What Is Coding?

Coding is the process of organizing and sorting your data. Codes serve as a way to label,
compile and organize your data. They also allow you to summarize and synthesize what is
happening in your data. In linking data collection and interpreting the data, coding becomes
the basis for developing the analysis. It is generally understood, then, that coding is
analysis. Coding is an interpretive technique that both organizes the data and provides a
means to introduce the interpretations of it into certain quantitative methods. Most coding
requires the analyst to read the data and demarcate segments within it, which may be done at
different times throughout the process.[14] Each segment is labeled with a "code" usually a
word or short phrase that suggests how the associated data segments inform the research
objectives. When coding is complete, the analyst prepares reports via a mix of: summarizing
the prevalence of codes, discussing similarities and differences in related codes across
distinct original sources/contexts, or comparing the relationship between one or more codes.
Code Your Data
Coding can be done in any number of ways, but it usually involves assigning a word, phrase,
number or symbol to each coding category. The user will go through all your textual data
(interview transcripts, direct notes, field observations, etc.) in a systematic way. The ideas,
concepts and themes are coded to fit the categories.
Creating Codes
The process of creating codes can be both pre-set and open. Hybrid method is preferred,
using both these two models. Before beginning data collection and the coding process, it is
good to begin with a start list of pre-set codes (often referred to as a priori codes). These
initial codes derive from the conceptual framework, list of research questions, problem areas,
etc. The user prior knowledge of the subject matter and your subject expertise will also help
you create these codes. For instance, if you are interviewing MUH owners and managers, you
may already think about the codes economic issues or tenant smoking or common
areas (the list could go on and on. At a later time, the codes economic issues and tenant
smoking may be collapsed into a larger code or theme of barriers to policy.
Pre-Set Codes
A pre-set list can have as little as 10 codes or up to 40-50 codes. Too many codes can create
problem because the person coding can become overwhelmed or make mistakes in the coding
process if there are too many. In creating these codes, it is important to create a code book,
which is list of the codes and what they mean.
Emergent Codes
While it is good to begin data collection and coding with pre-set codes, another set of codes
will emerge from reading and analyzing the data. These emergent codes are those ideas,
concepts, actions, relationships, meanings, etc. that come up in the data and are different than
the pre-set codes. For instance, in the aforementioned example of interviews of MUH owners
and managers, the issue of tenants smoking medicinal marijuana may have come up. This
may be seen as a tricky legal issue by the owners and managers. It may have been something

not coded before data collection and coding began. So, the text discussing this issue could be
coded as legal issue (which was probably identified as a start code) and medicinal
marijuana. Because theres a good chance that medicinal marijuana was not a start code, it is
added to the code book as an emergent code. In many cases, the surprise emergent codes
form the basis of interesting stories and may indeed become part of the major storyline told in
the user evaluation.
Coding as a System of Organizing Your Data
One easy way to think about coding is to see it as a system to organize the user data. In
essence, it is a personal filing system. The user place data in the code just as you would file
something in a folder. A systematic way to code data is to ask yourself the following
questions as you read the text:
What is this saying? What does it represent?
What is this an example of?
What do I see is going on here?
What is happening?
What kind of events are at issue here?
What is trying to be conveyed?
The word, number or symbol that you assigned to the item of data in answering such
questions is a code. These are labels that classify items of information. We recommend using
words or phrases as codes and in your marginal notes for later ease of analysis (sometimes
numbers and symbols can be confusing).
Refining Your Codes
It is important to note that as your data are coded, the coding scheme will be refined.
Meaning, you will add, collapse, expand and revise the coding categories. This is especially
true of the pre-set codes. Oftentimes, what one expects to find in the data is not there. It
happens. Moreover, some codes simply do not work or conflate other ideas from different
codes. Alternatively, sometimes codes flourish in a way that there is too much data. In this
case, the code needs to be broken down into sub-codes in order to better organize the data.
The rule of thumb for coding is to make the codes fit the data, rather than trying to make your
data fit your codes.
Coding Notes
Finally, as part of the process of coding, it is important to jot down notes of the user reactions
and ideas that emerge. These ideas are important and vital to the analytic process. These
notes may suggest new interpretations, as well as connections with other data. Moreover, if
the users are mindful of what is growing out of the data, the user's notes will usually point
toward questions and issues for you to look into as you code and collect more data. down
both codes and remarks on a hardcopy as you read it. After the initial coding, Word files
need to be created based on your codes. Think of this process as cutting and pasting the
quotes on a poster board. The marginal notes will also come in handy when thinking about
how the codes fit together. thus collapsed the codes into a larger theme and can discuss
various aspects of onsite learning

