.
Labosatory
Physics
helpful
suggestions.
ROBERT
The
in
kindness
for
manuscript,
numerous
coimsel
ready
they
care
the
through
criticism,
an
College,
W.
LAWSON
the
the
CONTENTS
PART
OF
THEORY
SPECIAL
THE
RELATIVITY,
PAGE
I.
Geometrical
of
Meaning
Physical
sitions
PropoI
n.
III.
'
rv.
The
Mechanics
of
System
Co-ordinates
12
.
"VV.
of
Prmciple
The
(in the
Relativity
stricted
Re-
Sense)
VI.
Theorem
The
of
in
employed
14
the
of
Addition
Classical
Velocities
Mechanics
19
...
VII.
The
VIII.
On
of
Propagation
of
the
of
IncompatibiUty
Apparent
of
Light
with
the
the
Law
ciple
Prin-
Relativity
Idea
of
21
in
Time
Physics
25
....
DC.
X.
The
On
Relativity
the
of
Simultaneity
of
Relativity
the
Conception
30
of
Distance
XI.
The
XII.
The
GalUeian
The
Classical
in
Time
and
Space
Co-ordinates
of
System
34
Transformation
Lorentz
of
Behaviour
Clocks
in
Motion
Measuring-Rods
36
and
42
3d
xii
RELATIVITY
PAGE
Xm.
Theorem
The
XrV.
of the
of Velocities.
of Fizeau
Experiment
45
......
Value
Heuristic
The
Addition
of
the
Theory
of
Relativity
XV.
XVI.
General
Results
of the
the
and
Experience
Relativty
XVn.
50
Special Theory
58
Four-dimensional
The
Gravitational
XX.
The
Equality of
Mass
as
Postulate
XXI.
In
what
on
XXIV.
XXV.
XXVI.
Mechanics
General
78
of
of the
Special
Relativityimsatisfactory?
the General
84
.
ciple
Prin-
87
and
Rotating Body
Gaussian
for the
and
from
and
Measuring-Rods
of Reference
Non-Euclidean
93
...
98
Continuum
Co-ordinates
Space-time
Theory
Euclidean
of
Continuum
103
of the
Relativity considered
Continuum
69
Gravitational
the Foundations
are
of Clocks
Euclidean
The
Inertial and
Relativity
Behaviour
65
74
Relativity
Inferences
Few
of
XXIII.
of
of
Theory
XXn.
Field
Respects
Classical
Principleof Relativity
Argument
an
RELATIYITY
OF
General
XIX.
Space
THEORY
GENERAL
Specialand
of
PART
XVIII.
52
;
.
Minkowski's
THE
Theory
Special
as
108
xiii
CONTENTS
PAGE
of the General
Space-time Continuum
The
XXVn.
Theory of Relativityis
not
Euclidean
Continuum
XXVIII.
Formulation
Exact
of
The
XXIX.
iii
of the
General
ciple
Prin-
Relativity
Solution
of the
the
on
115
Problem
Basis
of Gravitation
the
of
General
Principleof Relativity
ni
PART
CONSIDERATIONS
ON
AS
Cosmological
XXX.
119
UNIVERSE
THE
WHOLE
Difficulties
of
Newton's
Theory
of
Possibility
The
XXXI.
125
The
Structure
General
"Fmite"
and
yet
Universe
"Unbounded"
XXXn.
of
128
Theory of Relativity
135
....
APPENDICES
I,
Simple Derivation
of
the
Lorentz
mation
Transfor139
n.
Minkowski's
Four-dimensional
[Supplementary
ni.
The
to
Section
")
146
....
of the General
Experimental Confirmatiop
Theory of Relativity
(a) Motion
of the PeriheUon
(6) Deflection
of
Light by
148
of
a
Mercury
the Red
150
Gravitational
Field
(c) Displacement
152
of
SpectralLines
towards
iSS
BrBLIOGRAPHY
l6l
Index
165
RELATIVITY
PART
PHYSICAL
RELATIVITY
OF
THEORY
SPECIAL
THE
GEOMETRICAL
OF
MEANING
PROPOSITIONS
IN
schooldays
your
made
book
of
"
with
structure,
which
were
hours
conscientious
by
experience,
past
your
the
even
science
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certainty
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mean
true?
be
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Let
leave
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By
perhaps
But
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"
certainly regard
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would
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with
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ing
build-
remember
you
about
chased
noble
this
lofty staircase
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RELATIVITY
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It is not
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SPECIAL
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shall
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branch
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express
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RELATIVITY
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can
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this
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then
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in
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at
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and
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For
of
later
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shall
the
stage
shall
consider
see
THEORY
SPECIAL
This
cides.
RELATIVITY
to scientific description,
appliesnot only
also
but
OF
everyday life.
to
If I
analyse the
followingresult.
the
at
to. which
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with
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But
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of
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primitive
London"
name
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specification
pole, suppliesus
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basis
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the
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reader
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in
to
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L.)
here
to
expression "coiacidence
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with
The
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length
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specificationof place
The
to
to
ensure
its
that
investigatefurther
in
space."
differences
in
applicability
This
of
the
significance
conception
opinion
practice.
are
is sufficiently
scarcely
THE
SYSTEM
illustration,
we
of this
in which
has
OF
able
are
of the
refinement
CO-ORDINATES
to
the
see
conception
manner
of
position
developed.
been
(a) We
the
imagine
rigid body,
which
to
the
is referred, supplemented
place specification
such
require is
reached
object
the
that
manner
by
whose
in
position we
completed rigidbody.
the
designated points
(c) We
been
of
erected.
the
the
By
cloud
ground,
which
pole
and
of the
pole
reach
of
should
should
be
make
has
the
in
required
not
the
on
length
order
to
ourselves
see
that
of reference.
means
of numerical
independent
this is attained
system
This
by
In
the
it will be
description of position,it
the
possibleby
we
of the
positions (possessingnames)
marked
to
even
properties of
the
determine
we
have
this consideration
advantageous if,in
body
cloud
positions
accoimt
hght,
cloud
the cloud.
From
to
of
optical observations
diEEerent
into
of the
the
of
means
taking
we
height
reaches
from
propagation
instead
of reference.
of the
speak
the
when
measuring-rod)
the
with
the
physics of
applicationof
measures
existence
on
the
of
rigid
measurement
the Cartesian
of co-ordinates.
consists of three
each
other
and
plane
surfaces
rigidlyattached
lar
perpendicuto
rigid
SPECIAL
Referred
body.
of
scene
which
be
those
three
series
will be
detennined
from
the
manipulations
laid down
In
the
The
be
with
Euclidean
by
of
determined
geometry.
co-ordinates
with
If the
results
maintain
actually
not
which
constitute
generally
are
their
physics
and
referred.
granted
for
to
The
that
imtil
means.
to
are
such
the laws
sought
be
considerations.^
result:
involves
Every
the
use
have
events
of EucHdean
"distance"
means
of
the
of
to
of
be
for
hold
geometry
being represented
convention
of
two
rigidbody.
refinement
necessary
treated
structions
con-
resulting relationshiptakes
physicallyby
on
always
following
in space
which
"distances," the
marks
the
events
rigid body
the above
obtain
descriptionof
indirect
ordinates
co-
clearness,the physicalmeaning
with
thus
We
by
astronomy
of position must
specifications
in accordance
not
of the
determined
rigidrods, but by
of
by
methods
of
rigid measuring-
practice,the rigidsurfaces
system
lengths
performed according to
rods
of the event
scene
surfaces.
plane
(x,y, z)
co-ordinates
perpendicularscan
of
(for the
of the lengths of
specification
dropped
three
RELATIVITY
the
system of co-ordinates,
perpendiculars or
can
these
the
OF
event
any
three
the
to
part) by
main
to
THEORY
we
and
come
in the second
modification
to deal with
of these
views
the graeral
does
theoty
not
of
become
relativity,
SPACE
AND
TIME
"'TT^HE
IN
of
purpose
bodies
sins
I
were
I should
serious
It
is not
"position"
of
and
the
and
railway
drop
from
falls
Do
in
reahty"
on
section
the
we
straight
is
what
Moreover,
space"
From
the
answer
entirely
line
shun
the
the
that
I
or
on
vague
of
deed
mis-
ask:
He
"in
parabola?
motion
by
"in
the
previous
In
the
word
stone
now
stone
of
in
descend
the
self-evident.
the
influence
by
considerations
is
without
observes
here
meant
by
window
the
curve.
traversed
"positions"
the
sins.
here
the
notices
paraboUc
planations.
ex-
these
at
stone
who
pedestrian
this
travelling uniformly,
the
see
in
embankment,
the
footpath
the
earth
to
place,
is
lucidity
imderstood
disregarding
Then,
line.
disclose
stand
which
on
resistance,
straight
be
"space."
stone
it.
air
is to
carriage
a
throwing
what
clear
of
detailed
and
reflection
to
with
mechanics
of
with
space
spirit
aims
how
conscience
my
proceed
us
describe
in
position
sacred
the
Let
is to
load
the
formulate
to
without
way,
their
against
MECHANICS
mechanics
change
time."
grave
CLASSICAL
first
"space,"
SPECIAL
10
of
which,
it
by
slightestconception, and
the
form
"motion
The
have
already
useful
in
positionto
line relative
attached
of
to
thing
such
traverses
relative
it is
In
order
motion,
must
with
is
supplemented
in virtue
be
the
i.e. for
every
be
situated
of this
stated
there.
by
such
take
our
'
stand
That
is,a
on
curve
the
the
what
time
the
data
must
be
definition
definition,these
capable
on
point
at
of time
along which
the
of
body
can
(resultsof
observation.
groimd
that,
time-values
magnitudes
of
the
alters its
body
These
regarded essentiallyas
measurements)
trajectory
of reference.
specifyhow
must
completedescriptionof
time;
trajectory it
body
have
to
we
position
particularbody
ihej
there is
that
With
jectory
independently existing tra-
an
as
ground
the
clearlyseen
system
parabola.
are
rigidly
to
to
straight
co-ordinates
of
it describes
example
aid of this
stone
system
is
description,we
rigidly attached
(embankment)
reference"
of
"body
carriage,but
the
to
The
ing
preced-
co-ordinates," which
of
say:
co-ordinates
no
of
for mathematical
idea
embankment)
or
in detail in the
If instead
"system
insert
replace
we
defined
been
section.
we
to
(railway carriage
reference
not
can-
we
practicallyrigidbody
positionsrelative to the body
relative
of reference,"
of
honestly acknowledge,
must
we
RELATIVITY
OF
THEORY
If
classical
moves.
we
me-
SPACE
chanics,
we
in
the
of
identical
following
two
clocks
the
railway-carriage
and
them,
Each
his
each
In
the
of
the
the
tick
this
of
with
have
to
of
have
we
of
difficulty
in
detail
later.
in
holding
not
by
propagation
second
deal
is
involved
inaccuracy
velocity
he
taken
on
stone
his
at
hand.
of
account
the
finiteness
light.
With
prevailing
other.
position
the
by
of
one
the
the
occupied
at
man
holding
footpath
our
imagine
the
determines
clock
connection
is
the
for
We
manner.
on
observers
the
requirement
window
man
11
construction;
reference-body
own
TIME
this
satisfy
can
illustration
AND
here
of
this
we
the
and
shall
IV
THE
GALILEIAN
OF
SYSTEM
CO-ORDINATES
is well
AS
known,
mechanics
of
known
thus:
bodies
motion
in
also
about
fixed
stars
certainly
if
Now
rigidly
this
we
we
use
system,
day,
law
move
in
for
is
So
these
circle.
not
the
bodies,
of
earth,
opposed
we
the
inertia
of
which
relative
a
circle
statement
adhere
to
to
is
to
of
of
this
of
systems
fixed
of
can
visible
the
only
of
astronomical
an
to
if
system
le
then,
of
course
it
approximation.
describes
star
which
which
law
of
but
The
the
says
systems
co-ordinates
motions
to
only
mechanics,
which
imiform
law
or
degree
that
of
or
description.
the
in
relative
of
the
which
refer
rest
This
fixed
of inertia.
of
motion
to
every
result
must
other
system
radius
a
from
high
is
sufficiently far
reference-bodies
to
attached
immense
the
holds
which
stated
line.
bodies
are
the
be
mechanical
in
used
of
can
permissible
co-ordinates,
law
of inertia,
state
the
the
indicates
be
in
straight
something
law
removed
continues
fundamental
Galilei-Newton,
the
as
body
the
stars
do
co-ordinates
law
ordinates
co-
not
of
RELATIVITY
OF
PRINCIPLE
THE
IN
attain
to
let
the
return
us
("uniform"
carriage
the
such
we
of
and
moving
to
manner
uniformly
vmiformly
second
and
but
be
that
K,
and
in
system
14
stiU
If
straight
system
find
line
then
it
straight
the
the
that
ity
veloc-
form
uni-
be
in
Expressed
say:
line.
from
raven
in
from
straight
would
line.
may
in
air
of different
one
it
doing).
the
in
the
to
so
observed
should
we
straight
co-ordinate
in
as
flying
the
we
co-ordinate
motion,
would
raven
in
abstract
its
carriage,
direction,
and
moving
the
relative
flying through
raven
observe
railway
velocity
although
rotate
not
is vmiform
to
were
motion
does
it
tion
transla-
constant
position
way
rail-
travelling
uniform
ness,
clear-
the
because
its
that
manner
moving
to
embankment,
the
If
yet
imagine
us
motion
it is of
changes
be
to
"translation"
embankment
Let
its
of
example
our
because
direction,
and
to
call
We
uniformly.
possible
greatest
supposed
carriage
THE
SENSE)
RESTRICTED
order
(IN
an
is
mass
with
respect
will
also
Une
relative
K', provided
be
that
THE
the
PRINCIPLE
latter
motion
is
with
discussion
follows
respect
is
in relation
of
mechanical
advance
we
K'
K,
do
devoid
the
general
capable
of classical
the
of the
electrodynamics
evident
and
that
question of
vaHdity
system
nm
according
with
the
to
respect
to
principle of
sense).
of
that
there
was
no
need
principleof relativity.
recent
of the
all natural
representation with
development
it became
for the
phenomena.
became
K'
of
and
more
classical mechanics
of all natural
to
phenomena
as
called
optics
insufficient foundation
the
to
laws
of this
more
good
If, relative
natural
mechanics,
vaUdity
hold
co-ordinate
convinced
was
were
in view
more
restricted
one
as
phenomena
But
is
K'
to
generalisation
our
thus:
respect
of
to K.
in
tenet
statement
long
to doubt
the
then
condition
Relative
respect
step farther
same
(inthe
relativity
help
with
with
This
the
the
Galileian
Galilei-Newton
rotation, then
course
As
of
is
it is in
K,
to
system,
K'
system
uniformly moving
of
exactly
K.
express
is
their
with
preceding section, it
translation.
laws
exactly as they
when
translatory
co-ordinate
co-ordinate
motion
uniform
We
IS
In accordance
in the
GaUleian
when,
the
uniform
to K.
contained
other
one,
executing
RELATIVITY
that:
If X
every
OF
affords
an
physicaldescription
At
this
juncture
the
of relativity
principle
it did
not
appear
16
SPECIAL
THEORY
impossiblethat
be in the
the
the
since it
basis
bodies
with
of
must
therefore
domain
with
wonderful.
short
of
apply
one
we
"truth,"
motions
of the
detail
little
principleof relativity
with
great accuracy
But
that
should
of
in the
principleof
hold
with
such
and
phenomena,
another, is
for
still
The
domain
be invaUd
should
us
theoretical
of
delicacy of
generahty
in
exactness
for the
measure
Even
supply
not
the actual
mechanics.
broad
of the
relativity.
does
considerable
suppliesus
heavenly
in favour
physical phenomena,
of all
grant it
such
mechanics
broad
sufficiently
presentation
must
much
very
principle of
the
classical
two
are
speak
of
validity
with
question might
negative.
outset
though
this
to
answer
Nevertheless, there
at
RELATIVITY
OF
priorinot
yet
very
probable.
We
proceed
now
which,
moreover,
principle
does
of
for
the
this
case
then
the
second
the
relative to each
natural
description of
we
laws
should
are
natural
that, from
of
manner,
amongst
If the
sense)
restricted
co-ordinate
are
moving
not
be
equivalent
to
beUeve
being formulated
and
all
imi-
phenomena.
constrained
capable
particularlysimple
condition
be
later.
GalUeian
other,wiU
to
argument,
return
systems
formly
shall
we
relativity (in
hold,
not
the
to
of
course
In
that
in
only
on
possible Galileian
PRINCIPLE
THE
co-ordinate
(Ko) of
systems,
should
we
particularstate
reference.
We
should
of its merits
for
in
rest," and
then
the
then
Ko,
description of
hold
than
with
would
to
Ko.
been
the
would
of the
the
different
pipe
were
direction.
Now
in virtue
oiu*
emitted
kilometres
relativity
were
that
the
would
moment
also
would
direction
that
be
carriage
expect,
an
organ-
the direction
emitted
placed perpendicular
earth
valid
is
on
the
should
of the
the
in
to
this
orbit
way
rail-
about
principle
therefore
the laws
physical systems
dependent
velocity of
If
we
into
earth
of
of
if the
an
with
comparable
of motion
enter
in
of its motion
second.
per
not
have
tude
magni-
the
by
that
from
carriage travellingwith
30
carriage
should
We
parallelto
axis of the
the sun,
would
the
velocity of
note
travel
be
be
which
K,
to
part.
its axis
round
of nature
reference
the
duninished
necessarilyplay
instance, that
tion."
mo-
were
This
at
{i.e.
"really") with respect
with
direction
"in
simple laws
Ko.
to
of
nomena)
phe-
"absolutely
systems
less
general laws
formulated
and
for
be due
be in motion
In
natural
embankment
to which
respect
simpUcity would
body
our
railway carriagewould
our
system K, relative
one
justified(because
be
Galileian
chosen
as
all other
17
have
of motion
If,for instance,our
system
RELATIVITY
OF
of
expect
at
any
nature, and
their
orientation
behaviour
in space
18
SPECIAL
with
respect
in
at
the
the
of
whole
observations
anisotropic
a
This
the
RELATIVITY
For
owing
year,
year.
in
principle
very
of
earth
relativity.
of
system
^o
the
most
such
physical
different
argument
the
be
revealed
of
tion
altera-
cannot
However,
terrestrial
powerful
the
revolution
the
never
non-equivalence
is
of
to
hypothetical
have
properties
physical
OF
velocity
the
to
the
careful
of
of
relative
rest
earth.
course
throughout
i.e.
the
to
direction
in
earth
THEORY
space,
tions.
direc-
in
favour
VI
THEOREM
THE
THE
OF
EMPLOYED
VELOCITIES
OF
ADDITION
CAL
CLASSI-
EST
MECHANICS
LET
us
carriage
with
travel
other
to
The
only
man
relative
advance
distance
carriage.
he
the
As
carriage,
embankment,
in
numerically
equal
W=
second
+w
additional
and
the
to
relative
considered.
result, which
expresses
to
If
he
he
his
walking,
We
the
19
see
theorem
the
being
which
he
of
is
distance
in
later
the
ever,
how-
embankment
shall
of
to
distance
the
relative
relative
covers
the
the
would
velocity
velocity with
total
to
seems
the
the
the
through
also
second,
man
during
distance
hence
this
in
Thus
of
in
or,
the
second,
to
consequence
an
direction
does
embankment
equal niunericaUy
traverses
walking.
the
to
the
answer
man
consideration:
still for
stand
to
were
in
embankment
possible
rails with
quickly,
velocity
the
railway
that
How
w.
following
the
from
and
v,
carriage
the
what
with
relative
process?
result
of
velocity
words,
advance
to
length
the
traverses
of
velocity
constant
the
be
to
friend
old
our
suppose
that
the
the
this
addi-
"0
tion
SPECIAL
of
velocities
be
cannot
that
THEORY
we
have
reality.
For
assume
its
in
employed
maintained;
just
the
correctness.
written
time
RELATIVITY
OF
in
other
down
being,
mechamcs,
classical
the
words,
does
however,
hold
not
we
law
in
shall
SPECIAL
28
is
THEORY
OF
believed
justifiably
this
Of
process) to
system).
must
of
hght
pltmged
such
As
tip of
of
that
ray
that
its
wiU
be
the
the
part of the
the
carriage.
is the
to
carriage,and
we
above
transmitted
with
same
with
Now
the
velocity
that
as
of the
much
course
the
apply
less.
carriage. It
the
the ray
is
consideration
of
Ught plays
velocityW
is here
the
to
required velocity
the
velocityof propagation
here
to the embankment
relative
from
sent
the
man
The
lightbe
embankment.
velocityof
can
of
ray
see
lightrelative
we
again choose
imagine
previous section,since
Kght
the
other
every
us
railway lines
the
but
of
of
process
let
we
to
oiu:
inquire about
ray
consider
us
indeed
If
its direction
Kght,
obvious
of the
shall
that
suppose
us
of the
We
the
travellingalong
V, and
system
relative
velocityc
us
embankment,
the
the
that
(and
removed.
been
it to have
along
the
embankment.
our
of
has
Let
refer the
we
course
propagation
Let
law
Who
difliculties arise.
these
how
ray
simple
difficulties?
greatest intellectual
let
at school.
conscientiouslythoughtful physicistinto
the
the
the duld
by
that
imagine
would
RELATIVITY
of
replaced by
embankment,
Hght
with
have
w
"
p.
relative
man
the
velocity
w
respect
is the
to
the
PROPAGATION
OF
velocity of propagation
of
THE
The
relative
than
the
to
this
result
like every
the
of
conflict
with
the
ia Section
V.
For,
the
are
of
reference.
consideration,this
would
of
Ught
If every
to
to
with
it would
reason
propagation
respect
ray
the embankment
for this
the
of
the
carriage
In
view
nothing
of
else
this
for
dilemma
it than
is
propagated
the
velocity c,
that
possible.
im-
be
tive
relathen
another
law
necessarilyhold
with
contradictoryto
propagation of light in
have
carefullyfollowed
there
the
the
law
Those
of you
preceding
are
almost
the
which
principleof relativity,
sure
to
simple.
vacuo
the
to
that
law
then
complicated
law
relativity. The
of the
have
appeals
it is
be
conformable
development
the
the
who
discussion
retain
so
vincingly
con-
natural
so
propagation
to
of
shoxild
we
intellect because
The
would
expect
either
simple
vacuo.
be
to
appears
abandon
to
principleof relativityor
of
to
our
principleof relativity.
the
more
the
from
appear
result
"
when
as
But,
appear
lightmust
of
for the
same
reference-body
body
law
must, according
vacuo
be
principleof relativity,
above
in
light
smaller
out
of nature, the
lightin
railway carriage as
rails
forth
general law
other
transmission
the
and
of
ray
comes
into
comes
principleof relativityset
of
23
c.
But
to
thus
carriage
LIGHT
of
light
replaced by
to
the
of
principle
theoretical
SPECIAL
24
THEORY
physics shows,
this
and
moving
bodies
leads
A.
H.
Lorentz
that
show
to
phenomena,
of which
the
of
velocity
Ught
in
this
been
the
fact
which
found
physicists
that
were
of
empirical
no
contradictory
were
of
quence.
conse-
necessary
to
of
constancy
to
principle..
At'thls
the
electromagnetic
theoretical
relativity,in spite
had
is
with
in this domain
of the
vacuo
inclined
.more
law
vestiga
in-
electrody-
connected
of
theory
the
Prominent
data
the
on
experience
pursue
theoretical
optical phenomena
conclusively
therefore
cannot
we
epoch-making
The
of
RELATIVITY
that
however,
course.
namical
OF
As
arena.
conceptions
that
in
between
propagation
theory
it from
time
of
of light, and
could
to
both
the
be
arrived
at.
evident
incompatibility
least
that
these
physical
of the
it became
space,
is not
relativity entered
analysis
an
and
of
fast
the
called
of
result
reality there
the
holding
theory
the
Juncture
logically rigid
theory
This
of
systematically
by
laws
law
the
has
been
the
extended
deal
later.
the
fundamental
relativity.
In
the
theory,
with
following
pages
ideas
the
of
which
we
shall
we
shall
present
special theory
of
vm
LIGHTNING
embankment
will
answer
But
if
approach
now
to
precisely,
After
is
statement
clear
if I
the
two
I cannot
be
reason.
considerations
"Yes."
not
to
request
statement
is
in
itself
more
so
that
it
as
easy
were
took
satisfied
following
be
to
and
needs
require
whether
with
Supposing
able
in
that
as
result
meteorologist
mine
deter-
actual
for
answer
sideration
con-
some
to
the
case
not."
or
the
of
were
the
fiurther
simultaneously
this
of
no
commissioned
place
answer
significance
it would
course
an
the
"The
observations
events
the
you
consideration
some
perhaps
you:
of
explanation;
you
sight.
to
occur
decided
the
question
time
some
by
after
this
first
at
of
ask
statement,
with
you
sense
find
you
to
appears
would
the
me
answer
with
the
Hghtning
If
this
in
sense
question
my
explain
the
is
there
make
two
simultaneously.
occurred
whether
these
that
and
other.
way
rail-
our
on
places
two
each
assertion
additional
flashes
at
from
distant
far
rails
the
struck
has
PHYSICS
IN
TIME
OF
roEA
THE
ON
ing
follow-
ingenious
to
ss
dis-
SPECIAL
26
THEORY
the
that
cover
placesA
faced
and
with
OF
RELATIVITY
lightningmust
simultaneously,then
task
the
of
testingwhether
the
encoimter
statements
the
part.
The
discovering whether
actual
thus
that
simultaneitysuch
with
the method
case,
he
the
exist
not
of
possibility
it is fulfilled in
this definition
ocoirred
strokes
of
suppliesus
which, in
of
an
definition
require a
means
Ughtning
reality.
physical
the present
by experiment whether
decide
can
the
both
by
aU
concept does
not
or
We
case.
the
ous"
conception "simultane-
physicistuntil he has
for the
with
be
this
not
or
with
difficulty
same
in which
plays
should
we
not
or
ously.
simultane-
As
I allow
of
the
course
when
the
to
imagine that
convinced
After
you
to
then
test
this
on
able to attach
am
of
and
matter
the
observer
AB.
distance
supplied with
inclined at
an
meaning
ask
for
over
time
some
followingsuggestionwith which
simultaneity. By
an
physicist),
simultaneity. (I would
point.)
thinking the
offer the
not
am
to
not
of
statement
the reader
if I
appUes
same
measuring along
should
AB
placed
at
This
arrangement
90") which
allows
the
measured
be
mid-point
observer
should
(e.g.two
him
the
be
mirrors
visuallyto ob-
roEA
both
serve
OF
places A
right,if
the
observer
velocity as
same
But
possibleif
be
of
means
After
we
time.
at
me
demand
to
be
namely,
supply us
or
with
the
not
is
about
that
an
my
That
path
nor
hypothesisabout
the
is in
appear
logicalcircle."
somewhat
it
is
definition
real
has
to
solutely
ab-
assumes
There
one
of simultaneity,
it must
case
as
only
to whether
be
defined
is
"
-"
realityneither
the
and
"
only
previous definition
every
that
thus
cast
reahty
in
M.
"
rightly so
my
definition
to
and
empiricaldecision
time
"
in
the
disposal the
our
you
of the
made
indisputable.
traverse
here
light.
conception
fulfilled. That
at
It would
"
in
nevertheless, because
nothing
with
length
had
maintain
"I
"
suppositionwould
consideration
glance
of
means
of this
moving
were
declare:
you
lightby
already
we
further
disdainful
certainly be
the
measuring
though
as
would
the
for
following
along
examination
an
the
flashes travels
lightning
qxiitesettled,
as
raise
to
M.
at
If
suggestion,but
matter
that
time.
same
simultaneous.
are
definition
knew
only
"7
flashes of
this
regard the
"Your
objection:
the
two
I feel constrained
because
PHYSICS
at
pleased with
very
which
and
same
am
IN
perceives the
the observer
at the
TIME
as
a
same
for the
supposition
physicalnature
of light,
SPECIAL
28
but
stipulationwhich
in
freewill
order
RELATIVITY
OF
THEORY
I
make
can
arrive
to
at
of my
own
definition
of
simultaneity."
is clear
It
give
to
as
meaning
exact
an
this definition
that
events
many
as
with
to
the
to
respect
also
to
definition
of
"time"
that
this purpose
we
suppose
construction
are
placed
of the
they
railway
of their
sense)
of
(position
In
event.
with
that
Under
these
of
this
For
positions
above
conditions
the
reading
of these
one
we
clocks
vicinity(in space) of
manner
event
every
the
event
an
of that
immediate
is in the
which
led
of identical
hands)
the
physics.
clocks
manner
the "time"
by
thus
are
the
at
same.
imderstand
the
line
pointersare
the
reference'
points A, B and C
(co-ordinatesystem),and that
in such
set
are
of
We
in
of the
scenes
body
to
au'' independen
choose,
the
used
events, but
two
to
care
we
positionsof
of the
events
only
not
be
can
which
is
time-value
ciated
asso-
is essentially
capable
of observation.
This
1
We
stipulationcontains
place in
different
with
and
the
B,
above
pair of
fulfilled
places in
such
is simultaneous
^, C
about
if
we
is also
the
law
are
to
velocity of light in
vacuo.
three
the
of
the
for the
This
propagation
maintain
law
take
the
sense
of
simultaneity of the
assumption
of
and
is simultaneous
(simultaneous in
criterion
satisfied.
A,
events
that, if
manner
with
then
definition),
events
hypothesis
be
that, when
further
suppose
physical
further
light; it
of the
is
must
physical
certainly
constancy
of
the
IX
THE
RELATIVITY
to
UP
to
We
along
in
the
the
particular
have
we
travelling
in
this
the
as
system);
have
indicated
in
train
with
all
regard
M'-
Fig.
Then
the
along
of
point
line
the
be
can
the
As
same
and
as
natural
two
B)
to
Train
"
EmbajUcment
I.
takes
place
the
Also
with
which
event
given relative
way
question
Are
train.
reference
every
also
use
-4
Fig.
train.
People
i.
in
the
and
(co-ordinate
'^
advantage
events
"
"
travelling
velocity
constant
rigid reference-body
they
ment."
embank-
train
long
ferred
re-
reference,
"railway
will
been
of
body
very
the
with
direction
train
styled
suppose
rails
SIMULTANEITY
considerations
oixr
now
which
OF
at
to
of
train
the
to
the
in
taneity
simul-
exactly
embankment.
following
the
however,
place
particular
definition
respect
consequence,
takes
arises:
events
which
{e.g.the
are
two
simultaneous
30
strokes
with
of
lightning
reference
to
RELATIVITY
the
railway embankment
to
the
train?
When
be in the
we
are
simultaneous
we
mean:
other
the
at
the
M'
Let
"
flashes
in
the
the
right
the
train.
If
in the
train
he would
remain
reach
him
where
is
coming from
beam
will
than
who
of
see
he
take
the
"
reference
distance
when
towards
he is
whilst
the
naturally
towards
the
of
position
velocity,then
and
the
lightning A
Now
to the
the
on
velocity
M,
is situated.
and
in
railway
the
would
reality
ment)
embank-
beam
riding on
light
and
simultaneously,i.e. they
hastening
B,
the
at
of
moves
this
possess
each
Just
sittingin
flashes
he
(consideredwith
he
observer
permanently
by
just
with
diagram
meet
of the
it
places
and
but
and
the
point M'
this
point M,
did not
emitted
would
meet
an
travellingtrain.
the
with
at
events
mid-point
lightningoccur,
of
the
length
the
positions
to
the
embankment,
occurs,
of the
M
But
be
the
on
coincides
rays
Ughtning
embankment.
traia.
to the
light emitted
mid-point
correspond
also
M'
the
directly that
lightningstrokes
respect
of
rays
B, where
and
of
with
the
show
relatively
negative.
that the
say
31
also simultaneous
shall
We
must
answer
SIMULTANEITY
OP
of
ahead
light
of the
lightcoming
from
the
light emitted
from
emitted
from
A.
train
their
reference-body
beam
will
the
*
see
of
that
railway
As
judged
from
A.
the
as
Hence
embankment.
the observer
B
earlier
Observers
THEORY
SPECIAL
32
therefore
must
to
come
flash
lightning
took
flash A.
RELATIVITY
the
conclusion
earUer
place
thus
We
OF
arrive
that
than
the
the
ning
light-
the
important
with
reference
at
result:
Events
which
the
embankment
to
simultaneous
are
simultaneous
not
are
with
of
(relativity
simultaneity). Every reference-body(co-ordinate
respect
system)
has
its
told the
are
of time
train, and
the
to
reference-bodyto
of
of the time
is
that
the
of
statement
i.e. that
significance,
of motion
of the
just
seen
that
with
the
if
between
vacuo
and
in Section
We
tenable.
had
absolute
an
of the state
independent
But
of reference.
physics
have
we
assumption
is
incompatible
definition
of
simultaneity;
assumption,
of the
then
propagation
the
conflict
of
light in
principleof relativity(developed
led
VI,
that
In
conflict
that
to
Section
per second
same
law
in
VII) disappears.
in the
man
this
the
were
of
body
this
the
statement
assumed
time
it is
natural
discard
we
in
theory of relativity
of the
the advent
most
we
the statement
meaning
no
always tacitlybeen
it had
which
unless
event.
an
before
versa
particular time;
own
refers,there
Now
vice
which
section
are
we
the
by
now
tions
considerano
concluded
that
carriage,who
traverses
relative
carriage,traverses
distance
also
to
with
the
respect
to
the
longer
the
the
distance
the
embank-
RELATIVITY
in
ment
second
each
foregoing
the
be
same
considered
as
that
distance
is
the
equal
to
to
in
the
duration
from
the
Hence
it
ment
embankbe
cannot
Hne
in
judged
as
of
the
travels
walking
railway
by
carriage
the
the
to
to
required
to
respect
second
one
according
time
judged
man
relative
which
the
reference-body).
contended
33
But,
equal
occurrence
(as
time.
with
occurrence
not
the
of
considerations,
particular
must
SIMULTANEITY
OF
time
the
from
embankment.
the
Moreover,
based
light
on
of
arbitrary,
even
before
relativity.
yet
a
although
consideration,
it
Section
VI
which,
assmnption,
second
strict
the
of
considerations
appears
was
always
introduction
of
in
the
to
be
tacitly
the
are
theory
made
of
DISTANCE
OF
LET
consider
us
the
with
distance
have
to
of
plan
to
system).
the
measures
in
by
straight
line
carriage)
the
him
take
Then
has
It
to
is
be
e.g.
two
from
middle
is the
of
then
the
the
on
both
first and
Si
of
of
the
floor
of
to
distance.
has
Here
the
whose
hundredth
the
distance
If
these
other.
often
how
line.
train
ing-rod
measur-
the
to
the
itself.
train
necessary
required
railway
the
points
us
when
suggests
required,
the
down
the
the
point
tells
matter
method
the
is
laid
judged
B'
apart
be
different
following
and
which
nmnber
is
as
marked
one
in
{e.g. along
times
many
the
from
the
rod
as
body
simplest
oflE his
marking
interval
ment
measure-
which
observer
An
sary
neces-
reference-body
the
as
the
It is the
up.
itself
it is
to
respect
measured
train
the
use
(co-ordinate
to
be
can
for
their
to
as
that
know
the
on
embankment
inquire
reference
with
distance,
distance
the
of
body
and
v,
already
We
the
along
velocity
apart.
points
particular
two
travelling
train*
CONCEPTION
THE
OF
RELATIVITY
THE
ON
we
A'
call
distance
points
carriage.
are
THE
RELATIVITY
moving
with
In
first
the
points
passed
These
points
ia
given
these
priori
it is
by
wUl
first.
measured
from
that
from
itself.
the
measurement
the
and
of
application
by
Section
points
objection
distance
the
the
embankment
train,
"
embankment
ia
then
in
man
unit
this
"
raised
consideration
the
of
distance
is not
of
time
"
us
necessarily
measured
also
last
the
to
as
different
train
second
against
measured
as
this
train
be
carriage
"
bankment.
em-
result
the
of
the
the
same
in
measuring
be
between
that
may
leads
of
by repeated
the
length
by
must
definition
along
with
us
ment.
embank-
distance
certain
means
circumstance
if
w
measured
Thus
obvious
Namely,
is then
B'
embankment
the
The
are
and
the
the
applying
supply
which
of
VIII.
no
A'
from
measuring-rod
obtained
This
and
the
which
points
two
judged
"
determined
determine
to
embankment
the
35
embankment.
the
along
the
by
time
time
as
of
DISTANCE
require
we
particular
be
can
velocity
place
and
being
just
at
the
OF
the
parently
ap-
Section
VI.
the
covers
from
from
equal
to
the
the
w.
XI
THE
TRANSFORMATION
LORENTZ
results
THE
that
of
the
law
of
the
last
of
means
of
propagation
light with
these
are
(i)
(2)
principle
by
two
mechanics;
foUows:
as
The
the
derived
classical
from
of
borrowed
which
unjustifiable hypotheses
the
been
has
consideration
show
incompatibility
apparent
of
sections
three
(time)
time-interval
is
independent
of
the
The
of
the
condition
the
(distance)
space-iaterval
of
two
events
of
motion
of reference.
body
points
between
condition
of
motion
two
independent
of
of
of
is
rigid body
between
the
body
the
dilemma
reference.
If
of
we
drop
Section
the
addition
becomes
disappears,
VII
of
invalid.
the
may
be
compatible
and
the
question
the
law
of
The
considerations
the
because
derived
velocities
that
then
hypotheses,
these
theorem
in
Section
the
arises:
36
VI
light in
vacuo
principle of relativity,
have
How
of Section
of
of
itself
possibiHty presents
propagation
with
the
VI
we
in order
to
modify
to
remove
SPECIAL
S8
THEORY
framework
of
rods, so
place anywhere
this
to
the
no
the
matter
how
with
would
to
every
such
framework
designated
to
the
K'
to
have
with
respect
to
time
by
to
by
the
set
to
be
sponds
corre-
be
fixed
in
identical
perpendiculars
with
Relative
with
regard
K',
to
as
the
and
x', y',z',/',which
x, y, z, t.
regarded
it
space
by corresponding values
already been
and
co-ordinate
t.
time
are
then
time-value
not
In
surfaces
out,
planes,and
are
other,
event, wherever
three
event
course
and
An
same
of
each
three
co-ordinate
would
works
frame-
solid bodies.
system
place, would
K
with
we
planes" ("co-ordinate
train.
the
error,
marked
embankment,
taken
the
on
other
co-ordinate
may
each
to
also
framework.
realitythese
imagine
we
"co-ordinate
as
S3^tem").
in
impenetrabilityof
perpendicular
system
fact that
every
could
fundamental
any
continually interfere
the
owing
be,
be
to
that
so
the second
to
imagine
velocity
of space,
takes
reference
can
respect
disregard the
the
whole
committing
Without
with
localised
Similarly,we
across
be localised
X, y,
be
which
event
an
travelling with
continued
can
that
framework.
train
event,
can
RELATIVITY
OF
these
results of
It has
tudes
magniphysical
measurements.
Obviously
in
the
our
problem
can
following manner.
be
lated
exactly formuWhat
are
the
THE
a/,/, z',^
values
when
the
with
be
in
that
the
light (and
of
K'.
and
respect
x, y, z, t, of the
are
given?
the
law
The
to
K',
event
same
relations
must
of
of
same
for
to
respect
tive
rela-
the
For
*:v
ray
course
ray) with
every
with
event
an
39
is satisfied
vacuo
and
one
of
transmission
the
for
to
chosen
light
TRANSFORMATION
magnitudes
respect
so
of
LORENTZ
Fig.
orientation
in
of the co-ordinate
2.
space
systems indicated
is solved
in the
by
diagram
of
means
the
eqiiations:
X
vt
"
nT
I?
f^
"R
This
system
of
equationsis known
transformation."
in
had
the
*
older
A
as
Appendir
I.
the law
our
mechanics
simple
the "Lorentz
place of
taken
as
derivation
basis
as
of the
of transmission
the
to
tacit
the
Lorentz
of
lightwe
assimiptions
absolute
transfoimation
of
character
is
given
in
SPECIAL
40
of times
should
THEORY
and
lengths, then
obtained
have
"
t.
obtauied
be
is
the
from
velocity of Ught
the
Aided
readily
see
that,
transformation,
hght
in
vacuo
body
and
signal is
ia
the
Ught-stimulus
in
of
law
the
the
formation
trans-
latter
with
the
both
the
formation.
trans-
Lorentz
for
the
in
accordance
of
referenceA
positive a"-axis,and
advances
can
transmission
reference-body K'.
along the
sent
Lorentz
infinitelylarge value
accordance
is satisfied
for
the
following illustration,we
the
by
termed
Galilei transformation
by substituting an
for
often
The
Galilei transformation."
can
we
vt
"
equations
of
system
above
following equations:
=x
=
of the
instead
the
x'
This
RELATIVITY
OF
with
lightthis
the
equation
X
i.e. with
the
of
the
velocityc.
Lorentz
between
x' and
X
the
the
/'.
value
Lorentz
ct,
According
to the
equations
tion
transformation, this simple relax
In
t involves
and
point of fact, if
ct in the
first and
transformation,
we
(c-v)t
^,
relation
we
between
substitute
fourth
obtain:
for
equations of
THE
LORENTZ
TRANSFORMATION
41
]t
from
which,
expression
the
division,
by
x'
ct'
=
the
this
rays
equation.
equal
of
were
light
We
thus
relative
to
light
whatsoever.
since
of
propagation
transmission
also
If
follows.
immediately
the
derived
equations
takes
place
result
conformably
is
Lorentz
to
this
K',
system
according
the
is
not
to
of
velocity
K'
obtained
other
any
this
the
the
reference-body
in
course
of
that
the
same
advancing
Of
to
see
to
The
c.
referred
for
direction
surprising,
transformation
point
is
of
view.
xn
"AND
MEASURING-RODS
OF
BEHAVIOUR
THE
'
PLACE
such
end
point
x'
rod
of
end
the
is
the
to
particvdar time
of the
first
the
values
can
be
these
shown
the
rod
t of
the
In
the
of
in
whilst
the
learn
to
of the
By
to
respect
K.
the
metre-
beginning
system
the
with
order
lie with
means
transformation
Lorentz
points
two
o,
coincides
K?
where
the
length
system
of the
equation
of
rod)
th
only ask
need
and
rod
of
end
What
I.
relatively
this, we
at
(the
x'
point
K'
(the beginning)
end
one
the
with
coincides
other
that
manner
aj'-axis of
the
iB
metre-rod
'
MOTION
IN
CLOCKS
the
at
time
=o
be
to
*(begiiming
"
of rod)
""\
^s
*(endofrod) "^'V^"^'
"*'
I
distance
the
the
But
relative
of
to
K.
It
with
rigid rod
the
with
follows
therefore
moving
velocity
is thus
points being
moving
is
metre-rod
rigid metre-rod
length
The
between
"
is V
shorter
42
the
in
i
when
the
that
-J
velocity
the
direction
d*/c* of
in motion
length
of its
metre.
than
RODS
when
CLOCKS
AND
rest, and
at
the
shorter
we
should
the
have
exceeded
Of
by
this
course
equations
have
judged
from
is
quite
in
found
had
as
values
more
nor
we
had
of
contraction
of its motion.
x-t?-
we
of the
we
rod
as
1 c^; this
principleof
tivity
rela-
considerations.
our
be
must
we
able to
physical behaviour
from
the
of
equations
x, y, z,
the results of
of
our
metre-
then
of the
magnitudes
means
based
the
that
the
the
K,
to
length
basis of
less than
by
considered
been
clocks
and
transformation
a
follows
respect
the
with
about
obtainable
Galilei
be reached
velocity c
choose
we
have
the
forms
transformation, for
If
part
these
that
accordance
measuring-rods
clocks.
the
transformation, for
we
K' would
something
nothing
the
the
learn
in
from
if
contrary,
which
A
the
of
aginary.
im-
c.
the
If,on
still
body.
of the Lorentz
than
greater
neither
can
clearly
also
meaningless
become
that
velocity c plays
feature
Umiting -velocity
for
becomes
conclude
we
real
any
and
o,
square-root
relativitythe
of
c*
limitingvelocity,which
nor
^V
this
From
of
the
greater velocities
theory
4S
quickly it is moving,
For
the velocity v
c
more
rod.
is the
MOTION
IN
t, are
ments
measure-
measuring-rods
considerations
should
not
rod
as
of
on
have
and
the
tained
ob-
consequence
SPECIAL
44
Let
THEORY
us
consider
now
if
tf
and
first
The
Lorentz
transformation
the
at
and
(*'
origin
o)
ticks
equations
fourth
give
/
which
successive
two
are
clock.
seconds-clock
situated
permanently
RELATIVITY
OF
for
these
dock
is
two
is
K'.
of
of
this
of
the
ticks:
and
4^As
the
velocity
the
time
clock
from
judged
v;
not
from
this
between
elapses
one
the
judged
as
which
is
K,
but
second,
moving
with
reference-body,
two
strokes
of
seconds,
"
the
i.e.
somewhat
motion
rest.
an
time.
larger
the
Here
unattainable
clock
also
more
goes
the
As
velocity
limiting
of
consequence
slowly
c
velocity.
plays
than
the
when
part
its
at
of
THEORY
SPECIAL
46
transfonnation
Galilei
of
in terms
a;
This
equation
(ofthe
then
point
nothing
in Section
obtain, as
But
well
embankment).
the
we
VI,
(A).
just as
this consideration
of the
theory
relativity.In
of
equation
x'
we
system
-o-\-w
out
carry
basis
the
on
the
can
we
to the
to the
velocityby
this
the law
else than
reference
with
reference
with
man
denote
We
(z)
+ 110)1.
expresses
of the
of motion
obtain
then
we
a;' and
express
can
we
/, and
and
RELATIVITY
OF
then
must
x' and
express
of the
use
Lorentz
transformation.
then
we
the
obtain
f in terms
of
and
equations of
fourth
first and
making
(A)
wt'
the
of
Instead
t,
the
equation
equation
'-"^...
(B),
^+^
which
corresponds
velocities in
of
relativity. The
of these
two
experience.
a
one
most
direction
theorem
this
Fizeau
ago,
and
of addition
according
question
theorems
On
the
now
point
we
performed
which
has
to
arises
is the better
important experiment
physicist
century
to
are
which
more
been
the
as
for
theory
to which
in accord
with
enHghtened by
the
than
brilliant
half
repeated
since
THE
then
by
that
so
TTie
there
with
Light
liquid above
with
the
other
of
the
to
the
the
with
not.
liquid and
the
The
It is clear
again
when
the
the
that
before
we
takes
the
to
and
the
The
liquid,
reference
to
relative
require
we
the
problem
tube
with
the tube,
to
have
us.
place
velocity of Hght
known,
that
granted
with
velocity of
thus
are
for
respect
latter is in motion
or
tube
take
to
velocity of lightrelative
VI
tube
principleof relativity
Hght always
velocity
bodies
to
the
with
propagation
whether
in the
arrow
flowiug through
is
certainly have
same
does
quickly
diagram, Fig. 3)
mentioned
accordance
the
How
hquid
velocity 11?
shall
we
following
motionless
of the
(seethe accompanying
In
ia
travels
its result.
the
with
particular velocity w.
tube
about
doubt
no
is concerned
experiment
question.
be
can
47
experimental physicists,
of the best
some
FIZEAU
OF
EXPERIMENT
plays
of Section
the
part of
/"
Fig.
the
or
embankment
railway
system
the
K,
of the
carriage,or
or
liquidplays
co-ordinate
lightplays
the
of
the
moving
the
co-ordinate
system
part of the
of
man
K',
and
carriage
finally,the
walking along
pomt
in
the
the
present
SPECIAL
48
section.
THEORY
If
relative
denote
we
the
to
tube
equation (A)
the
transformation
favour
of
the
the
According
exact.
velocity
flow
of
per
cent.
Nevertheless
the
fact
that
given by
of the
H.
A.
of
theory
the
of
use
this
long
does
before
in favour
of refraction
of
ness
by
ai
1)
(I
of
-J-
as
(w
"
of the
found
Fizeau
compared
") (I
A,
liquid.
the
the
which
-3
with
j,or
agrees
in
not
and
v{'i
i, we
to
the
with
can
Fizeau's
of
to
as
least
n=
of
result.
to
obtained
as
hand, owing
order
one
was
was
This
replace (B)
same
Hght
the
circmndiminish
a
crucial
for
relativity,
""),where
the other
On
the
of
the
statement
was
experiment
theory
of
theory
of matter.
of the
of
attention
particular hypotheses
conclusiveness
test
excellent
phenomenon
relativity.This
stance, however,
very
within
to
in
theory of
influence
draw
now
electromagneticstructure
the
the
most
(B)
decides
propagation
of
Galilei
is, indeed,
the
formula
Lorentz
the
as
light
transformation
and
the
theory
this is
from
recent
must
we
given by
derived
on
represented by
then
agreement
to
is
the
Experiment
by Zeeman,
measurements
velocity of
Lorentz
facts.
equation (B)
relativity,and
RELATIVITY
(B), according
or
the
to
the
by W,
or
corresponds
OF
the
is the index
to
the small-
in the first
place
approximation by
THE
of
electrodynamics
original
theory
theory
of
developed
simple
hj^otheses,
on
which
OF
EXPERIMENT
Maxwell-Lorentz,
was
relativity.
from
FIZEAU
based,
in
Rather
formerly
electrodynamics
no
way
has
electrodynamics
combination
on
as
and
49
which
was
the
been
latter
astomidingly
an
of
built.
the
opposes
of
generahsation
independent
the
each
the
other,
XIV
THE
HEURISTIC
VALUE
OF
THE
THEORY
OF
RELATIVITY
train
OUR
be
can
has
the
that
and
true,
transmission
equal
to
of
the
Galilei
the
classical
The
of
which
played
Once
is
an
in
however,
of
of
the
justified by
possession
we
general
that
exactly the
same
the
it
of
processes
did
obtain
not
differing from
transformation.
acceptance
our
actual
knowledge,
Lorentz
the
law
of
nature
of
when,
thought.
transformation,
with
principle
the
theory
thus:
be
must
transformed
"0
time
light, the
up
form
the
for
of
simi
is
lates
postu-
the
and
y,
but,
this
combine
can
considered
two
in this process
part
of
velocity of
be
to
we
Lorentz
transmission
relativity,and
Every
x,
connection
important
that,
transformation
of
transformation,
law
the
constitute
mechanics,
manner.
conviction
uniting these
law
which
this
In
has
co-ordinates
events
nature.
vacuo
the
rectangular
t of
hand
By
c.
obtained
the
to
other
in
Ught
constant
we
the
the
on
following
pages
the
hand,
one
led
foregoing
the
in the
epitomised
Experience
on
in
thought
of
into
instead
of
the
stituted
con-
so
law
of
space-
HEURISTIC
time
variables
x,
K,
system
y,
x',
VALUE
t'
connection
the
of
of
relation
transformation.
variables
K'.
system
is
in
co-variant
co-ordinate
space-time
between
Or,
51
original
new
magnitudes
are
the
co-ordinate
the
accented
nature
2,
introduce
we
2',
y,
RELATIVITY
OF
the
given
the
and
Lorentz
General
with
this
ordinary
by
brief:
In
laws
Lorentz
to
respect
of
transformations.
This
is
the
theory
and
in
of
virtue
heuristic
If
did
of
one
theory
hitherto
of
law
this
satisfy
have
been
general
evinced.
natural
becomes
general,
for
nature
to
were
condition,
then
law,
valuable
disproved.
results
the
Let
latter
of
laws
be
fovmd
least
at
of
assumptions
fundamental
two
of
theory
search
that
condition
demands
the
the
general
not
what
this,
in
would
examine
has
of
the
mathematical
relativity
aid
nature.
which
definite
us
the
now
theory
XV
GENERAL
IT
is clear
from
OF
(special) theory
out
of
theory,
but
has
is
Maxwell-Lorentz
of
physicists
have
if
even
in
unequivocally
Classical
of
special theory
laws
however,
for
matter
velocity
rapid
rapid
are
of
motions
not
of
number
the
basis
has
of
generally
had
the
laws,
it
"
pendent
inde-
theory.
rendered
plausible,
experiment
mechanics
it could
part,
of
important
relativity
been
predictions
simplified
more
so
these
the
the
that
accepted
by
decided
less
its favour.
before
the
the
grown
In
derivation
the
theory
would
the
forming
special theory
latter
i.e.
that
has
optics.
altered
reduced
hj^otheses
The
and
incomparably
considerably
considerations
considerably
has
structure,
what
"
it
THEORY
relativity
appreciably
not
theoretical
and
of
electrod3Tiamics
it has
THE
previous
our
the
fields
of
RESULTS
required
into
come
this
of
only
relativity.
in
We
in
as
have
the
St
be
the
For
affects
which
small
very
light.
with
line
modification
motions,
to
the
compared
of
demands
the
main
only
velocities
experience
case
modified
with
of
electrons
the
of
the
such
and
SPECIAL
54
THEORY
only dealing
are
of
energy
We
shaU
The
the
the
question
of its essential
the
with
conservation
laws
the
law
and
the
law
of the
two
fimdamental
each
appeared
other.
now
came
about,
By
K' which
"Galileian"
classical
By
means
been
imited
what
the
into
one
how
this
meaning
is to
state
to
K,
system
to
of
every
factor
briefly,relative
in the
K,
system
of translation
motion
the Lorentz
law
not
system
co-ordinate
of co-ordinates.
mechanics,
to
co-ordinate
of uniform
or,
hold
should
energy
a
In
to
every
contrast
transformation
transition
from
one
another.
tions
comparatively simple considera-
are
led to draw
these
premises,
we
from
deciding
system
to
respect
is in
relative
is the
of
reference
with
also with
such
of
means
dependen
in-
to it.
conservation
the
only
to
these
|
that the
principleof relativity'requires
The
but
and
energy
quite
be
to
briefly consider
shall
be attached
of
of
of mass;
conservation
two
importance,
conservation
of^the
Before
mass.
fundamental
laws
of
We
of
conception
of
namely,
law.
led is
relativity,physics recognised
of
advent
the
generalcharacter
relativityhas
of
specialtheory
the
velocity.
the
on
how
to
as
significancelater.
result of
important
most
concerned
with
point-mass depends
speak
which
to
RELATIVrTY
OF
the
in
following conclusion
conjunction
with
the
RESULTS
GENERAL
body
Maxwell:
absorbs^
which
radiation
of
form
an
the
velocity in
in
moving
with
amount
of
the
velocity
sufferingan
process,
has,
by
amount
an
as
v,
the
in
"o
energy
without
increased
its energy
55
electrod3Tiamicsof
the
equations of
fundamental
THEORY
OF
alteration
consequence,
Eo
v/-?
of the
consideration
In
kinetic
for the
energy
of the
energy
body
of the
expressiongiven
to be
out
comes
required
the
body,
above
(r^
v^
I
V
-
of
+
(""
^ )
mass
Hence
can
we
of energy
amount
has
body
the
Thus
"o,
-^;
If
say:
inertial
the
varies
the
the
system of bodies
*
"o is the
moving
with
energy
the
body
can
even
taken
up,
body.
of
The
as
the
to
inertial
from
as
v.
amount
an
body
body
velocity
up
regarded
judged
increases
mass
mass
be
the
takes
according
body.
as
energy
with
its inertial
then
of
same
moving
constant, but
energy
the
by
an
is not
change
mass
of
in
a
measure
co-ordinate
system
SPECIAL
56
THEORY
of its energy.
of
mass
of
the
The
law
conservation
provided
that
sends
energy.
out
of
the
identical
that
see
attracted
Writing
the
the
law
only valid
takes
up
nor
expressionfor the
the
rf
mc^, which
term
the energy
hitherto
else than
the
before it absorbed
Eg.
direct
comparison
is not
ment
has
attention, is nothing
our
energy
of this relation
possibleat
the
themselves
the present
changes
subject a system
can
is
neither
system
v/^-^
with
and
energy,
of the
ia the form
energy
we
RELATIVITY
of the conservation
becomes
system
OP
in energy
perceptibleas
to
to which
Eo
change
e^eri-
time, owing
we
to make
largeenough
not
are
with
in the inertial
-En
mass
of the system.
with
the
alteration
stance
mass
m,
is too
-^
which
classical
was
in
present before
mechanics
was
successfullythe conservation
law
of
Let
nature.
^
As
comparison
the
of the energy.
that
small
able
of
mass
to
tablish
esas
iadqpendent vaHdity.
add
me
The
judged
from
final remark
success
of
co-ordinate
the
system
of
fundamental
Faraday-Maxwell
moving
with
the
body.
GENERAL
RESULTS
interpretation
of
resulted
that
actions
are
at
physicists
such
no
According
action
at
always
takes
the
of
or
of
velocity
the
fact
r61e
in
what
general
in
way
theory
that
this
this
of
the
with
place
action
theory
transmission.
the
relativity,
of
velocity
velocity
In
becomes
relativity.
Part
light
action
with
This
theory.
result
of
distance
is
plays
II
of
law
instantaneous
at
mediary
inter-
an
Newton's
the
of
instantaneous
as
of
tance
dis-
convinced
involving
type
to
distance
distance
with
the
at
becoming
(not
of
57
action
things
distance
mediiun)
gravitation.
THEORY
electromagnetic
in
there
OF
we
modified
an
at
finite
in-
connected
mental
funda-
shaU
in
see
the
XVI
EXPERIENCE
AND
THE
OF
what
TO
is the
supported
experiment
of
has
relativity
Lorentz
Thus
of
As
here
enables
light
and
to
to
with
relative
the
those
resulting
fact
of
fixed
stars,
the
from
the
relativity
the
These
simple
found
to
of
the
which
with
earth
to
the
of
be
influence
reference
in
fixed
earth
round
of
due
are
yearly
the
the
on
stars.
indicated,
SB
of
exceedingly
an
the
the
produced
fixed
position
to
the
support
theory
the
motion
(aberration), and
Maxwell-
refer
apparent
mental
funda-
particular importance,
are
We
the
of
in
of
reason
phenomena.
support
the
effects
the
the
which
effects
from
tion
ques-
theory
that
the
tivity
rela-
special theory
from
out
also
motion
experience.
of
sun
the
with
experience
us
for
The
of
This
electromagnetic
obtained
are
manner,
Fizeau.
predict
reaching
results
of
being
the
to
us
connection
theory
electromagnetic
mention
in
of
facts
relativity.
answered
crystallised
theory
all
special theory
by experience?
easily
not
mentioned
already
THEORY
RELATIVITY
extent
is
SPECIAL
the
accord
ment
move-
stars
the
radial
with
stars
itself in
manifests
fixed star,
when
spectrallines
same
terrestrial
The
are
such
Maxwell
and
when
own
hitherto
produced by
in
be
theory
forth
set
theoretical
other
obtained
extraneous.
negatively
small
use
been
can
that
by
of the
cathode
electrified
the deflection
of motion
of relativity,
In
able
to
that of
hold
its
experimental facts
be
represented in
the
theory
rays
radioactive
inertia and
of electric and
same
to
possibilities
theory only by
appears
/3-raysemitted
the
here.
theory than
classes of
which
making
It is known
of
the
at
are
of the
has
two
are
without
very
favour
an
law
are
the
by experience.
Maxwell-Lorentz
of
no
Lorentz
tested
there
But
of
the
extent, that
an
from
us
they
to
numerous
limit
reahty they
to
the
positionof
theory, which
too
of
the
argxmients in favour
time
of
with
experimental arguments
MaxweU-Lorentz
colour
of
source
fixed
latter effect
The
transmitted
Hght
compared
as
the
on
them.
the
slightdisplacement
of the
spectrallines
earth
from
lightreachingus
the
the
to
respect
59
of
motions
relative
of the
components
RELATIVITY
AND
EXPERIENCE
of
"
i.e.
relativity
"
the so-called
substances
consist
of
particles(electrons)
large velocity. By
of these
rays
imder
magnetic fields,we
of these
introduction
in itself
and
the
particlesvery
ing
examin-
the influence
can
study
exactly.
the
SPECIAL
60
we
theoretical
the
In
THEORY
faced
are
dynamic
RELATIVITY
OF
with
diflScultythat
the
of itself is imable
theory
electrons,
of these
treatment
For
electro-
give
to
an
since electrical
ac-
coimt
of their nature.
of
one
constitutingthe
masses
be
under
scattered
the
remained
hitherto
electrical
in
(rigidconnection
arrive
which
electron
the
during
we
the
at
does
not
Lorentz
was
the
the
by
any
with
that
The
masses
of
This
view,
the
hypothesis,which
particidarlaw
H.
electron
the
is not
with
great precisionin
general theory
of
an
of motion
of
electron
relativityrenders
are
held
which
recent
it
the
A.
hypothesis
perience
ex-
of motion
of this
the amount
to
chanics),
me-
of
expression
justifiable
then
confijmed
^
motion,
electron
experience.
direction
being proportional
contraction
-j-
in the
of that
in consequence
with
first to introduce
contraction
remain
motion
points
the
classical
"*/i
of
agree
by piurely formal
the
of
law
now
between
of
sense
has
we
electron
motion
Guided
that
distances
relative
If
us.^
to
kind
of which
nature
constitutingthe
masses
imchanged
obscure
the
that
assimie
the
them,
between
operating
mutual
of another
forces
are
necessarily
of their
influence
there
repulsions,unless
would
electron
masses
has
been
years.
likelythat
the electrical
together by gravitationalforces.
SPECIAL
62
systems
THEORY
is
rest with
the
On
respect
other
motion
with
of K'
K')
to
all co-ordinate
K
long
time
the
Michelson
though
devised
it must
arranged
surfaces
face
on
the
be
at
other
other.
with
rest
time
to
respect
r' is
together
by
required for
with
the aether.
calculation
reference
to
the
and
for
aether-
an
that
ray
to
pass
for
reflecting
lightrequires
from
one
the whole
system
It is foimd
if the
moving
point:
time
body,
relatively
it is shown
given velocity
aether,this
mirror
slightlydifferent
this process,
another
as
mirrors
two
aether.
the
attempts
the
of
mirrors, be
Andyet
the
that
that
by calculation,however,
time
also
appears
Imagine
again, if
back
and
ought
devoted
of
which
rigid body
each
K'.
of these
method
decisive.
perfectlydefinite
to
existence
laws
to
physicistswere
notable
be
earth,
to
surface.
of iJie most
one
in
as
this motion
To
relative
the
to
the
detect
K'
systems
aether-drift
an
efforts of
to
attempts
hold
to
relative
assumed
of space.
complicated
more
supposed
were
at
as
relative
("aether-drift"
aether
assigned the
were
be
to
result
regarded
the aether.
to
respect
be
to
were
Strictlyspeaking, such
This
hypotheticalaether
hand,
against the
which
so
particular
physicallyimique.
moving relativelyto
to
to
was
to
RELATIVITY
(K) corresponding
one
of motion
state
OF
with
is different
EXPERIENCE
the
when
the
the
motion
is
the
estimated
RELATIVITY
moving
mirrors
from
that
these
parallelto
performed
resulting when
these
this difference
in which
But
detectable.
result
difi"cultyby
this
the
body
of
amount
for the
theory
of
the
was
that
relativitythis
relativitythe
there
there
with
is
introduction
be
can
which
of
damental
on
method
no
to
moving
no
of
such
of
the
of
of the
thing
difficulty
bodies
theory
as
to
follows
the
this
to occasion
system
it.
comparab
in-
"specially
aether-idea,and
demonstrate
the
of
interpretationis
nor
aether-drift,
principles of
introduction
in Section
(imique)co-ordinate
favoured"
the
But
to
mentioned
satisfactory. According
more
theory
sufl"cient
standpoint
solution
the
motion,
in time
the
of
tion
contrac-
the discussion
also from
right one.
motion
of
being just
with
from
theory
the
direction
negative
physicists.
to
produces
difference
Comparison
shows
XII
the
contraction
compensate
above.
in
aether
clearly
the
that
assuming
relative to the
body
of
rescued
been
gave
perplexing
very
Morley
interference
have
experiment
FitzGerald
and
Lorentz
the
fact
"
the
shoiild
times
two
and
experiment involving
an
the
to
planes. Although
between
difference
63
perpendicularly
is
of
is
body
of
planes
AND
hence
experiment
any
Here
the
tion
contrac-
from
the
two
theory
hm-
without
particularhypotheses;
and
the
as
the
SPECIAL
64
factor
prime
the
not
attach
to
THEORY
involved
motion
body
in
case
itself,
but
and
shortened
for
relatively
to
the
earth
sim.
not
which
cannot
we
with
in
find,
we
motion
the
is
co-ordinate
the
to
for
Morley
a
contraction
chosen
Thus
the
REIATIVITY
this
reference
point.
Michelson
rest
in
of
with
moving
in
meaning,
any
the
OF
the
respect
particular
co-ordinate
mirror
system
but
shortened,
system
of
system
which
it
is
is
at
xvn
MINKOWSKI'S
FOUR-DIMENSIONAL
non-mathematician
THE
by
yet there
is
that
world
the
no
is
we
indefinite
of
described
values
In
by
be
may
as
of
virtue
the
of
three
"
'
is
Uve
not
unlike
occult.
And
than
sional
four-dimen-
is
possible
x,
of
the
one,
such
co-ordinates
x,
latter
co-ordinates
property
owing
and
to
y,
to
the
speak
we
the
of
we
fact
of
be
can
yi,
Zi,
which
respective
first
point.
speak
of
that
there
it
as
which
was
the
briefly
of
world
physical
"world"
called
65
by
being
three-dimensional."
Similarly,
is
hood
neighbour-
the
the
three
there
which
Xi,
as
choose
we
as
that
of
position
the
of
means
in
By
'describe
to
and
z,
y,
points
co-ordinates
the
continuum.
(at rest) by
point
near
"continuum,"
are
it
number
this
"four-
continuum.
that
a
terious
mys-
statement
three-dimensional
of
the
of
feeUng
of
we
(co-ordinates)
numbers
an
which
by
hears
common-place
in
mean
position
seized
he
thoughts
more
space-time
Space
when
things, by
awakened
this
is
sKuddering
dimensional"
that
SPACE
phenomena
Minkowski
SPECIAL
66
THEORY
RELATIVITY
naturally four-dimensional
is
it is
Fdr
sense.
which
is
namely,
three
space
is in
this
there
event
(realisedor
event
x,
have
not
in
this
due
sense
and
theory
been
independent
according
i.e. it is
to
continuum.
classical
this
GaUleian
in
is natural
independence.
to this
This
of the Lorentz
world
is
different
compared
with
that
reason
of
matter
time
is
positionand
the
as
last
an
fact,
absolute,
the condition
We
equation of the
{t' t).
=
four-dimensional
according
we
system of co-ordinates.
transformation
the "world"
since
of the
the
treating time
mechanics,
of the
independent
expressed
As
of the
the advent
It is for this
of
differ
continuum
physics,before
habit
to
care
That
time played
relativity,
in the
of motion
The
in
events
those
regard
to
every
of which
four-dimensional
co-ordinates.
space
have
of
we
from
amount
independent role, as
more
see
as
to
of the
the
accustomed
been
to
originallyconsidered.
z, t
y,
and
"world"
for
thinkable)as
small
indefinitely
an
y,
"neighbouring"
many
least
at
events,
numbers,
The
/.
continuum;
co-ordinates
choose, the
by
as
are
x,
time-value
a
space-time
four
co-ordinates
also
sense
the
by
described
co-ordinate,the
time
in
of individual
composed
of
each
we
OF
mode
on
the
theory
is shown
of consideration
theory
time
by
transformation:
of
of
relativity,
is robbed
the fourth
of its
tion
equa-
POUR-DIMENSIONAL
SPACE
6T
\/'-$
according
Moreover,
At' of two
difference
does
in
not
difference
At of the
with
the
with
does
not
He here.
in
shows
dimensional
order
In
however,
relationship,
time
V"
co-ordinate
I.
ct
the
the
natural
(special)theory
forms, in
exactly the
of
r61e
same
Formally,
'
Cf.
the
somewhat
more
tivity,
rela-
properties,
the
three-
geometrical
prominence
replace
it.
this
to
the
these
Under
usual
as
the
these
detailed
tions,
condi-
matical
mathe-
co-ordinate
three
plays
space
ordinates.
co-
co-ordinates
four
discussion
of
demands
relativityassimie
the tune
which
rather
theory of
satisfyingthe
laws
tivity,
of rela-
imaginary magnitude
an
proportional to
the
importance
formal
must
we
by
due
of
the four-dimensional
of EucHdean
give
to
to
events
theory
of the
essential
continuum
time
But
pronounced relationship to
space.*
two
It is to be found
recognition that
its most
K'
reference
of
was
of the
space-timecontinuum
to
the
K'.
to
which
development
time
"time-distance"
respect
discovery of Minkowski,
for the formal
in
results
events
same
with
events
same
to
when
even
the
respect
"space-distance"of
Pure
respect
equation
with
events
general vanish,
vanishes.
this
to
in
Appendix
n.
SPECIAL
68
THEORY
correspond
in
exactly
Euclidean
the
to
It
geometry.
addition
perforce
co-ordinates
space
clear
be
must
that,
formal
purely
theory
three
the
non-mathematician
this
RELATIVITY
OF
as
to
of
consequence
knowledge,
our
in
clearness
gained
to
even
the
no
mean
measure.
These
only
inadequate
a
notion
vague
by
theory
of
have
relativity,
got
in
this
ideas
not
work
of
in
revert
the
shaU
to
it
the
it
its
in
to
at
only
access
but
the
the
kowski's
Min-
exact
very
xmderstand
or
perhaps
of
mathematics,
a
ideas
clothes.
long
grasp
leave
towards
the
to
since
of
fundamental
general
present
tributed
con-
general
would
difficult
have
special
the
fundamental
pages,
doubtless
to
order
either
relativity,
shall
than
is
necessary
which
reader
idea
important
the
following
the
inexperienced
anyone
is
of
the
give
can
Without
farther
no
work
it
of
Minkowski.
developed
are
remarks
it
end
theory
here,
of
Part
of
and
II.
THEORY
GENERAL
TO
the
of
motion
RELATIVITT
OF
If it is
taking place.
question of detecting or
simply
describingthe
of
involved, it is in principleimmaterial
refer the
reference-bodywe
As
but it
mentioned, this is self-evident,
confused
the much
with
called "the
have
taken
that
maintains
have
we
made
self-evident).Our
If
nature
as
making
use
(o) the
they
principlerather
the
obtained
are
only
choose
the
(forthis,too,
event
formulate
we
we
reference-body
our
as
any
be
not
of not
use
equally ""?eU
may
descriptionof
follows:
must
investigations.
our
already
which
principleof relativity,"
principlewe
The
what
ment
comprehensive state-
more
the basis of
as
motion
to
motion.
what
asserts
general laws
from
is
of
experience,by
of
embankment
as
reference-body,
then
mechanics
in
generallaws
or
of the
the law
vacuo)have exactlythe
This
can
also
be
the
(e.g.
of nature
propagation
form
same
expressed as
laws of
in both
follows:
light
of
cases.
For
the
of naturaLprocesses^nd^gi:.
physicaldescription
6T^the "reference-bodies K, K' is unique" (lit
"
"speciallymarked
other.
not
of
in the
Unlike
the
out")
as
compared
this latter
first,
necessityhold
statement
priori;it is
conceptions of "motion"
with
not
and
the
need
contained
"reference-
AND
GENERAL
derivable
from
SPECIAL
and
body"
decide
can
Up
the
to
of reference
of
laws.
Our
following lines.
from
the
whose
body K,
the
law
particleleft
from
holds
With
of
to
provided
the
those
should
they
are
in
bodies
of reference
of
sense
we
speak
of
contrast
the "general
to
this
we
natural
of
be
The
assumed
for
not
a
the
of
wish
different
laws,
uniform
respect
to
are
reference-bodies,but
possessing motion
exactly equivalent
with
reference-bodies.
as
all
K,
to
state
nonrotary motion
given preference
of
be
to
were
be
formulation
or
specialtheory
relativity,
In
be
in
(Galileian
addition
principleof relativitywas
these
this
in
removed
uniformly
to
that
it:
to
respect
should
they
the
that
Galileian
as
and
for
rectilinear and
all these
K'
reference
is such
of nature
But
out
reference-
far
sufl"ciently
laws
possible.
in this sense,
motion
with
the
on
started
exists
reference
reference-body)the
as
more
place, we
of
no
all bodies
of
was
there
by
the formulation
particles moves
straight line.
bodies
that
itself and
to
all other
simple
course
condition
GaUleian
have
we
with
In the first
assumption
incorrectness.
or
equivalence
in connection
natural
the
71
only experience
present, however,
maintained
means
them;
its correctness
to
as
PRINCIPLE
to
K;
regarded
vaUdity
of
only
for
others
{e.g.
kind).
In
special principleof
relativity.
to
imderstand
by
the following
principleof relativity"
GENERAL
72
THEORY
bodies
All
statement:
for
equivalent
are
nature), whatever
wiU
Siace
by
which
be
this
the
their
evident
temptation
been
after
to venture
the
hope
imagine
us
of
ourselves
But
uniform
the
As
rate.
occupant
and
motion,
such
the
embankment
If the
a
to
carriageis
motion.
to
is
Let
our
old friend
travelling at
moving imiformly,
sensible
not
facts
carriage
parently
ap-
seems
that he
reason
and
attempt.
an
it is
general
is at
out
with-
can
of the
case
rest, but
Moreover,
of its
as
the
according
pretation
specialprincipleof relativity,this interalso from
a
physical
is quite justified
point of
into
the
rate, there
any
is
interpretthe
indicating that
the
as
it is for this
reluctance
to
at
transferred
long
of the
feel the
simple
the
intellect
consideration
iu
success
reasons
specialprinciple
placed
re-
later stage.
generalisationmust
reliable
quite
be
be
for
one,
of
to
must
justified,
every
relativity.
principle of
at
of
introduction
the
strives
Uttle
laws
of motion.
state
abstract
etc.,
natural
general
formulation
more
become
relatiAdtyhas
of
K, K\
description of
may
that
out
later
which
the
reference
before
pointed
of
RELATIVITY
(formulation of
phenomena
But
OF
view.
motion
non-uniform
of the
carriage is
motion,
as
now
changed
for instance
by
SPECIAL
of
the
is
manifested
bodies
The
that
this
for
the
of
it
motion.
GaMleian
does
law
feel
kind
compelled
of
motion,
in
that
opposition
But
this
in
conclusion
what
clear
the
general
follows
cannot
to
to
to
the
this,
grant
non-uniform
principle
we
be
the
of
jimcture
reality
form
uni-
that
respect
to
with
in
or
Because
present
to
hold
rest
is
carriage.
the
and
impossible
as
with
physical
absolute
relativity.
see
hold
different
relatively
at
it
events
not
at
hold
when
moving
non-imiformly
we
all
At
be
carriage,
carriage
railway
is
to
laws
moving
the
to
the
considered,
appear
mechanical
non-imiformly
in
person
previously
would
tion
mo-
behaviour
behaviour
case
cupant
oc-
retarded
mechanical
the
to
the
same
reference
the
the
ingly
correspond-
The
mechanical
reason
the
that
in
relative
carriage.
from
forwards.
jerk
73
then
brakes,
experiences
carriage
powerful
PRINCIPLE
the
of
application
powerful
of
GENERAL
AND
shall
maintained.
of
soon
xrx
THE
"TF
pick
we
J^
GRAVITATIONAL
does
it
faJl
attracted
the
earth."
answer
rather
As
electromagnetic
regard
action
without
the
medium.
as
of
are
the
the
"
it,
acts
operates
strives
field."
on
to
discuss
conception,
the
piece
its turn
of
towards
move
here
In
the
which
iron,
the
indeed
74
in
magnet.
the
but
manner
the
we
magnetic
that
justification for
is
the
what
so
this
space,
real
this
on
always
being
something
to
come
directly
magnet
physically
study
regard
to
after
"
ing
follow-
attracts
empty
imagine
lates
formu-
intermediary
magnet
is
impossible
some
magnet
the
have
process
content
that
that
be
to
it
careful
we
intermediate
constrained
"magnetic
not
instance,
being something
aroimd
as
usual
the
for
more
of
cannot
that
Faraday
into
the
distance
for
we
through
iron
we
iron,
meaning
of
why
The
physics
phenomena,
it go,
"Because
Modem
intervention
If,
of
piece
at
is:
differently
result
let
ground?"
question
by the
reason.
of
this
to
answer
the
to
then
and
stone
up
FIELD
this
somewhat
calls
space
call
field
the
latter
We
shall
incidental
arbi-
GRAVITATIONAL
THE
trary
shall
We
one.
mention
only
electromagnetic phenomena
aid
represented much
analogous
of
place indirectly.
a
and
know
from
law,
the
body
law
the
earth
on
The
earth
diminishes
From
point
our
the
be
must
It is
of
something
from
body
the
gravitationalfields
to
properties
is
we
action
from
away
this
the
means:
tional
gravita-
from
distance
like this:
The
intensity and
farther
determined
in
by
space
removed
the
law
of
the
themselves.
the
magnetic fields,
electric and
gravitational field
which
points
thence
are
governs
at
As
diate
field in its imme-
directly; the
field
the
the
the diminution
the
on
perfectlydefinite
with
roundings
sur-
quite definite
farther
correctlyto represent
direction
contrast
to
propertiesof
the
neighbourhood
property,
fall.
of view
In
in its
acts
of
and
farther
operative bodies.
which
an
takes
stone
produces
according
governing
in order
the
the
its motion
gravitational action
of
The
regarded in
gravitationalfield,which
field in space
one,
the
waves.
experience,the intensityof
earth.
The
are
proceed
we
as
also
produces
stone
than
satisfactorily
manner.
action
The
its
ically
theoret-
be
can
more
gravitation
of
effects
with
that
electromagnetic
of
transmission
75
appHes particularly to
this
it, and
without
on
FIELD
exhibits
of
most
fimdamental
remarkable
importance
GENERAL
76
for what
the
THEORY
follows.
Bodies
of
sole influence
either
fall in
wood
does
moving under
are
the
on
or
exactly
rest
law, which
in
with
or
holds
the
of
the
lead
in
the
the
piece
ia
manner
they
be
off
This
expressed
of the
Hght
start
velocity.
accurately,can
most
form
different
and
same
initial
same
depend
physical state of
receive
in the least
not
instance, a piece
For
body.
of
the material
on
which
gravitationalfield
acceleration,which
an
RELATIVITY
OF
following
consideration.
According
to
mass)
(inertial
(Force)
of the
constant
is the
accelerated
cause
of the
motion,
have
we
(acceleration),
mass"
"mertial
the
where
of
law
Newton's
is
characteristic
If
body.
tation
gravi-
now
then
acceleration,we
have
(Force)
where
of
(intensity
field),
gravitational
mass)
(gravitational
constant
body.
these
From
follows:
relations
"""^""'")
for the
the
is likewise
"gravitational mass"
the
characteristic
two
'T^sriT'
"' '^
"-'-"'
gravitationalfield).
If now,
is to
condition
as
be
find from
we
experience,the
independent
of the
body
and
of
the
always
tion
accelera-
nature
the
same
and
the
for
XX
OF
EQUALITY
THE
AS
MASS
imagine
WE
appreciable
choose
to
of
remain
let
reference-body
resembling
is
the
him
with
with
does
with
for
at
rest
motion.
As
spacious
chest
who
inside
Gravitation
this
strings
part
continue
observer
an
observer.
impact
against
rise
slowly
towards
He
floor
the
urally
nat-
must
floor, otherwise
the
to
sHghtest
to
motion
apparatus.
exist
not
himself
imagine
this
points
rectilinear
us
room
equipped
fasten
imiform
in
permanently
in
points
possible
for
which
the
by
then
reference-body
and
rest
at
before
have
is
It
to
other
required
Galilei.
(world), relative
space
space,
and
we
conditions
Galileian
empty
stars
that
masses
of
law
fundamental
from
the
approximately
us
of
large portion
THE
RELATIVITY
OF
removed
far
so
FOR
ARGUMENT
AN
POSTULATE
GENERAL
TIONAL
GRAVITA-
AND
INERTIAL
the
will
cause
the
of
ceiling
room.
To
the
externally
"being"
middle
a
hook
(what
of
the
with
kind
lid
rope
of
78
of
the
chest
attached,
being
is
is
and
immaterial
fixed
now
to
INERTIAL
at
The
with
to
chest
together
motion.
In
viewing
how
But
does
transmitted
the
of
by
If he
release
longer
be
the
he may
Rel3dng
field
the
(asit
his
on
was
the
field which
up
this
He
use
chest
body,
the
relative
chest
the
is constant
the
of
in the
will thus
chest
with
are
had
in
wUl
and
no
for
floor
this
of
motion.
himself
the
for
knowledge
earth.
our
the
this
as
way
of
towards
to
is then
same
on
wish
not
previously
convince
discussed
that he and
take
the
The
that
floorof
magnittide,whatever
same
happen
in
man
accelerated
floor
he
approach
further
always of
body
to
be
the
floor.
the
will
the
of
does
house
which
will
chest
he
exactly
of
of the body
acceleration
the
on
acceleration
body
wiU
legs i"
room
body
an
observer
is
in
transmitted
with
chest
the
therefore
length
chest
in
the
the
reason
reaction
fuU
regard
chest
him
of his
are
rope.
in the
must
we
will
reference-body
the
accelerated
that
provided
another
by
b^in
velocity
of
in the
hand,
their
man
He
stands
anyone
time
acceleration
means
laid out
standing
his
to
chest.
pressure
to be
the
The
process?
urdfomaly
from
force.
then
"
T9
constant
observer
is not
which
values
this
all
the
of
course
unheard-of
reach
this with
with
"upwards"
move
MASS
GRAVITATIONAL
AND
the
the chest
kind
of
experiment.
the
gravitational
preceding section),
to
come
in
regard
the
clusion
con-
gravitational
to
time.
Of
GENERAL
80
THEORY
the
chest
does
fall
not
middle
is attached
the
Ud
of the
conclusion
in the
of the
chest
he
the
that
smUe
to
we
wish
if we
admit
laws.
his
of
at
rest
it is
"Galileian
the
nevertheless
can
have
We
space"
thus
reference
which
as
result
for
powerful argimaent
being
as
for
at
extending
with
have
we
with
considered,
include
to
accelerated
are
and
other,
first
good grounds
principleof rdativity
situation
mechanical
chest
the
rather
must
the
ought
accelerated
being
regard
we
known
nor
that he
say
beheve
not
grasping
reason
though
to
respect
and
consistent;we
mode
neither
Even
each
to
comes
suspended
man
I do
to remain
that
violates
the
is
which
rope
consequently
the
at
in his conclusion?
rest.
the
in the
gravitationalfield.
Ought
errs
hook
the
and
chest
why
to
as
gravitationalfield.
discovers
it, and
to
moment
this
he
we
RELATIVITY
course
to
OF
bodies
of
respect
to
gained
generahsed postulate
relativity.
of
We
this mode
of
interpretationrests
of
property
all bodies
to
the
inertial
law
would
the
and
not
exist,the
able
of
possiblility
tal
the fundamen-
on
the
law
to
man
of the
If
of
what
acceleration,or,
same
gravitational mass.
be
the
gravitational field
the
thing, on
same
did not
carefullythat
note
must
giving
comes
equaUty
this
natural
in the accelerated
interpretthe
of
behaviour
chest
of
bodies
the
GRAVITATIONAL
AND
INERTIAL
around
him
the
on
grounds
reference-body to
that
Suppose
the
to
body
wiU
this
the
to
he
experience
be
"at
the
be
in
of
the
and
Hd,
of the
in the
man
downward
experiencesa
field,and
of
the
who
of
largeenough
That
body."
extension
the
and
a
of
determines
the
rope
Guided
by
of
the
necessityof
the
this
gravitationalmass.
will
"The
of
the
acceleration
example,
of
of the
Thus
physicalinterpretationof
we
server
ob-
an
interpret
must
rope
motion
is
rope
of the
of
body
to the
just
body.
of
the
mass
of
the
see
that
magnitude
inertial
sion
ten-
of the
hand,
this motion
principle
law
of the
of the
accelerated
is the
the
rope,
tension
space
thus:
the
an
gravitational
the
other
tension
to effect the
which
tension
The
it.
to
things
it transmits
chest,and
attached
the
part in the
take
for
suspended body
magnitude
poised freely in
condition
perforce
the
is
it will
gravitationalmass
On
rope
result of
the
in the
by
the
is the
rope
his
attaches
ask
we
in
"The
force
determines
suspended body."
the
If
that
so
rope
this is neutrahsed
what
rope;
will say:
chest
he
The
rope.
the
fixes
that
of tension
cause
justified
supposing
chest
be
not
in the
stretch
to
of
rest."
man
free end
81
supposition
would
of
side of the
inner
the
on
gravitationalfield,and
MASS
our
relativityimplies
equality of
we
this law.
have
inertial
obtained
GENERAL
82
From
we
THEORY
consideration
our
that
see
point
of
of the accelerated
riesults on
fact, the
general
idea
of
satisfied
by
the
such
chosen.
Now
of
regardlessof
be
for
the
I must
laws
ceeding
pro-
the
exists
reader
kind
the
of
reference
choose
judged
from
the
always only
think
that,
it.
It
body
another
gravitationalfield
no
This
is
for aU gravitationalfields,
but
to
that
choose
always
that
to
first
gravitationalfield which
could
we
is
the
was
system
also
might
We
one.
for
co-ordinate
quite specialform.
as
the
Before
warn
gravitationalfield
present,
exists with
of
the
supplied
might easilysuppose
we
reference-body such
true
gravitation.
gravitational field.
chest, despitethe
apparent
may
of
gravitational field
field
existence
an
relativitymust
in the
no
chest
systematic piu-suitof
relativityhas
A
man
of
the laws
farther,however,
against
RELATIVITY
general theory
yield important
In
OP
by
no
means
only for
those
of reference
such
possible
im-
that,
vanishes.
(inits entirety)
earth
We
can
appreciatewhy
now
that
forward
not
convincing, which
the
Section
observer
XVIII.
in
jerk forwards
It
the
as
we
is
brought
argument
certainly true
is
against
the
end
that
of
the
result of the
applicationof the
INERTIAL
AND
and
brake,
But
to
he
is
thus:
of
application
which
is
directed
respect
field,
moves
original
the
to
and
Under
embankment
velocity
continuously
the
in
in
reduced."
the
such
carriage)
to
period
backwards
is
with
manner
of
field
variable
influence
together
the
experience
which
the
jerk
of
gravitational
forwards
non-uniformly
this
reference
(during
brakes)
time.
With
non-
carriage.
(the
rest.
exists
the
his
interpret
reference
at
there
the
refer
to
83
the
(retardation)
of
permanently
this
of
nobody
also
body
however,
with
by
might
"My
in
recognises
acceleration
He
remains
MASS
(retardation)
motion
"real"
he
compelled
carriage.
it,
that
of
umformity
GRAVITATIONAL
of
the
that
direction
this
earth
their
is
XXI
WHAT
IN
ARE
RESPECTS
OF
THEORY
SPECIAL
have
already
classical
continue
in
are
each
K
in
and
the
unique
states
of
motion,
Relative
valid.
to
be
can
special theory
But
can
He
to
no
rest
asks:
to
which
person
satisfied
"How
these
whose
does
laws
mode
this
it
84
which
and
which
we
come
do
not
of
to
fore
thereK
of nature"
"laws
reference-bodies
and
with
reference-bodies
recognised
hold,
law
mechanics
relativity
of
also
reference-bodies
in classical
between
the
which
said
relative
other
Both
have
relative
motion
to
line
fundamental
reference
translational
ficiently
suf-
particles
We
of
differentiate
relative
this
the
straight
rest.
that
from
material
in
of
that
particles
other
state
THE
SATISFACTOR
UN-
out
bodies
is not
law
starts
OF
times
for
imiform
other.
the
vahd
certain
possess
several
Material
emphasised
only be
can
stated
uniformly
in
repeatedly
RELATIVITY
from
move
continue
or
OF
law:
removed
to
AND
mechanics
following
far
FOUNDATIONS
MECHANICS
CLASSICAL
WE
THE
hold.
thought
condition
that
is
of
certain
logical
things.
refer-
86
GENERAL
the
reference-systems
this
objection
THEORY
without
clearly
claimed
of
be
may
of
motion
require
the
for
of
any
the
external
reference-body
Mach
because
is
of
is
rid
of
to
since
the
body
of
it
objection
placed
by
on
of
means
the
general
of
equations
such
whatever
reference,
motion.
importance
more
is
reference-body
agency
be
got
it, but
this
of
must
be
saw
recognised
conformable
every
of
state
objection
The
its
is
relativity,
hold
theory
and
only
can
which
physics
E.
Newton
invalidate
to
mechanics
It
principle
a
all,
that
basis.
new
But
of
K'.'^
and
attempted
success.
most
he
and
RELATIVITY
OF
for
rotating
its
of
such
maintenance,
uniformly.
when
especially
a
that
nature
e.g.
in
the
the
it
does
case
state
not
when
XXII
FEW
INFERENCES
PRINCIPLE
the
general
in
us
field
gravitational
Let
us
place
GaUleian
purely
in
natural
process
K'
body
to
this
the
For
in
respect
Galilei)
to
is
of
process
of
K
we
executing
how
find
the
K',
of
culation)
cal-
this known
from
exists
to
by
reference-
relatively
field
it
means
{i.e.simply
seen
reference
with
K.
to
respect
consideration
our
field
gravitational
fluences
in-
studied.
that
learn
accordance
an
accelerated
8r
which
body
rectilinear
uniform
(in
By
accelerated
how
us
example,
state
is
as
which
relative
K.
to
gravitational
teaches
also
appears,
body
new
able
the
process
in
domain
reference
then
know
we
manner
operations
which
since
But
of
theoretical
are
the
the
manner.
natural
any
GaHleian
the
body
we
for
of
properties
that
instance,
regards
relativity puts
theoretical
purely
for
as
of
that
show
XX
derive
to
"course"
whatsoever,
Section
principle
in
suppose,
space-time
takes
of
position
GENERAL
RELATIVITY
OF
considerations
THE
THE
FROM
motion
with
the
and
in
is
with
law
of
general
GENERAL
88
THEOEY
curvilinear
motion
OF
with
reference-bodyK'
relativelyto K'
with
It
is known
the
Hght
for
Galileian
can
tional
gravita-
of bodies
in
suppliesus
of
ray
the
out
such
consider
it with
shown
the
that
reference
to
the
reality. Although
that
the
incidence
ought
can
be
this
to
we
the
manifest
of
curvature
for the
passing
is nevertheless
clude,
con-
propagated
two
examination
general theory
light rays
the
spects
re-
relativityis
estimated
the
1-7 seconds
itself in
of
of the
fields
gravitational
disposalin practice,its
for
of
importance.
detailed
only exceedinglysmall
our
of
accelerated
fields. In
gravitational
required by
ray
no
(reference-body
i?'). From
question shows
path
In
respect
easilybe
in
curvilinearly
analogous
light. With
reference-bodyK,
lightis
chest
result of fundamental
new
carry
of
ray
we
is transmitted
It
same
at
the
on
consideration
our
when
consideration
we
that
the movement
obtain
we
importance
c.
or
new.
nothing essentially
However,
to
influence
that
so
the
to
acceleration
field prevailing
gravitational
field influences
way,
the accelerated
to
(chest). This
of the
moving body
this
respect
corresponds
curvature
RELATIVITY
the
at
sun
of
arc.
tude
magnigrazing
This
following way.
INFERENCES
As
seen
to
be
of the
be
to
such
indicated
of
is
the
solution
early
the
second
place
the
to
of the
to which
referred, cannot
the
with
by
the
means
Now
during
III.)
the
sun
The
or
otherwise
the
greatest
of
portance,
im-
result
shows
that, according
of
be
relativity,the
velocityof hght
of
the
of the
of the
the
star
have
already frequently
unlimited
might
theory
in
Royal
deflection
of
solar
and
of
of two
Royal
light demanded
of
validity.
only
of
take
place
light varies
think
that
of
as
relativity
relativitywould
realitythis
photographs
of the
mental
funda-
two
special theory
light can
But
in
the
any
we
whole
it the
Joint Committee
existence
we
of
when
this,the specialtheory
of
consequence
'
with
heavens.
velocityof propagation
position.
and
sun
is to
one
claim
of rays
curvature
with
the
to
which
of the
constitutes
and
relativity
when
ought
of
general theory
constancy
which
our
assiunptions in
eclipse
of astronomers.^
expected
vacuo,
of
problem
are
compared
sky
correctness
total
from
as
the
and
stars
part of the
the
this deduction
law
above,
another
at
examination
In
these
appear
sun,
during
position in
their apparent
is situated
the
of
times,
89
fixed stars
displaced outwards
amount
an
earth, certain
observation
At
sun.
appear
RELATIVITY
neighbourhood
the
capable of
thus
by
the
from
in
FROM
is not
the
expeditionsequipped
Astronomical
by theory
1919.
Societies,
was
firmed
con-
(Cf. Appendix
GENERAL
90
THEORY
We
case.
domaui
as
relativitycannot
of
we
RELATIVITY
only conclude
can
of
theory
OF
validity;its
able
are
that
claim
gravitational fields
the
on
special
unliinited
an
resiilts hold
disregard
to
the
only
the
long
so
influences
of
{e.g.of
phenomena
light).
it has
Since
of
the
theory
of
theory
of
the
often
theory
been
of
relativityis
that
relativity
overthrown
the
of
case
electrodynamics
looked
the
At
fields
the
development
quite
are
and
to
at
justifiedin saying
in
limiting
No
fields
fairer
are
the
invariable
destiny covdd
theory, than
that
of
laws
of the former
in
be
with
the
least.
electrodynamics
the
for the
be allotted
it should
we
statics
electro-
reason
Not
in
contained
case;
those
directlyto
the
is
other,
each
field-equationsof
the
by
electrical
Should
this
electrodynamics?
Electrostatics
as
for
which
case,
the
system.
that
overthrown
is
for the
which
trostatic
elec-
from
relativelyto
co-ordinate
the
Maxwell
rest
electric
that
correctly
only
an
electricity.
of
know
we
of
electrostatics
of
laws
strictlyrealised,in
masses
make
to
Before
derived
be
can
never
general
means
the
time
present
special
the
by
laws
considerations
is
the
by
the
as
upon
nents
oppo-
clearer
appropriate comparison.
were
by
it is perhaps advisable
relativity,
facts
of
contended
latter
case
regard
to any
of itself
lead
in which
to
time.
physical
FROM
INFERENCES
introduction
to the
way
theory, in
the
In
have
we
the influence
of natural
the
which
the
key,
consider
this for
fashion
absent.
in
If
with
of
relative
field which
time.*
refer
the
to
law
of
for all
Even
'
the
such
the
XX.
with
us
motion
no
domains
fields
domain
kind
of
chosen
of
means
for
are
to
motion,
gravitational
respect
to
K'.
and
space
course
ing
Accord-
the general
relativity,
gravitational field
from
Let
gravitationalfields
follows
laws
"Galileian"
exists
there
general theory
though by
This
K'
character
on
itself.
gravitational
is variable
The
depend
to
of
reference-body,
the
space-time
choice
which
now
we
solution
moment.
suitable
i.e. domains
But
relativitysupplies
(approximately)in
imder
already
are
the
to
of
course
is absent.
gravitationalfield
acquainted
behave
the
on
investigation of
the
the
theoretically
of which
laws
problem,
concerns
by
which
the
lightjust
general theory
derive
to
general theory
are
the
gravitationalfield
satisfied
We
that
of
gravitationalfield
attractive
most
limitingcase.
transmission
us
processes,
when
known
the
of
91
comprehensive
more
as
seen
relativityenables
of
on
of the
example
with,
dealt
of
it lives
which
RELATIVITY
must
obtainable
all
be
satisfied
in this way.
gravitationalfields
generalisationof
the
discussion
in
tion
Sec-
GENERAL
92
be
can
be
this
the
derivable
kind.
special
the
that
hope
yet
way,
such
This
hope
we
gravitation
been
realised~ittbetween
But
maimer,^
of
fields
gravitational
has
tain
enter-
may
of
law
general
from
beautiful
most
RELATIVITY
OF
in
produced
the
will
THEORY
the
clear
it
was
and
not
to
still
of
vision
this
to
necessary
as
this
lies
withhold
extend
farther.
our
ideas
its
surmoimt
deep
it
and
goal
at
from
the
the
of
the
realisation
actual
serious
root
of
reader.
space-time
difi"culty,
things,
We
dare
require
continuum
GENERAL
94
second
THEORY
of
body
K',
reference
K.
who
is
sensible
force which
direction,and
which
with
rest
at
was
K.
reference-body
is "at
of
rest";
on
bodies
which
regards
at
are
the
as
disc
in
K'
the
to
is
radial
an
observer
an
the observer
as
original
the disc
on
himself, and
acting on
reference-bodywhich
the basis of the generalprinciple
is justifiedin doing this. The
relativityhe
force
of
interpretedas
respect
But
disc
his
regard
may
the
be
our
observer
An
outwards
would
fix
to
uniformly in
rotates
acts
rotating
be in the form
force)by
(centrifugal
effect of inertia
"vho
order
sittingeccentricallyon
of
is
its centre.
about
plane
own
which
In
to
RELATIVITY
OP
of
aU
on
the
relative to
rest
effect
in fact
other
disc, he
gravitationalfield.
Newton's
on
the
does
right when
gravitationcan
not
not
he
be
be
not
possible
gravitation.*But
in
that would
of
beUeves
this
relativity,
of
kind
theory
observer
in the
the
general theory
disturb
beUeves
of
him; he is quite
that
formulated
motion
since
"
of
general law
the
law
which
stars
rectly,
cor-
experienced by
himself.
'
The
field
to the distance
from
the
centre
as
v7e
increases
portionally
pro-
proceed outwards.
BEHAVIOUR
The
OF
observer
disc
doing
CLOCKS
performs experiments
with
clocks
it is his
so,
definitions
for
and
the
to
To
be his
start
he
disc,and
the other
they
at
are
from
the
at the
whereas
the
According
XII, it follows
permanently
the
from
be
to
than
slower
the
circular
It is obvious
K.
noted
by
that
sittingalongside his
circular
make
disc.
the
field,a
case
clock
according
situated
to
clock
Thus
the
go
more
For
is in
of the
in Section
at
goes
the
of
tion.
rota-
rate
clock
at
the
effect would
at
our
same
the
every
quickly or
this
which
reason
observed
will
we
imagine
of
centre
circular
position in
(at rest).
disc
as
general,in
more
wiU
on
velocity,
disc, i.e.
whom
observer
an
Galileian
no
obtained
that
rate
this body,
edge of the
result
selves
our-
same
from
that
of
centre
the
iT in consequence
to
that
ask
now
non-rotating
the
at
circular
disc,so
centre
relative
at
judged
As
clock
We
go
the
K',
identically
the
of the
edge
and
enterprise?
of
centre
clocks
both
reference-body K.
motion
the
on
standpoint of
the clock
time-
of two
relative to it.
rest
whether
the
at
exact
circular disc
this
places one
clocks
constructed
at
In
his observations.
on
experiencein
with,
his circular
on
arrive
to
significationof
reference
95
measuring-rods.
intention
the
space-data with
What
RODS
AND
disc, or,
the
to
gravitational
less
quickly,
the
clock
it
is
is not
GENERAL
96
THEORY
obtain
possibleto
with
the
rest
with
similar
such
docks
I do
but
wish
not
this
at
If the
measuring-rod (a
the
which
Section
from
wiU
be
XII, moving
other
the
measuring-rod
applied to
if it is
the
radius.
the
circimiference
rod
and
then
the
one
quotient
If, then,
the
by
the
the
observer
disc with
diameter
the
familiar
of the
other, he
number
is at rest
with
respect
to
(relativeto
"'
results of the
a
his
not
from
of
measures
measuringing
divid-
disc,on
wiU
not
3.14
obtain
as
but
.
for
course,
.,
disc
K, this operation
have
we
Throughout this consideration
(non-Totating)system K as reference-body,since
'
wiU
direction
first
ir=
of
bodies
judged
disc in the
of the
i,
of the motion.
the
to K
less than
direction
hand,
the
to
the Galileian
the
K,
which
compared
as
shortening in
the
the
standard
disc) tangentiaUy
the
to
of
xmsurmoimtable
farther
any
is short
disc,then, as judged
since, according
On
go
applies his
attempt
we
definition
presents
observer
rod
of
radius
of the
suffer
simultaneityin
to
stage the
also
co-ordinates
difficulties.
edge
reference.
itself when
of
at
question.
Moreover,
space
of
body
of time
arranged
are
earlier definition
our
case,
this
with
the
to
definition
which
difficulty
presents
into
of
RELATIVITY
reasonable
respect
apply
to
aid
OF
to
use
we
may
the
Galildan
only
assume
gravitationalfield prevails).
BEHAVIOUR
"would
OF
yield
exactly
of
field,
the
to
orientation.
also
X,
in
the
as
been
Thus
all
general
reader
order
to
be
relativity
for
this
in
theory,
able
the
long
not
meaning
based
be
make
must
apply
following
as
occur.
to
exactly.
in
have
conclusions
to
line
method
exact
an
appear
we
every
not
and
events
these
the
in
the
of
of
which
would
reality
In
in
in
in
co-ordinates
means
assign
previous
our
relativity
question.
the
laws
general
therefore
the
times
cannot
hold
straight
are
by
cannot
and
of
special
and
we
natural
general
of
disc
co-ordinates
positions
idea
the
attribute
we
exactly
the
discussing
if
We
the
to
defined
detour
the
define
to
the
all
meaning.
relative
y,
used
to
its
position
in
rod
in
nor
least
at
Hence
loses
disc,
97
that
proves
geometry
rotating
gravitational
length
This
Euclidean
the
on
RODS
AND
exactly.
tt
propositions
CLOCKS
caUed
shall
in
subtle
the
on
postulate
prepare
paragraphs.
XXIV
EUCLIDEAN
AND
NON-EUCLIDEAN
CONTINUUM
surface
THE
in
front
point
passing
of
am
sure
clearness
and
"
by
Let
little
what
us
of
slab.
the
of
Uttle
these
constitute
diagonals
the
of
equality
point
to
by
"neigh-
(large)
words,
by
going
executing
jimips."
with
sufficient
here
by
"neighbouring"
is not
too
pedantic).
the
surface
of
that
by
We
describing
When
one
rods
with
can
be
which
the
are
We
next
slab
diagonals,
so
we
equal
other
any
lay four
that
they
(a square),
long.
equally
of
are
on
figure
their
dimensions
the
laid
marble
the
on
of
made,
they
I say
quadrilateral
of
been
have
compared
number
large
overlapping.
ends
other
one
process
this
appreciate
mean
that
mean
without
point
out
any
other
any
one
equal length
of
length,
will
imagine
smaU
marble
to
in
(ifhe
lengths being
the
from
spread
continuum.
now
rods
get
can
without
property
a
from
or,
reader
as
is
repeating
the
jmnps"
latter
table
table
point
to
this
express
the
and
times,
point
marble
me.
this
on
one,
niunber
of
continuously
boiuing"
from
of
make
To
the
ensure
use
of
EUCLIDEAN
AND
little
testing-rod.
ones,
each
these
such,
untU
with
out
that
It is
each
difficulties.
We
at
then
comer,
are
the
of
is
square
I
that
so
equal
its
of their
favour
about
We
diagonals
of
needs
If
everything
rod,
has
of
square
can
with
of
fourth
lowing.
folmeet
square
the
sides
two
out
the
of the
rangement
ar-
of
the
determined.
this is
of
and
be
If
equal.
But
the
they
are
especial
an
little rods
thankfully surprised.
such
surprises
been
smoothly, then
really gone
the marble
with
used
interval). By choosing
"origin,"
two
greatest
consequence,
slab
pointsof
has
which
to
is to be successful.
continuiun
Euclidean
the
think
experience many
if the construction
is
carry
squares
be
only
can
slab
adjustthe quadrilateral
to
may
marble
the
which
must
into
accord, then
own
can
three
remaining
longer able
belongs
we
already completely
no
now
am
as
marble
of
squares.
to
sides
two
each
arrangement
getting
moment
any
whole
that
need
with
with
square
wonder
similar
common
manner
to four
only
If at
comer
without
business
this
of
add
in
The
squares.
veritable
like
99
we
rod
one
finallythe
side
each
and
squares
has
proceed in
We
squares
is laid
this square
To
of which
the first.
NON-EUCLIDEAN
respect
as
one
characterise
reference
slab constitute
to
to
the
little
"distance"
(line-
corner
of
as
every
square
other
this origin by
comer
means
GENERAL
100
of
numbers.
two
rods
THEORY
must
OF
only need
how
state
square
then
are
the
reference
of
making
would
the
rods
unsuccessf;il.
"expand" by
of the
case
brought
into
table.
the
table
part do
expand,
on
still be
can
position on
of squares
must
the
those
whereas
periphery,
rods
every
into disorder
rods
that
the central
the
not
at
suppose
heat
We
Uttle
our
experiment
proportionalto
construction
our
Uttle
reference
lengths
"
EucUdean
in the
the
by
region
the
on
of
outer
not.
With
imit
the
amoimt
an
coincidence
But
the
of
two
necessarilycome
because
ordinate
co-
recognise that
we
shall
We
slab, but
marble
in which
the
this
"Cartesian
in which
cases
part
of
following modification
experiment,
also be
be
the
of
use
this abstract
there must
numbers
two
of Uttle rods.
arrangement
By
then
of the
is determined
which
system"
the
to
the
and
co-ordmates"
"Cartesian
with
comer
These
consideration.
many
startingfrom
when,
over
pass
RELATIVITY
to
the
Uttle
our
marble
continuum,
and
rods
slab
we
is
their
tion
longer
can
no
aid, since
be
the
carried
no
also
are
directlywith
defined
"
longer
no
longer
co-ordinates
above
out.
as
constmc-
But
since
GENERAL
102
the
undertook
from
to
hold
laws
plane
the
can
with
for
to
the
pointed
is
indicated
way
to
the
ago
postulate
solved
the
method
formal
relativity.
problems
the
find
that
basis
of
(similar
different
Euclidean
with
continuum
to
of
which
which
is
treating
thus
dimensional,
multi-
cians
mathemati-
that
we
we
and
surface,
the
it
in
co-ordinates
Riemann
to
agine
im-
we
surface
according
Thus
surface
the
If
Cartesian
in
of
that
Euclidean
principles
continua.
the
of
in
the
on
relationships
non-Euclidean
long
not
fact
should
we
define
cannot
we
geometrical
the
out
and
rods
resulting
those
surface
rods,
Gauss
slab),
geometry
dimensions.
three
rigid
with
the
of
use
of
marble
The
the
treat
made
from
these
the
surface.
general
one
relativity
two-dimensional
this
making
be
to
geometry.
respect
of
postulate
treating
continuum
Euclidean
above
that
of
without
constructions
to
task
principles,
first
belongs
the
to
XXIII).
(Section
Gauss
general
the
by
about
brought
corresponds
here
depicted
situation
the
RELATIVITY
OF
THEORY
are
led
by
the
XXV
CO-ORDINATES
GAUSSIAN
to
and
the
geometrical
problem
following
We
way.
(see Fig. 4)
table.
These
indicate
The
curves
the
in
u
of
correspond
bers
2.
of
lying
We
M-curves,
table.
and
this
other,
and
and
only
value
surface
of
the
of
number.
drawn
are
curves
"=
and
and
"
"in-
the
covers
must
""-curves
curve
definite
we
system
through
one
and
a
the
an
systern
These
of
to
"
arbitrary
niun-
then
finitely dense
the
real
between
have
the
which
of
to
of
the
nxmiber
aU
drawn,
of
M-curves,
and
imagine
must
as
in
surface
means
Between
diagram.
infinitely large
be
by
u=2
u=i,
2we
them
the
on
designate
we
each
drawn,
handling
at
system
lytical
ana-
of
arrived
imagine
ciurves
mode
be
can
combined
this
Gauss,
ACCORDING
each
point
must
pass.
belongs
marble
slab.
103
to
whole
of
surface
intersect
not
the
Thus
every
In
'*'
like
each
surface
a
of
one
perfectly
point
manner
on
the
we
GENERAL
104
imagine
These
THEORY
S5rstem of
satisfythe
they
and
manner,
of
they
that
belong
table.
to
these
call
We
co-ordinates). For
has
diagram
surface
the
then
similar
with
number
Then
ds.
ds^
where
in
gn,
gn,
magnitudes
of the
rods
and
thus
For
the
case
case,
definite
relative
in
it is
the
the
Gauss
and
points
The
v.
c-curves,
of the
of the
table.
smiace
continuum
measuring-rods,
draw
depend
the behaviour
smrface
Euchdean
possible to
have
we
d'^,
and
^-curves
the
small
very
which
u
on
the
which
a
to
gjz
measured
as
the
In
distance
the
of
dv +
way
to
on
numbers.
^22 determine
to
P'
co-ordinates
P',
magnitudes
form
to
2gi2 du
are
also relative
considered
reference
according
ga,
perfectly
means
f u du^ +
3,
-k-dv,
and
by
little rod,
the
indicate
may
between
(line-interval)
and
small
signifyvery
we
in the
point
to
-{"du,
manner
(Gaussian
u,
dv
and
du
dinates
co-or-
co-ordinates
correspond
P':
of the
the
table
the
Gaussian
P:
where
the
value
surface
numbers
of
arbitrary
and
neighbouring points
Two
v=\.
be of
the
example,
the
ing
correspond-
of
on
two
surface
the
of
value
point
every
in
hkewise
the "-curves,
as
numbers
may
the surface.
on
conditions
with
It follows
shape.
drawn
f-curves
same
provided
are
RELATIVITY
OP
but
the
only
w-curves
with
in
this
and
CO-ORDINATES
GAUSSIAN
and
"-curves
a
that
manner,
attach
to
ds^
Here
and
they
the
Gaussian
nothing
with
of
with
far,
be
or
four
arbitrarilyfour
are
known
If
as
adjacent points
and
measurable
of
to
view,
di*
then
-=
of
the
gu dxi^ +
for
the
of
supposed
the
following
continuum
Adjacent
of
the
is associated
from
following formula
.
distance
ordinates.
co-
with
being
physical point
holds:
we
values
P', this
tinuum
con-
Gaussian
be
it in
ds
2gjidxidxt
continuum
numbers,
well-defined
ciated
asso-
adjacent
and
values
space."
"co-ordinates."
distance
to
sidered,
con-
are
the
dimensions
point
every
points correspond
the
also
represent
may
"in
But
dimensions.
of
With
which
applied
more
available, we
associate
other
hold
dimensions.
two
continuum
way.
considerations
these
can
three, four
each
from
sets
surface
mmierical
neighbouring points
of
method
sHghtly
of two
the
that
nature
tesian
Car-
co-ordinates
association
of
other.
simply
Gauss
points
etry,
geom-
each
to
are
that
an
the
such
diEEeringvery
So
than
j;-curves
of EucHdean
co-ordinates
more
numbers
and
w-curves
sense
is clear
in such
dv^.
perpendicular
are
It
ones.
of
in the
straight Hnes
are
du^ +
them,
to
have:
these conditions,the
Under
are
numbers
simply
we
105
+gu
dxi.
GENERAL
106
where
the
vary
with
when
the
THEORY
OP
magnitudes
the
etc., have
gn,
positionin
continuimi
RELATIVITY
is
the
the co-ordinates
the
continuum
of
the
Only
Euchdean
which
continuum.
possibleto associate
points
values
Xi
Xt
that
so
is it
one
with
have
we
simply
ds^
this
In
relations
case
continuimi
in
which
have
the
this
obviously
of the
The
holds
behaviour
of the
according
to
rods
clearly imtil
over
considerable
is almost
of
ndes
the
it
as
for
the
ought
to
do not
the
be
geometry.
construction
this construction
geometrical
Euchdean
portion of
slab
of temperature.
thus
previous section
in the
squares
example,
practically constant
slab, and
be
may
For
It
regions
of the marble
case
imperfections of
the
ds^ which
consideration
in the
the
holding
always possible.
continua.
is
part of the
Hence
for
local variation
and
table
those
to
small
sufficiently
xmder
temperature
small
is not
Euclidean
as
foiir-dimensional
treatment
when
continuum
regarded
in the
measurements.
above
given
dx^ + dx^.
analogous
Gauss
only possible
of
hold
are
the
However,
is
dxi +
three-dimensional
our
we
dxi^ +
show
of
selves
them-
is extended
surface
of the
table.
We
a
can
method
continua
this up
sum
for
in
the
as
follows:
mathematical
general, in
which
Gauss
invented
treatment
of
"size-relations"
CO-ORDINATES
GAUSSIAN
("distances"
To
assigned
as
is
in
done
be
to
the
but
continua,
the
also
only
"size"
like
of
the
or
under
continuiun
nearly
part
is
It
system.
the
assigned
"distance,"
our
adjacent
is
non-Euchdean
notice.
of
parts
behave
the
the
to
respect
smaU
system,
definitely
in-
an
co-ordinate
consideration
under
by
system
to
with
when,
can
niunbers
to
Cartesian
apphcable
Euclidean
continuum
that
co-ordinate
of
generaUsation
This
differ
are
Gaussian
nates)
co-ordi-
meaning
one
and
which
amount
The
only
assignment,
co-ordinates)
small
defined
that
way,
are
dimensions.
has
are
continuum
(Gaussian
continuum
such
(Gaussian
logical
of
numbers
many
attached
points.
point
every
the
as
points)
neighbouring
between
defined.
107
smaller
more
the
XXVI
THE
CONTINUUM
SPACE-TIME
THEORY
are
which
Section
XVII.
of
theory
given
are
z,
these
words
"
tinuvun,
as
For
set
forth
the
another,
to
are
the
defined
in
transition
which
is
first, the
the
theory
nothing
more
in
than
in
of
the
last
deductions
and
in
other
maimer,
this
of
book.
to
sjrstem
with
reference
Lorentz
form
formation
trans-
the
the
themselves
of
y,
con-
simple
from
expression
108
x,
in
"
Galileian
These
the
or
imiformly
equations
relativity,
co-ordinates
first part
one
moving
of
We
four-dimensional
the
from
vaUd.
derivation
of
the
physically
detail
are
for
of
the
systems."
event
an
of
description
continuimi.
iova
determine
point
systems
co-ordinate
the
in
special
the
co-ordinate
space-time
systems,
t, which
with
the
"Galileian
these
For
for
preference
Minkowski,
indicated
vaguely
certain
relativity,
formulate
to
of
idea
accordance
In
four-dimensional,
called
the
only
was
ERED
CONSID-
position
exactly
more
CIAL
SPE-
CONTINUUM
in
now
THE
RELATIVITY
EUCLIDEAN
AS
WE
OF
OF
basis
special
they
the
are
universal
THEORY
GENERAL
110
apart
of
the
Thus,
the
call
We
ence.
if
"
quantity
t,
we
in
ct
accordance
with
the
instead
of
the
space-time
the
regard
can
points.
time-variable
as
""/
variable
"distance"
four-dimensional
or
choose
we
the
ds
magnitude
events
two
RELATIVITY
OF
special
the
aginary
im-
real
tinuum
con-
theory
"
of
relativity
continuum,
considerations
as
"
result
of
the
"Euclidean"
which
preceding
four-dimensional
foUows
section.
from
the
xxvn
CONTINUUM
SPACE-TIME
THE
first
the
make
XXVI,
can
basis
the
of
which,
be
regarded
general
this
law.
the
according
that
velocity
of
light
when
Section
a
XXIII,
the
co-ordinates
our
objective
In
we
view
are
led
and
to
the
the
the
conviction
111
at
the
theory
the
that,
is
ordinates
co-
ent.
pres-
illustration
in
of
presence
of
definition
which
these
the
on
field
special theory
of
retain
the
time,
locity
ve-
cannot
the
invahdates
results
the
XXI,
depend
that
on
Section
latter
specific
the
of
arrived
we
this
found
field
in
of
with
we
gravitational
to
gravitational
cormection
In
possible
constancy
always
must
Section
to
was
relativity
to
terpretat
in-
four-dimensional
as
contrary,
to
which
physical
according
the
of
able
were
direct
according
theory
On
IS
co-ordinates
This
of
But
Hght.
the
result
and
law
we
and
simple
the
of
book
this
co-ordinates.
Cartesian
RELATIVITY
space-time
of
of
allowed
of
part
use
THE
CONTINUUM
EUCLIDEAN
NOT
IN
OF
THEORY
GENERAL
OF
led
of
us
to
relativity.
considerations
according
to
GENERAL
112
the
THEORY
the space-time
general principleof relativity,
continuum
that
here
corresponding
variations
made
be
cannot
but
one,
from
bodies
and
measuring-rods
with
respect
to
time
Section
show
culty.
We
was
which
were
the
we
of
in
it is
impossible
the
rigid
nature
tion
posiof
essence
confronted
in
four
which
(co-ordinates),
definite but
not
have
only
points
of
regard
a
need
to
"time"
be
as
Xi,
serve
%,
least
the
This
of such
"space"
the
Xt
Xt,
direct
purpose
continuum
the
co-ordinate.
of
point
the
not
Gauss
to
every
difl"-
space-time
manner
arbitrary manner.
even
as
the
to
and
this
surmount
mambers,
but
physical significance,
numbering
XXV
four-dimensional
assign
(event)
continuiun
Xi
co-ordinate
Sections
arbitrary
an
We
to
way
refer the
co-ordinates.
and
there
was
shall indicate
another,
directly. Such
us
continuum
must
two-
clocks,arranged rigidly
considerations
the
XXVI
does
it
we
XXIII.
But
of
of
shall be of such
and
one
difl"cultywith
the
here
so
local
which
Cartesian
clocks,which
that
with
with
as
case,
from
(reference-body)
system
slab
Just
construct
general
example
an
equal rods,
up
and
as
Euclidean
the
and
temperature,
to
as
marble
continuiun.
impossible
build
have
we
acquaintance
system
regarded
the
to
of
dimensional
to
RELATIVITY
OF
in
arrangement
kind
that
we
co-ordinates
SPACE-TIME
The
of
the
does
it
CONTINUUM
reader
may
think
world
would
be
mean
to
Xi, od, %,
co-ordinates
have
by
Thus
then
by
which
are
close
so
corresponding
a
oiur
in
are
which
reality
encovmter
two
lines
points
in
co-ordinate
After
the
same
mature
admit
can
the
is
which
question
values,
have
Xi,
%,
consideration
that
in
be
acterised
char-
of
such
values
thus
of
have
four-dimensional
such
any
lines
in
the
the
reality such
to
physical existence
their
treatment,
the
counters.
en-
such
fact
that
the
motions
of
the
particular system
Xz,
in
points
many
about
statements
represent
space-
having regard
claim
expressed
without
give continuity;
to
mathematical
our
If this
nimiber
way,
statements
In
an
in
The
points
Xi,
point, we
correspond
only
anxiety-
in
must
to
as
continuum
motion.
these
described
co-ordinate
together
the
In
careful
this
of values
the
(uni-dimensional)line
continuima.
in
be
the material
to
More
existence
existence
values,
these
of motion.
infinitelylarge
an
of
systems
it woiild
permanent
particular
themselves
that
momentary
single system
its
kind
any
What
us
with
only
duration,
time
Let
point
had
point
if in
x^,
the
significance?
no
description
event
an
shows, however,
is imfoimded.
material
such
quite inadequate.
assign to
co-ordinates
consideration
that
113
X4,
reader
in
of
common.
will doubtless
encounters
con-
GENERAL
114
THEORY
the
stitute
only actual
with
nature
When
which
we
material
stated
of the
the
time
by
determine
by the
observation
the
the
motion
of
of
reference,we
of this
encoxmters
correspondiag values
of
of
observation
the
of
encounters
of
encounter
particularpoints
in the
same
means
the
of
with
just the
time-space
physical statements.
body
than
more
with
body
clocks
to
of
also
can
in
describing
were
nothing
RELATIVITY
evidence
meet
we
ppint relative
point with
We
OF
the
the
on
the
hands
dials.
of
It is
of space-measurements
case
measuring-rods, as
Uttle
tion
considera-
will show.
I
hold
following statements
The
physical descriptionresolves
of statements,
time
of Gaussian
terms
is
of
mode
of
be
Thus
co-ordinates
the
the
description; it
character
represented.
B.
such
In
ment
state-
of their
four
reality,the
continuum
body
defects
is not
of the
space-
by
completely replaces
aid of
the
number
and
in
time-space
suffering from
Euclidean
to
Gauss
Xi.
%,
the
description with
without
events
to
co-ordinates, every
Xi, %,
description of
means
two
refers
co-ordinates
the
of
coincidence
itself into
of which
each
generally:Every
tied
continuum
of
of
reference,
the
down
latter
to
which
the
has
xxvm
EXACT
FORMULATION
PRINCIPLE
WE
are
OF
in
now
provisional
XVIII
by
there
used,
an
"All
equivalent
are
be
in
general
The
of
the
bodies
of
in
the
in
of
co-ordinate
systems
stiU
state
another
of
this
are
the
than
which
natural
of
laws
of
of
relativity,
the
of
motion,"
the
rigid
method
lowed
fol-
is
in
description.
has
to
The
take
the
following
fundamental
relativity:
idea
"All
sian
Gaus-
essentially equivalent
laws
of nature."
principle of relativity
it
renders
it is when
H5j
of
of
general
general
form,
clearly intelligible
of
form
K', etc.,
use
space-time
to
principle
can
the
reference.
corresponds
K,
state
system
body
Section
general
their
theory
co-ordinate
the
the
sense
general
We
of
general
in
description
because
possible
the
The
reference
be
may
in
the
the
replace
given
formulation.
special
not
statement
of
the
of
relativity
maintained,
Gauss
place
formulation
for
reference-bodies,
to
exact
whatever
cannot
position
(formulation
phenomena
nature),
RELATIVITY
of
principle
GENERAL
THE
OF
in
the
yet
more
form
of
116
GENERAL
the
natural
THEORY
extension
relativity.According to
the equations which
relativity,
of
nature
form
same
t, of
specialtheory
K'.
According
the
the
Xi,
equations
If
into
dimensional
by
gone
theory
of
of
In
this
serves
as
of
state
Galileian
it.
must
of
to
Xi,
into
over
mation
transfor-
every
nate
co-ordi-
Gauss
one
imder-
the
general
specialtheory
domains,
gravitationalfield
no
is
so
imifonn
material
exists.
reference-body
Galileian
which
the
acterise
char-
can
Galileian
to
three-
being
of
The
follows:
we
is
reference,i.e. a
of
of
then
idea
of
"old-time"
which
reference
connection
law
of
transformation)
our
things,
in which
motion
for
of
fundamental
body
variables
pass
Lorentz
adhere
to
of "isolated"
to
the
relativityas
those
of
another.
relativityhas
i.e. to
reference-
new
Gauss
form;
development
the
the
general theory
the
transition
view
the
of
same
to the
desire
we
Lorentz
hand, by appUcation
equations
(not only
system
the
to
other
of the
corresponds
the
arbitrary substitutions
Xz,
of
(Galileian)
reference-body K by
on
relativity,
Xi,
the
of
use
of
general
equations
body
the
express
when, by making
transformation,we
X, y, z,
the
into
over
pass
special principle
the
of
of
laws
RELATIVITY
OF
rigid body
chosen
that
rectilinear
the
the
tion
mo-
118
GENERAL
tern
chosen
THEORY
arbitrarily.
"mollusk"
certain
with
(really
the
time
moUusk
is
material
which
long
so
tivity
The
that
requires
success
natilfe-
in
the
the
rest
is
of
limitation
in
consequence
of
right
which
is
of
hes
imposed
what
as
as
rela;:^
^f
and
we
equal
laws-oi
must
choice^
relativity
it
to
be
quite
moUusk.
The--gr-ea"^Hpgwig"f"9sses"idl3Bc:die
principle
every
these^mpllu^isxanJiejLised
themselves
the
on
considered
principle
jmti__egiial
laws
op"-
point
relatively
mollusk
arate
sep-
and
space-point,
the
as
Every
general
all
of
formulation^f_thg^general
'^the
indepaident
at
the
fefefencejodies
as
is
as
reference-body.
is
co-ordinates
co-ordinate.
as
pared
com-
system
retention
space
treated
point
rest,
at
the
the
gives
as
co-ordinate
formal
of
the
to
which
comprehensibleness
unjustified)
posed
RELATIVITY
That
Gauss
existence
the
OF
in
on
have
general
comprehensive
the
the
laws
of
seen^OMCZi;
nature
"
xxrx
THE
SOLUTION
OF
ON
THE
PRINCIPLE
IF
THE
reader
in
the
We
has
domain,
i.e.
field
body
clocks
with
Now
let
us
co-ordinate
body
and
the
also
reference
refer
with
field
behaviour
(of
to
K'
We
behaviour
simply
move
random
to
as
K'
particular
material
by
interpret
119
reference-^
is
kind).
and
behaviour
a,
We
clocks
points
mathematical
this
Gauss
there
measuring-rods
freely-moving
the
latter
"mollusk"
of
and
from
the
the
to
respect
of
reference-
lines.
domain
to
or
tional
gravita-
no
known
is
points;
this
Gahleian
measuring-rods
straight
Then
gravitational
learn
in
is
relativity, likewise
system
K'.
of
Galileian
of
to
leading
gravitation.
there
the
to
culty
diffi-
methods
of
in which
material
and
further
no
the
previous
our
consideration
reference
"isolated"
uniformly
have
behaviour
of
all
problem
relative
special theory
of
the
from
The
K.
will
domain
GENERAL
THE
followed
he
of
off
start
OF
understanding
solution
TATION
GRAVI-
OF
RELATIVITY
considerations,
to
BASIS
OF
the
PROBLEM
with
formation.
transas
the
THEORY
GENERAL
120
behaviour
of
measuring-rods,
under
points
field G.
Hereupon
that
influence
the
continues
laws,
same
gravitational
GaUleian
special
derived
step is
from
This
is not
the
of
means
out
still
require to
which
law,
was
simply by
This
which
is
haviour
be-
always
reference-body(mollusk)
be
chosen.
gravitational field
the
specialkind.
general law-of
find
obtain
above.
caprice, however,
the
the
tional
yet the generallaw of the gravita-
is of
consideration
found
in
how
field,since
as
from
co-ordinates.
descriptionmay
the
prevailing
specialcase
the
of
matter
law
the
to
to
is formulated
in the
simply by
GaHleian
the
transformation
used
the
gravitationalfield G,
of the
valid,no
when
derivable
not
case,
on
of co-ordinates.
next
behaviour
place according
case
is
field
transformation
The
the
in
even
hypothesis:
freely-moving material
and
take
to
gravitational
gravitational field
the
of
material
and
the
introduce
we
measuring-rods, clocks
points
clocks
of
influence
the
RELATIVITY
OF
This
by
-field of
In
be
taking
obtained
into
order
to
gravitation we
generalisationof
can
imder
the
law
without
consideration
following demands:
(a) The
required generalisationmust
likewise
(b) If
there
is any
matter
consideration,only
in the
domain
under
and
SOLUTION
thus
OF
GRAVITATION
according
is of
energy
Section
to
XV
its
only
importance
field,
excitinga
(c) Gravitational
field
satisfythe
must
121
(and
of energy
and
of the
law
of
together
matter
conservation
impulse).
the
on
gravitational
in
has
been
of
theory
from
only
not
in its
attachih^tb
lightin
to
the
Section
of
XXIj
the
regarded
move
with
where
as
nor
the
in
to
which
thl"-way
excels..
relativity^
the
defect
was'brought
interpret^TEe
also
observation
in
mechanics
application of
the
and
co-ordinate
plained
ex-
astronomy,
is
powerless.
the
in which
and
already
theory
gravitational fields
being weak,
respect
ceed
pro-
points.
it has
classical
the
we
measuring-rods,
which
in
special
equality~br~mertial
but
of
result
confine
case
of
classical mechanics
against-which
we
for
have
method
gravitation derived
gravitational mass;
a
which
beautyjlttorin removing
law
empirical
If
the
to
general postulate
the
when
of the
frame
explained
of
processes
laws
i.e.
freely-moving material
theory
tional
gravita-
this connection
principleaccording
been
known
to
the
of the
all those
absent,
relativity. In
and
The
is
field
fitted into
already
clocks
of
course
place according
take
already
the influence
determine
to
us
all
to
be
can
masses
system
with
GENERAL
122
THEORY
which
velocities
small
are
latter
hypothesisthat
them.
If
deviations
owing
must
to
motion
round
the
of the
Thus,
if
fixed
theory
be
deduction,
has
being
one,
maintain
stars, if
which
two
of
the
reference
which
with
obtained
ellipse,which
its
position with
could
we
observed
be
and
motion
the
the
of
if Newton's
to
obtain
ellipse,which
an
fixed
tested
confirmed
disregard
consideration.
ought
we
the
an
under
planet
can
been
theory,
influences,and
to
of these
one
themselves
stars
strictlycorrect,
orbit
with
in
sun
the
to
Newton's
planets
correct
we
for these
save
of
of observation
test
here
to
fixed
other
planets
fixed
the
lation,
calcu-
Newton
practicallyall
the
of the
action
the
between
of
theory
attention
permanently
respect
for
the
According
moves
would
inversely
of the
accuracy
escape
draw
deviations.
planet
is
their smaUness.
to
We
the
the
from
nevertheless
must
between
of the distance
their appearance,
make
iatroduce
to
points
the
lar
particu-
any
increase
we
first approximati
had
Newton
the square
the
theory. Thus
mutually attractingmaterial
proportionalto
as
here without
assumption, whereas
the
obtain
Newtonian
theory is obtained
with
compared
then
velocity of light,we
the
RELATIVITY
OF
for
the
precision that
by
the
delicacy
This
stars.
with
great
all the
is
of
is
curacy,
ac-
planets
capable
observation
of
SOLUTION
attainable
the
of
that
sense
of the
orbital
this
rotary
43
seconds
ensured
seconds
of
classical
of
means
This
of
and
which
of the
orbit
be
the
ia
tained
ob-
orbital
an
few
explained by
have
devised
ceedingly
ex-
and
within
to
only
which
the
century,
per
can
for
value
of
arc
mechanics
were
the
orbit
The
correct
hypotheses
been
it rotates
that
movement
effect
has
stationary with
motion.
of
to
ception
ex-
nearest
corrected
is not
plane
be
to
arc.
been
stars, but
fixed
in the
ellipsewas
Leverrier,it
above,
slowly
for
amount
it has
sole
hes
ellipsecorresponding
after
the
to
of
The
which
planet
time
mentioned
influences
the
the
the
Mercury,
respect
the
123
time.
present
Mercury,
Since
sun.
known
the
at
is
GRAVITATION
OF
the
on
Uttle
solely
sumption
as-
bility,
proba-
for
this
purpose.
it is found
the
indicated
that
above;
be
to
eUipse
of
the
case
seconds
of
in
agreement
Apart
to
arc
make
from
in
the
Mercury
per
century,
with
two
the
relativity,
roimd
the
manner
planets,
rotation
is too
delicacy
of
amount
result which
with
servation
ob-
that
to
43
is strictly
observation.
this one,
only
this
of
planet
all the
with
detected
of
for
Mercury,
possible at
in
of every
necessarily rotate
exception
small
the
that
must
sun
the
general theory
On
it has hitherto
deductions
from
been
the
possible
theory
GENERAL
124
which
the
THEORY
admit
of
field
the
of
lines
of
with
in
the
by
confirmed
'
m.)
Observed
reaching
the
from
large
from
spectral
for
as
pared
com-
Hght
do
the
duced
pro-
{i.e.
terrestrially
molecule).
deductions
the
stars,
lines
manner
wit,
to
gravitational
of
displacement
us
of
the
by
corresponding
kind
observation,
by
rays
analogous
an
same
these
that
light
and
sun/
Ught
tested
being
of
curvature
RELATIVITY
OF
doubt
not
wiU
theory
also.
by
Eddington
and
others
in
igig.
(Cf.
Appendix
be'
CONSIDERATIONS
126
This
view
is not
The
Newton.
should
the universe
density of
the
kind
is
stars
outwards
group-density of
the
in which
of centre
this
from
and
that
centre
the
diminish, imtil
should
stars
requires that
maximimi,
is succeeded
Hie^^ar
ought
be
to
finite island
of
theory
the
rather
theory
have
the
proceed
we
as
with
in harmony
latter
UNIVERSE
THE
ON
by
an
univ^se^
ocea^jrf
^le^infinite
in
space.^
This
that
light emitted
the
individual
of
stars
passing
with
interaction
a
and
also
are
petually
pernever
space,
into
objects of
would
universe
^^_
nature.
destmgd
be
impQv=_
gradually but systematically^
become
to
system
the
again coming
ever
other
material
finite
stars
infinite
into
out
the
by
stellar
the
without
return, and
to
satisfactory.
very
satisfactorybecauselTTeads^to
It is still less
result
itself not
conception is in
erished.
1
Proof.
"
According
'.'linesof force"
m
is
which
will
force
enclose
the
proportionalto poK.
nurlber
the
For
of lines of force
the
surface
vmit
which
the
on
area
enters
Thus
the
sphere
of the
surface
mass
into
of volume
of lines of
number
sphere
sphere
in
of
the mass-density
average,
of the
the
number
terminate
imiverse, then
poF.
mass
average
passing through
K,
the
Newton,
infinityand
m.
throughout
po is constant
V
mass
of
theory
from
come
the
proportionalto
the
to
its interior
of the
is thus
sphere
is
the
proportional
to
popOT
to
peR.
ultimately become
which
is
Hence
the
infinite with
impossible.
at
increasingradius
the surface
R
of the
would
sphere,
NEWTON'S
order
In
attraction
between
rapidly
this
In
of
density
fields
matter
universe
a
ought
the
the
be
constant
our
of
them
is
one
of
of
which
being
to
these
be
laws
general
Newton.
the
mean
even
gravitational
thus
conception,
free
that
ourselves
the
something
of
purchase
we
square
everywhere,
We
course
which
without
for
of
more
inverse
infinitely large
material
the
nature
our.emancipa-
difficulties
has
foimdation.
laws
the
possible
possess
force
mentioned,
a^modification-and-comphcatign
law
theoretical
law
is
fimdamental
of
cost
Newton's
more
to
Of
centre.
tionjfcom
on
to
distasteful
the
from
it
the
which
diminishes
masses
produced.
being
from
at
way
gested
sug-
in
law,
distances
result
infinity, without
to
of
would
than
Seeliger
Newton's
great
two
127
dilemma,
of
for
that
assumes
law.
this
escape
modification
he
to
THEORY
We
would
able
neither
to
would
imagine
the
state
preferred
to
be
theoretical
empirical
can
serve
of
the
foimded
same
nor
erable
innumpiupose,
why
reason
for
others;
just
principles
one
as
as
any
little
is
the
XXXI
THE
OF
POSSIBILITY
"FINITE"
"UNBOUNDED"
universe
also
led
geometry
that
our
laws
of
in
detail
touch
the
In
place,
first
two-dimensional
rods,
nothing
they
flat
the
In
is
in
of
geometry
rods,
e.g.
been
only
can
be
plane:
themselves
carried
lattice
M8
in
with
flat
rigid measuringFor
them
that
which
and
to
their
reaUty
of
their
constructions
the
can
existence
plane.
aU-rnclusive
the
the
lucidity
an
flat
this
to
particular,
of
(Riemann,
beings
Flat
move
the
with
already
have
whereas
particular
happen
fact,
infiniteness
conflict
imagiae
we
outside
to
"things"
Euclidean
to
exists
observe
plane.
of
free
are
in
and
the
here.
space.
implements,
tion.
direc-
unsurpassable
Poincare,
briefly
them
on
of
experience
with
and
the
non-Euclidean
the
questions
and
another
of
into
with
or
These
Helmholtz
by
quite
on
coming
thought
Hehnholtz).
treated
doubt
cast
of
structure
recognition
the
without
space
in
move
to
can
we
the
on
development
The
YET
UNIVERSE
speculations
BUT
AND
out
of
by
construction,
plane
means
con-
UNIVERSE
FINITE
"
in
sidered
Section
universe
the
but, Uke
of
is
there
identical
squares
is
made
their
they
existence,but
instead
of
now
this
on
time
plane.
they
are
the
able
to
regard
of the
the
realisation
this.
For
line,they
if
which
Similarly,
area,
that
can
be
vidual
indi-
distance,
of
this
exactly
it.
these
their
which
great circle,
finite
universe
has
with
do
"three-
we
of
compared
as
straight
means
by
as
cannot
realise
beings
withal
rods
as
on
Their
universe
They
to
their
exclusively
Are
their
curve,
up
fit
extends
sphere.
and
sxirface
with
leave
line of definite
measured
the
beings
to
beings" designate
be
geometry
same
objects
"distance"?
self-contained
can
flat
geometry
obtain
perform
can
spherical
they attempt
will
dimensional
i.e.
of
ment,
state-
two-dimensional
imable
the
of observation
surface
the
cormection
The
this surface
universe
their
Euclidean
on
other
over
they
second
and
and
in
volume
say
beings
sense
of
position.
measuring-rods
whole
that
this
of their
consider
us
infinite number
always represent
independently
their
an
plane
In
In
infinity.
is
mean
ours,
two-dimensional;
these
there
of
rods.
rods
Let
If
to
to
of
up
"plane,"
constructions
with
for
room
129
contrast
is
beings
infinite.
because
the
In
it extends
universe
universe
XXIV.
these
ours,
(surface)is
UNBOUNDED
YET
the
length,
ing-rod.
measur-
area
finite
of
CONSIDERATIONS
130
ON
with
constructed
square
UNIVERSE
THE
rods.
The
great charm
in
the
b^ngsJs^mte'and'yethasno
the
But
to go
on
world-tour
convince
in order
themselves
of
it.
"straight
Starting
do
space)
directions.
wiU
free ends
of
surface, the
to its
the
these
lines
of the
plane, equal
lengths being
independent
of
to
the
the
of
flat
plane
circle
with
measvu-ed
geometry
value
constant
our
joining
of
to Euclidean
diameter
spherical smrface
their
aU
For
circumference
rod, is,according
same
line
in
in
equal length
the
draw
judged
as
"circle."
ratio of the
diameter, both
circles
call
small
too
use
can
of their
point, they
of
They
part
every
not
of
three-dimensional
They
on
from
(arcs
lines"
universe.
of this
need
not
to
EucUdean
do
beings
spherical-surface
livingin
not
are
limits.
ir,
which
circle.
the
beings
is
On
find
would
"
(i)
sin
IT
i.e.
the
of
the
smaller
more
value
than
ir, the
difference
considerable,the greater
the circle in
comparison
"world-sphere." By
with
means
the
of
is the
radius
radius
this
being
of
relation
UNIVERSE"
FINITE
sphericalbemgs
the
their
relatively small
for
able
to
small
and
small part of
from
if the
Thus
planet
on
only
of which
they
universe,
which
have
plane,
from
circimaference
the
radius
is
gradually
until
and
total
of the
area
Perhaps
placed
another
our
the
infinite
an
cases
follows
to
tically
prac-
directly
sphere-beings
our
of
it
for
zero
finallyit
with
verse"
uni-
the
thenceforward
still further
During
circle continues
to
becomes
creasing
in-
this process
increase
equal
more
the
to
"world-sphere."
whole
will wonder
reader
"beings"
closed
both
that
and
of the radius.
until
spherical
universe"
"circumference
to
occupies
determining
in
or
It
for
living
the
decreases
of the
more,
of
reached,
values
area
is in
access
for
are
the
of
"piece
discussion, that
this
of
of
Euclidean.
or
the
the
the
be
only sUghtly
system
finite
this
size.
same
means
in
is
spherical
differs
part
no
if
plane,
solar
small
Uving
are
because
they
the
have
universe, they
whether
on
spherical-surfacebeings
negligibly
of the
longer
no
EucUdean
plane
will
are
sphericalsurface
piece of
on
only
But
they
of
world-sphere
indeed, they
not
radius
when
even
their
that
131
the
measurements.
demonstrate
"world"
of
part
their
part is very
determine
can
("world"),
universe
available
UNBOUNDED
YET
on
surface.
sphere
But
this
why
rather
choice
we
have
than
has
on
its
CONSIDERATIONS
132
justificationin
the
the
all
that
value
ratio
the
of
of the
it is the
is
To
three-dimensional
equivalent.
is determined
imagine
to
of
epitome
an
experience that
bodies.
"rigid"
a
we
finite
else than
this
In
the
covered
dis-
was
likewise
are
all
volxmie, which
Is it pos(sTr^'i?').
sible
that
To
imagine
we
imagine
experience,
in the
have
can
the
namely,
which
points
"space"
ovx
of
"world-
the
spherical space?
nothing
means
space
Its
its "radius"
a
given
sphere-universe there
possesses
by
curvature."
spherical space
It
for
of
points
analogy,
Riemann.
by
of constant
*a three-dimensional
is
all
words,
two-dimensional
this
the
equivalent.
r, but
for
faces,
sur-
possessing
are
on
other
"surface
all closed
circumference
same
in
"world-sphere";
sphere"
it
depends
of
in
unique
on
UNIVERSE
THE
that,
points
its radius
circle to
fact
is
sphere
property that
admit
ON
sense
i.e. of
of
movement
we
imagine
can
sphericalspace.
Suppose
directions
of
these
AU
the
we
from
the
free
draw
lines
point, and
distance
end-points
spherical surface.
the
made
(F)
area
up
of
stretch
with
can
by
F is
less than
F=
aU
each
from
measuring-rod.
lengths
he
on
speciallymeasure
measuring-rods.
then
strings in
oS
mark
of these
of this surface
Euclidean,
always
We
or
up
means
of
If the
universe
square
is
if it is spherical,then
/\.'irr^;
47rr^. With
increasingvalues
CONSIDERATIONS
134
in
the
of
maimer
is
far
answer
of
relativity
moderate
its
of
difficulty
solution.
But
of
universe.
sufficient
being
permits
UNIVEBSE
THE
spherical
question.
degree
the
the
from
this
to
finds
ON
our
certainty,
mentioned
Our
to
the
enable
general
and
in
ia
Section
us
theory
it
answering
perience
ex-
this
with
nection
con-
XXX
xxxn
STRUCTURE
THE
THE
GENERAL
by
about
the
is known.
the
chosen
stars
velocity
a
as
to
we
treat
the
is
the
to
exclude
Euclidean
conceivable
of
the
matter
behaviour
of
of
the
matter.
geometry
that
our
in
of
the
135
whole,
if
itself
exact
universe.
diEEers
discussion
and
fields,
in
imiverse
thus
conclusion
a
previous
This
our
the
can
as
velocities
We
at
for
with
measuring-rods
possibility
that
rest.
at
our
on
that,
the
universe
gravitational
by
the
something
light.
arrive
from
know
of
structure
compared
being
as
clusions
con-
considerations
as
the
are
draw
can
system,
of
of
they
experience
approximation
influenced
distribution
from
small
nature
but
being
as
co-ordinate
are
aheady
We
matter
of
theory
properties
we
our
transmission
rough
as
that
of
base
we
know
We
suitably
of
if
the
of
state
Thus
geometrical
the
only
general
independent,
matter.
TO
RELATIVITY
geometrical
not
are
space
the
to
the
relativity,
tmiverse
OF
THEORY
ACCORDING
determined
ACCORDING
SPACE
OF
clocks
by
i.e.
the
is sufficient
vaUdity
But
only
it
of
is
slightly
CONSroERATIONS
136
from
Euclidean
the
more
the
metrics
only
to
an
even
of
the
behaves
universe
to
We
infinite.
As
quasi-Euclidean imiverse
would
matter
universe
it would
picture which
we
are
small
universe
the
be
would
have
to
be
results
will
be
parts from
be
of
such
matter
where;
every-
imsatisfactory
universe
XXX.
average
an
zero,
ever
howthe
difference, then
the
indicate
tmiformly,
trary,
con-
if
that
imiverse
the
detailed
the
in
density
in Section
calculation
of
realitythe
individual
that
differs from
that
distributed
uniform,
that
it would
Thus
by
thing
some-
Such
quasi-Euclidean. On
be
necessarily
in
us
in the
which
may
cannot
to
portrayed
we
nil.
inhabited
present
of matter
density
matter
be
not
which
clidean
quasi-Eu-
average
necessarily be
could
lake.
shows
the
is irregular
plane:
its space
calculation
But
imiverse
which
called
regards
masses
parts, but
of
might fittinglybe
that
might
our
surface
rippled surface
imiverse.
is not
sun.
our
Since
by
in its individual
curved
If
extent
regards geometry,
as
analogously
nowhere
of
magnitude
show
is influenced
space
small
all
seems
calculations
surrounding
exceedingly
imagine that,
be
since
probable,
of
this notion
and
one,
UNIVERSE
THE
ON
distribution
real imiverse
the
of matter
will deviate
spherical,i.e.
quasi-spherical.
But
it
the
wiU
in
verse
unibe
STRUCTURE
THE
necessarily
with
us
finite.
of
expanse
of
simple
in
matter
'"
For
the
fact,
connection
universe
'
and
SPACE
the
theory
between
the
137
suppHes
the
space-
density
average
it.
"radius"
the
In
OF
of
the
universe
we
the
obtain
equation
Kp
2
The
use
is
the
of
average
the
C.G.S.
density
system
of
the
in
matter.
this
equation
gives
i-oS.io^';
APPENDIX
DERIVATION
SIMPLE
OF
LORENTZ
THE
[Supplementary
TRANSFORMATION
tion
Sec-
to
XI]
FOR
the
In
into
problem
such
both
of
is
event
present
t, and
x' and
A
with
x'
abscissa
/' when
and
light-signal,
positive
axis
of x,
the
2,
di\dde
the
first
only
abscissa
t'.
system
ordinate
co-
and
K'
require
We
Any
the
to
respect
the
incide.
co-
a;-axis.
the
with
time
t
can
on
to
respect
the
and
we
the
by
nate
co-ordi-
Fig.
considering
represented
system
time
by
the
permanently
case
locaUsed
are
in
systems
parts
which
of
indicated
systems
aj-axes
events
orientation
relative
the
the
the
by
to
find
given.
are
which
is
proceeding
is transmitted
along
according
to
the
the
equation
x
ct
ct
or
X-
Since
relative
the
same
to
K'
light-signal
with
the
(l).
has
velocity
ISO
to
be
c, the
transmitted
propagation
APPENDIX
140
relative
the
to
the
K'
system
will be
represented by
formula
analogous
x' -d
(2).
Those
(i) must
the
satisfy(2). Obviously
also
when
case
satisfy
this wiU
the relation
{x'-ct')=\{x-ct)
X
If
"
ct)involves
which
rays
the
considerations
transmitted
stant;
con-
light
to
along
the
the condition
obtain
we
negativea;-axis,
"
being
are
indicates
to
we
(3)
(3),the disappearance
disappearance of (a;' ct').
for, according
of {x
be
ct)
(4).
equations(3)and (4),
By adding (orsubtracting)
and
and
b in
place of the
constants
X +
a
the
constants
and
where
obtain the
we
equations
x'
cf
should
We
thus
if the constants
result from
For
x'
o,
the
and
the
bct\
ax
act-bxi
have
a
"
"^-
the solution of
and
known.
were
our
lem,
probThese
followingdiscussion.
origin of K' we
hence
according
equations (5)
^"
have
to
the
permanently
first of
the
APPENDIX
14S
if the
But
and
if
eliminate
we
into
taking
from
equations (5),
the
expression (6),
the
account
K'^f^o),
from
taken
snapshot be
we
obtain
this
From
that
the
separatedby
a;-axis and
K)
conclude
we
will be
represented on
two
distance
points on the
to
(relative
i
snapshot by the
our
distance
Aio'-=a(i--^
what
from
But
be
been
The
constants
fourth
and
in
of the
b.
that
A*
we
in
equations given
(7) must
obtain
(7")determine
obtain
shots
snap-
"
By insertingthe
(5), we
two
-^,
said, the
identical; hence
be
must
has
the
(7fl).
values
first
in Section
the
of
and
(76).
stants
con-
these
the
XI.
0/-=
(8).
f~
LORENTZ
THE
Thus
TRANSFORMATION
have
obtained
for events
on
we
the
143
Lorentz
formation
trans-
aj-axis. It satisfies
the
the condition
a;'2
cV2
(8a).
c"^
result,to include
of this
extension
The
a;2
events
is obtained
by
placeoutside the a;-axis,
retainingequations (8) and supplementingthem
which
take
by the relations
i:i]
this way
In
of
Hght
and
the
of
satisfythe postulateof
we
of the
w-
velocityof light in
This
for the
may
be
stancy
con-
for rays
vacuo
both
arbitrarydirection,
the
system
shown
in
followingmanner.
We
originof
light-signalsent
suppose
iT at the
time
the
accordingto
r
or, if
we
from
It will be
o.
the
gated
propa-
equation
-s/x^+ y^ +
square
t=
out
this
z'
ct,
="
the
equation,according to
equation
s? +
It is required
by the law
in
conjimction with
that
should
the
of
transmission
the
take
accordance
place
with
the
propagationof light,
postulate of relativity,
the signal in question
of
from
judged
as
"
(lo).
z*-c*^~o
K'
"
in
correspondingformula
/
d'
or,
a/2 4-
y'"+ s'2
CV"
....
(lOffl).
APPENDIX
144
equation (loo)may
In order that
of
equation (lo),we
*'" +
z'"
y"'+
thus
jc-axis,we
the
of
(8a)
We
have
thus
o-=
the Lorentz
of
those
K.
should
consideration
the
kinds
two
Lorentz
that
the
with
of K'
axes
this
in the
that
to
the
pointingin
Lorentz
other
we
simple
construct
general
sense
viz.
from
specialsense
and
the
responds
cor-
rectangular
system
new
with
its
directions.
can
characterise
transformation
the
eralised
gen-
thus:
expresses
homogeneous
by
system
of
to
respect
able
in
replacement
Mathematically,
that
viously
Ob-
co-ordinate
It
the
transformations,
of
(9).
generaUsed.
are
we
transformations
to
axes
(8) and
of the a;-axis.
transformation
Lorentz
from
from
shows
satisfies
consequence
essential
not
be in the direction
seen
spatiallyparallelto
of K'
velocity of translation
easily
represented by
be
are
is also
It
the
transformation.
whether
they
(ii).
points on
of
transformation
that
so
c"^)
really
also
chosen
consequence
is
It
(ii) is
hence
it is immaterial
be
for
i.
for
i;
derived
Lorentz
(8) and
(9),and
and
hold
transformation
Lorentz
ffCr!+ ys + z"
have
The
c^/''
be
have
must
Since
that
terms
of
linear
functions
the relation
of x, y, z, t,of such
kind
THE
is
x', y',
their
z', t',
side
TRANSFORMATION
identically.
satisfied
substitute
hand
LORENTZ
of
on
(no)
in
left-hand
agrees
is
That
expressions
the
145
with
x,
y,
side,
the
to
If
say:
z,
t, in
then
right-hand
we
place
the
of
left-
side.
APPENDIX
MINKOWSKI'S
FOUR
("WORLD")
still
t,
imaginary
formation
trans-
simply
if
ct
i.
troduce
in-
we
in
place
accordance
with
insert
we
"
xz
"
Xi
V"
condition
xi'^ +
That
%'"
the
is, by
"
see
(iia)
co-ordinates
to
the
Xi' +
that
%,
the
Xz.
xa^ +
theory
of
116
x^
the
of
this
condition
is due
way
to
this
ordinates
"co-
equation.
time
of
as
(12).
x^.
imaginary
same
It
by
thus:
into
the
the
choice
the
into
exactly
Xi,
""'"
is transformed
enters
in
expressed
then
satisfied
afore-mentioned
(12)
from
Xi
according
x"'^ +
K',
system
identically
be
can
i.d,
accented
is
transformation
We
Lorentz
"
If, in
Xi
and
more
XVII]
Section
the
time-variable.
as
SPACE
to
characterise
can
the
this,
DIMENSIONAL
"
[Supplementary
WE
of
II
ordinate
co-
formation
trans-
the
space
fact
that,
relativity, the
"time"
FOUR-DIMENSIONAL
into
enters
Xi
the
natural
"world-point."
This
(Euclidean)
into
latter
linear
are
which
analogy
can
regard
manner
as
(with
co-ordinate
"world."
with
(12)
Xi^ +
is
time
system
xi.
formal
EucUdean
the
We
one.
in
co-ordinate);
in
of
equation
the
complete
to
then
functions
"world"
corresponds
duce
intro-
we
origin,
X2^ +
four-dimensional
of
co-ordinate
same
satisfy
Minkowski's
imaginary
transformation
JCs"
Xi'^ +
If
homogeneous
identically
Xi'^ +
The
the
close
"space"
Cartesian
with
were,
"world."
bears
geometry.
new
three-
it
as
three-dimensional
system
in
becomes,
"world"
analytical
the
point-event
four-dimensional
four-dimensional
the
"world"
"happening"
the
the
as
by
called
was
termed
physics
in
to
fonn
same
described
Xi,
also
space,
similarity
the
x^,
From
"existence"
an
%,
who
dimensional
the
continuum
Xi,
Minkowski,
in
147
four-dimensional
"co-ordinates"
by
laws
co-ordinates
space
SPACE
the
space
Lorentz
"rotation"
four-dimensional
of
APPENDIX
THE
EXPERIMENTAL
CONFIRMATION
THEORY
GENERAL
FROM
we
of
and
the
of
of
compilation
it were,
But
the
the
of
the
important
deductive
science.
from
its
longer
initial
As
develops
by
148
the
to
It
is,
as
embraces
for
it slurs
science
of
has
the
thought
an
emerged
advances
process
data,
and
of
development
by
over
intuition
by
by empirical
system
by
ment
develop-
means
no
theoretical
merely
from
enterprise.
as
stages,
the
catalogue.
the
soon
servation
ob-
ascertained
way,
process;
in
as
laws,
resemblance
played
part
achieved
Guided
view
actual
thought
exact
rather
of
point
are
individual
be
classified
be
to
compass
empirical
some
purely empirical
this
whole
bears
of
this
of
Theories
short
can
in
Regarded
science
of
laws
general
comparison.
in
of
process
science
number
form
point
the
induction.
large
in
the
theoretical
expressed
are
of
statements
which
of
THE
RELATIVITY
empirical
an
process
evolved,
OF
imagine
may
evolution
continuous
OF
systematic
view,
no
III
of
are
ment.
arrange-
investigator
which,
in
APPENDIX
150
in
and
capable of investigation,
of
this
despitethe profound
what
foUows,
shall
we
the
empirical
which
(a) Motion
According
the
latter, or,
of
centre
such
gravity of
gravity,Ues
in such
the
to
mxmi
to
in
insert
distance
law,
the motion
would
but
line
from
in
of
planetmini-
decreases
again
law
of attraction
still take
distance
the
the
of
In
ellipse
that, according
find
periodic variations;
by
centre
of Newton's
different law
new
that
planet.
course
then
and
the
common
common
the
If instead
somewhat
during such
the
or
ton's
New-
is revolving
the
and
sun
svm,
maximum,
calculation,we
described
and
the
sun-planet grows
the
manner
the
that, in
rriiriiTmnn.
them
to
one
manner
discuss
round
ellipse
an
correctly,round
more
portant
im-
Mercury
of
mechanics
describe
system, the
year,
would
sim
In
obtained.
a planetwhich
gravitation,
law of
round
also
shall
appertaining
Newtonian
to
and
theories.
Perihelion
the
lead,
in the fundamental
two
we
evidence
of
physics
hitherto been
has
the
and
deductions,
also
not
difference
of
assumptions
does
pre-relativity
days
the
to which
to
place in
we
into
this
such
sim-planet exhibits
this
joining
case
sun
the
and
angle
planet
closest
EXPERIMENTAL
CONFIRMATION
151
proximity
to
differ from
360".
The
closed
one,
but
be
then
the
it would
fiU up
plane,
viz. between
circle
of
the
differs of
of
radius
{N.B.
least
the
orbital
the
the
and
from
planet
the
One
"
angle
amount
exceeds
this
tt
the
angle
by
in the
by
the
and
the
described
corresponding
to
one
given by
amount
an
tion
mo-
place, and
take
perihehon
one
that
revolution
absolute
corresponds
angular
measure
above
expression
which
the
radius
sun-planet
the
interval
by
angle during
of
next.)
the
and
this
of
between
expression
the
eUipse,
velocity of Hght,
the
revolution
also be
In
semi-axis
major
eccentricity,c
may
Newton-Kepler
the
represents the
period
theory of Newton,
physics, and
perihehon
of the
the
complete
gives the
the
the
revolution
in
result
generaltheory of relativity,
from
exceed
customary
to
of time
course
of
of
from
that
way,
should
its
to the
course
planet
complete
the
circle
sun-planet between
next
the
part of
distance
variation
in such
the
greatest
small
one
in
not
sun.
which
to
perihelion)would
to
"
annular
an
According also
sun
stated
the
of
as
and
planet.
follows:
of
ellipserotates
roimd
the
sun
in
Our
According
the major
relativity,
general theory
the
axis
same
152
APPENDIX
sense
as
requires that
seconds
of
should
the
be
After
Newcomb
the
the
to
amounts
differ
not
that, according
a
of
ray
*
almost
the
light wiU
Especially since
an
to
exact
the
the
circle,which
perihelionwith precision.
over,
sensiblyfrom
of
Sy
arc
per
Field
been
aheady mentioned
general theory
planet
makes
^^d
empiricalresult
Light
experience
next
"
only.
of
it has
XXII
fluences
in-
remaining
1859
seconds
43
Gravitational
Section
time.
remained
Mercury
few seconds
an
vinexplainedperiheUal
an
(b) Deflection
In
the
by
uncertaintyof
The
culate
cal-
disturbing
"
that
delicacy
present
all the
does
above-mentioned
century.
its
with
the
(Leverrier
foimd
of which
of
the
at
Mercury
on
1895) that
amount
43
would
foimd
Mercury
that
to
of the orbit of
movement
of
of
account
was
"
it
suffice to
not
motion
attainable
exerted
planets, it
that
have
does
corresponding
taking
to
solar system
our
small
so
Newton
observation
amount
detection.^
observed
exactness
of
fact, astronomers
of
theory
the
of
of
point
shoiild
planets
necessarily
escape
In
planet. Theory
per
other
magnitude
of the
this rotation
arc
for the
but
III
Venus
it
more
of
relativity,
of its
curvature
has
an
orbit
difficult to
that
locate
is
the
CONFIRMATION
EXPERIMENTAL
when
path
this
being
curvature
the
by
passing through
of
path
to
which
is
As
gravitationalfield.
should
we
passingclose
the
passes
at
sun
of
"
of this
field
is
") of
other
half
be deviated
of
fight
which
sun-radii
from
(a)
should
mental
by
test
the
by
the
of
only
The
for
every
is
phere
the
near
effect
why
reason
total
so
strongly
can
sun's
be
seen
tonian
New-
}
i
"
the
/-^^''
stars
7/
^//Dj,
/'
sxm.
must
atmos-
Ym.
$.
illvmiinated
the
disc
the
by
is because
the
time
light from
the
the
we
ecHpse
other
theory,
sun.
of
means
eclipseof
total
the
to
experi-
an
photographic registrationof
during
arc
of
the
by
result admits
This
by
is
("curva-
caused
space
of
produced
attraction
of
geometricalmodification
at
which
light
deflection
that, according
deflection
the
and
sun,
wait
theory,
added
be
may
ture
of A
7 seconds
half
this
would
ray
distance
of
to
amoimt
It
of
ray
For
angle
the
centre,
experienced
projected through
heavenly body
latter.
the
towards
its
to
that
result
that
expect
gravitationalfield,
similar
body
153
are
sim
that
the
invisible.
clearlyfrom
the
stars
The
situated
predicted
accompanying
APPENDIX
154
If the
diagram.
which
is
earth.
direction
But
light from
as
the
distance
In
the
In
The
is taken
later.
As
i.e. at
the
to
(away
from
We
the
Royal
of
the
war
centre
to the
than
tested
in
the
on
sponds
corre-
to
(Brazil)
and
at
months
(West
Africa)
and
of
same
another
earlier
or
photograph,
eclipse-photograph
an
outwards
amount
a.
the
Society for
the
deduction.
aroused
nature
to
lowing
fol-
ecUpse.
of the
sun) by
of the
angle
Sobral
celebrated
will be
the
solar
the standard
equipped
"
of
neighbourhood
two
the
sent
tion
investiga-
by
material
the
war,
expeditions
"
island
several
to
Undaunted
by difficulties of both
societies
these
few
important
and
the
greater
displaced radially
psychological
i.e.
Astronomical
this
from
sim
is situated
sun
the stars
indebted
are
be
star
photograph
with
appear
corresponding
would
somewhat
in the
the
sky,
the
star
deflection
the
sim,
of
second
compared
ought
ham,
A,
stars
when
positionsof
most
the
photographed during
are
position in
and
by
position.
addition, a
stars
by
of the
practice,the question is
sun
present,
observed
as
centre
its real
way.
the
not
consequence
star
from
to
the
A,
in the direction
seen
the
(5) were
sun
distant
practicallyiir"nitely
in the
seen
III
of
of
to
Principe
Britain's
CONFIRMATION
iEXPERIMENTAL
of
photographs
eclipse
amounted
only.
to
Thus
comparison
in
in
necessary
during
millimetre
was
accuracy
expected
photographs
of
hundredths
photographs,
the
of
few
be
obtained
photographs
the
great
the
making
and
solar
discrepancies to
stellar
the
between
the
relative
The
1919.
the
155
their
the
taking
subsequent
measurement.
results
The
theory
in
of the
of
calculated
arc)
the
thoroughly satisfactorymanner.
of
rectangular components
the
confirmed
measurements
deviations
forth
set
are
the
of the
in
the
The
observed
stars
of
and
(in seconds
following
table
of
results:
(c) Displacement
TOWABDS
In
Section
system
K'
Galileian
system
the
it has
XXIII
which
or
Spectral
ReD
been
is in rotation
K,
clocks
Lines
that in
shown
with
regard
of identical
to
construe-
a
a
APPENDIX
156
which
tion,and
to
the
shall
A
clock,which
of
centre
ci"
disc, has
of
respect
Section
or
XII,
with
This
the
We
from
velocity relative
to
"rate"
relative
moving
clocks.
distance
the^
to
If I'orepresents the
respect XaK.
clock) relative
rest, then
with
at
the
the
the
represents
which
rates
dependence quantitatively.
is situated
the
at
respect
given by
is
where
this
with
at rest
positions of
the
on
examine
now
which
considered
are
rotating reference-body,go
dependent
are
III
to K
when
of the
with
to
the
be
given by
imit
per
is at
iy) when
it is
but
at rest
accordance
with
by
also be
expression may
clock
velocityv,
disc,will,in
sufficient accuracy
the
clock
("rate"
time
stated
in
the
lowing
fol-
form:
If
we
centrifugalforce
and
the
centre
between
of
the
the
disc
of
potentialof
position of
by "^, i.e.
the
the
the
clock
work,
158
APPENDIX
element
which
surface of
in
is situated
smaller
(or on
in free space
the
celestial body).
Now
4"=
where
K",
gravitation,and
body.
Thus
take
to
the
the
is the
displacementtowards
compared with
as
element
same
earth, the
produced
of this
amoimt
Vo
the
the sun,
the red
lionths
of the
because
in
the
at
spectrallines
the
at
ought
surface
of
displacementbeing
about
to
amotmts
wave-length.
possiblein the
is not
the
towards
displacement
predicted by theory
radius
heavenly
KM
Va-v
For
of the
mass
of
constant
surface of stars
of
is Newton's
general neither
mil-
two
culation
trustworthy calcase
the
the red
of the
M
mass
stars,
the
nor
is known.
It is
question whether
open
an
exists,and
at
working with
Owing
the
great zeal
Whereas
of Evershed
and
bands,
have
almost
beyond
own
the
doubt,
an
and
the
are
solution.
Bachem
on
existence
other
case
opinion as
the
of
to
of
its
(Bonn),
and
measurements
Schwarzschild
placed
this effect
Grebe
result of their
not
astronomers
towards
it is difficult to form
existence.
as
present time
the smaUness
to
sun,
the
or
those
cyanogen
the
effect
investigators,par-
EXPERIMENTAL
COlSnPIEMATION
opinion
refrangible
but
decision
these
data
of
effect
which
towards
spectrum
the
by
paper
at,
from
the
fixed
examination
of
The
E. Fretmdlich
in
together,
35,
of
and
"Zur
tion
ques-
here,
Priifung
(Die
520:
p.
servatio
obcussed
dis-
attention
our
entitled
No.
reaUty
of the
Relativitats-Theorie"
turwissenschaften,1919,
not
or
results
standpoint
engaging
definite
whether
referred
be
to
the
of any
to
as
collected
been
has
the
less
certainly
are
aUow
not
are
been
aUgemeinen
der
lines
gravitation.
in detail
of
does
displacements
have
in
measurements.
present
arrived
being
the
to
opposite
their
the
the
to
up
available
the
the
to
by statistical investigations of
revealed
stars;
of
end
led
of
consequence
displacements
Mean
been
159
Na-
Julius
Springer, Berlin).
At
aU
the
during
of
events,
definite
few
next
spectral lines
other
of
towards
the
not
relativitywill
hand,
if the
If
years.
potential does
theory
decision
cause
red
will
as
to
the
furnish
mass
us
of the
the
with
the
the
by
the
be
untenable.
of
the
study
reached
displacement
exist, then
will be
tional
gravitageneral
On
the
displacement
the
to
of
this
tional
gravita-
ment
displace-
important information
heavenly bodies.
of
BIBLIOGRAPHY
WORKS
IN
ENGLISH
ON
EINSTEIN'S
THEORY
Introductory
The
Foundations
Einstein's
(translation
lich
and
Space
of
Time
by
H.
by
H.
L.
L.
Principle
Relativity
the
Physics.
Electron
Theory
The
Space-Time
L.
of Relativity:
Manifold
Proc.
Lewis,
Amer.
on
the
On
Einstein's
W.
p.
On
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IS5,
1916;
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Space,
p.
Theory
de
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4r2.
Ltd.,
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vol.
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"
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1916;
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3,
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Science,
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Fleet
1920.
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of Gravitation
kxviii.
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ir
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lation
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Co.
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Fleetway
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Arts
Oxford,
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The
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E.
Silberstein.
Soc.
Schlick
Camb.
Cunningham.
Green
1920.
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Longmans,
The
E.
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Moritz
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Freund-
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Univ.
Physics:
Special
of Relativity:
and
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Brose).
The
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Brose).
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Theory
H.
A.
Lorentz,
Proc.
Amsterdam
1917.
W.
Francis,
de
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161
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The
Street,
Observatory,
London.
No.
$05,
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162
The
Total
EcUpse
Discussion
S.
the
on
kxx.,
The
A.
Light;
on
of
No.
G.
May
2.,
p.
of
Duffield,
96,
of
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December
N.
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Relativity:
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Roy.
vol.
Sac,
1919.
Spectrum
M.
and
igig,
Eddlngton,
Theory
Displacement
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and
Astron.
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the
Soc,
Equivalence
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Ixxx.;
Hypothesis:
No.
3,
p.
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and
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Space,
Gravitation:
A.
S.
Camb.
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Univ.
Press,
1920.
Chapters
Also,
The
Mathematical
(4th
The
Electron
Press.
Theory
edition).
Theory
Camb.
of
of
and
Electricity
Univ.
Matter:
Press,
O.
'
in
W.
Magnetism:
J.
H.
Jeans
1920.
Richardson.
Camb.
Univ.
INDEX
166
De
Sitter,21
Displacement of spectralUnes,
iSS
124,
(line-interval),
3, 5,
Distance
3S. 99,
34,
transformation, 40,
129
104,
physical interpretationof, 5
"
157
Galilei,12
"
8,
of atom,
Frequency
45,
43,
61
SO,
GalHeian
nates,
co-ordi-
of
system
relativityof, 34
"
13,
Doppler principle,59
Double
stars,
108, 116,
Gauss,
co-ordinates,
154
124,
69-124,
Electrodynamics,
15,
24,
48,
Electron,
of, 2-4
truth
92,
field,75,
Gravitational
116,
III,
91,
Electrostatics,go
Ellipticalspace,
121
79,
87,
of, 60
masses
119,
120,
136
133
potential of,
cidence),
(space-timecoin-
Encounter
IIS
52, 60
electrical
"
relativity,
propositions,i
"
Electromagnetic theory, 58
75
of
ideas, 2,
Geometrical
52, 90
ii4-ri8
112,
theory
General
Electricity,
90
waves,
103-
21
105,
"
106
103,
102,
Gaussian
Eclipse of star,
Eddington,
119
21
76, 81,
mass,
157
121
Grebe, 158
113
Euclidean
geometry,
97,
104,
loi,
13s,
16
Equivalent,
i,
2,
128,
68,
Helmholtz,
129,
Heuristic
128
relativity,
of
value
147
SO
propositions of, 3, 8
"
space,
68,
147
102,
149
Inertia, 77
Evershed, 158
Experience,
Induction, 148,
S9,
70
Inertial mass,
55,
76, 81,
120,
121
Faraday, 56,
FitzGerald,
Fixed
stars,
74
63
12
Instantaneous
photograph
(snapshot),
141
Intensityof gravitational field,
127
INDEX
167
Intuition, 148
Morley, 63, 64
Ions, S3
Motion,
"
Kepler,
152
Kinetic
energy,
16,
52,
S3i
128
of inertia,12,
Law
of Nature,
Laws
15
71, 72,
Newton's
Light-signal,40,
139,
143
Light-stimulus,40
law
of
44
A.,
reference-
bodies,
48, 52, 58,
24,
128
geometry,
Non-GalUeian
of force, 126
H.
94,
motion, 76
Non-Euclidean
gravitation,57,
of
127,149
"
Lines
150
tion,
gravita-
of
constant
law
152
123,
126,
122,
158
118
84,
70,
86,
12,
170
"
Leverrier,
13s
122,
152
Newton,
of Galilei-Newton,
Laws
17,
121
Newcomb,
Lattice,
70
of
Non-uniform
117
motion,
72
59-63
"
transformation,
108, 116,
39,
139,
Optics, IS,
46, 50,
143,
Organ-pipe,
144,
Parabola,
146
(generalised),
144
E.,
Path-curve,
field,74
Manifold
(.seeContinuum)
of
Matter,
"
"
Plane,
52, 56-59,
49,
Mercury,
iso-
equations, 56,
of
Measuring-rod,
112,
length,
s,
119,
6,
34,
121,
loi
95,
132,
128,
i,
Point,
123,
152
152
129
128
Position,
of, 54
energy
Principle of relativity,15-17,
23"
Processes
141
6
specification,
Point-mass,
Measurement
"
10
of
Poincare,
61
90
13s,
10
measurement,
120
fundamental
Mercury,
of
Place
96,
17
Physics, 8
Maxwell,
of,
'152
86
Magnetic
Mass
note
9,
PeriheUon
Mach,
52
24,
24,
70
of Nature,
50
36, 108,
23,
143
Michelson, 62-64
in
liquid,47
Minkowski,
in
88
gravitationalfields,
INDEX
168
los,
9,
97,
10,
129
Sjrstem of co-ordinates,Si
10,
II
Radiation,
55
substances,
Radioactive
Reference-body,
28,
22,
$,
31,
7,
32,
59
8-11,
44,
70
mollusk,
Rest,
Rotation,
95,
128,
118
co-ordinate,66,
"
"
102,
61,
24,
125
in
Physics, 26,
of
an
17
Riemann,
of, 149
118-120
velocity, 141
"
truth
position,3
Relative
148
Theory,
"
18
space,
Three-dimensional, 65
rotating, 94
"
Terrestrial
"
132
146
117,
event, 28, 32
interval,36, 67
147
Trajectory,
"
Truth,"
10
Schwarzschild, 158
translation,14, 69
(World) structure of,
Uniform
Seconds-clock,
44
Universe
Seeliger,125,
Simultaneity, 26,
29-32,
128,
96
Euclidean,
"
eclipse,89,
153,
155
"
Space,
9,
Space, two-dimensional,
three-dimensional,
128
147
space,
St. John,
132,
of
89.
Venus,
Weight
136
130
light, 11,
133
159
photographs, 153
152
77
(heaviness),
World-point,
130,
147
radius, 133
sphere, 130,
Zeeman,
21,
143
129
of ir, 97,
Spherical surface,
"
spherical,132,
Velocity
point, 118
1-68,
"
Value
Space-interval,36, 67
"
(radius) of,
137
"
136
132
130,
expanse
space
"
of, 131
Universe, elliptical,
133,
Size-relations,107
Solar
13s
circumference
"
relativityof, 31
"
127
48
131
147
22,