TYPES OF CODING
Open coding
At this first level of coding, you are looking for distinct concepts and categories in the data,
which will form the basic units of your analysis. In other words, you are breaking down the
data into first level concepts, or master headings, and second-level categories, or
subheadings. Researchers often use highlights to distinguish concepts and categories. For
example, if interviewees consistently talk about teaching methods, each time an interviewee
mentions teaching methods, or something related to a teaching method, you would use the
same color highlight. Teaching methods would become a concept, and other things related
(types, etc.) would become categories all highlighted the same color. Use different colored
highlights to distinguish each broad concept and category. What you should have at the end
of this stage are transcripts with 3-5 different colors in lots of highlighted text.Transfer these
into a brief outline, with concepts being main headings and categories being subheadings.
Axial coding
In open coding, you were focused primarily on the text to define concepts and categories. In
axial coding, you are using your concepts and categories while re-reading the text. Confirm
that your concepts and categories accurately represent interview responses. Explore how your
concepts and categories are related. To examine the latter, you might ask, What conditions
caused or influenced concepts and categories? What is/was the social/political context? or
What are the associated effects or consequences?
For example, if one of your concepts is Adaptive Teaching, and two of your categories
are tutoring and group projects, an axial code might be a phrase like our principal
encourages different teaching methods. This discusses the context of the concept and/or
categories, and suggests that you may need a new category labeled supportive environment.
Axial coding is merely a more directed approach at looking at the data, to help make sure that
you have identified all important aspects. Have your highlights ready for revision/addition.
Create a table
Transfer final concepts and categories into a data table. Note how the researcher listed the
major categories, then explained them after the table. This is a very effective way to organize
results and/or discussion in a research paper.

Types of research report

A research report is a completed study that reports an investigation or exploration of a
problem, identifies questions to be addressed, and includes data collected, analyzed, and
interpreted by the researcher. Reports are written for different purposes. They therefore
contain different information and structures, including headings and subheadings, and these
form the outline of the report. The table below shows the sections commonly found in these
types of reports.

Short report

Science report

Title page
Introduction
Discussion
Recommendations
References

Title page
Introduction
Method & materials
Results
Discussion
Conclusion
Appendices
References

Business report

Engineering report

Title page
Executive summary
Table of contents
Introduction
Discussion
Conclusion
Recommendations
Appendices
References

Research report

Title page
Executive summary
(optional)
Introduction
Objectives
Analysis
Discussion
Recommendations &
action plan
Conclusion
Appendices
References

Title page
Executive summary
Introduction
Method / methodology
Results / findings
Discussion
Conclusions
Recommendations
Appendices
Bibliography

FORMAT OF REPORT WRITING

Title page

Table of contents

Executive summary
(Abstract)

Title of report
Name of author /
student
Organisation / course
Date
Lists the content of the
report
Page numbers
Summarises the whole
report in a logical order
Outlines purpose,
research methods,

findings, conclusions &

recommendations

Written last mainly in

Are the aims of the

purpose of the research
clearly stated?
Are the results
summarised?
Are the conclusions &
recommendations

Introduction

past tense
Should be no more than
one page
Outlines context,
background & purpose
Defines terms & sets
limits of the research

outlined?

Method

Results / findings

Discussion

Is the purpose of the

research clearly stated?
Is the context &
background explained?
Are the limits of the
study outlined?
Are the important
concepts & terms
defined?

Explains the research

methodology and
methods used
In scientific reports, this
would detail the
experimental
procedures

Are the research

techniques / methods
clearly outlined?

Presents the findings /

results
Can use visual data, eg
graphs, tables etc
Facts only - no
interpretation

Are the results clearly

summarised / stated?
Is visual data used
where appropriate?

Interprets & evaluates

results
Analyses results
draws together

Are the results

explained &
interpreted?
Are the results linked to
other similar research &
to each other?

Conclusion

Brief summary of
findings

Are the results

summarised?

Recommendations

Suggest suitable
changes / solutions
Action plan for
recommendations if
required

Do the
recommendations
suggest possible
solutions / actions /
pathways etc

Glossary

List of terms, eg
acronyms used

References or
bibliography

List of all cited

references

Appendix

Attachments, eg
surveys, questionnaires
etc

PURPOSE OF WRITING REPORT

To transmit information to teachers: to show that the writer is thoroughly acquainted

with the material, the information, and/or the procedures; therefore, be through and
complete; be concise
To transmit information to decision makers: experts and technicians, executives, and
laypeople
To help them make decisions and act on the results presented; therefore: be concise;
be thorough and complete.
It is beneficial to establish the purpose of your report before you start writing, so that
you can think clearly on the subject, and produce a report styled to fit the needs of
your purpose. Recognize what your report is for, (informing, instructing, guiding) and
focus your writing on explaining the details. If for example, you want to write an
instructional report for a team of colleagues, you know that you must focus your
writing on providing clear concise instructions, which will allow your reader to
comprehend the processes that you are describing.

JOURNAL ARTICLE
Tutorial:
A typical research article from a journal has 7 main parts:
1 Title
2 Abstract
2 Introduction
3 Methods
4 Results, and
5 Discussion
6 References
The Title.
An article's title is often the first section read. It should illustrate the main topic of the
research study, including the important variables. A variable is a characteristic that can have
more than 1 value. Examples of psychological variables include intelligence, status in a
family, type of behavior, etc. Most titles include both the independent and dependent
variable.

The Abstract
The Abstract is a brief summary of the entire article, in approximately 120 words. Its
purpose is to provide the reader with a quick review of the article's content, and as such, is an
important part of the journal article. When people search for articles on-line, they will only
use the article's title and abstract to make the decision of the article's relevance and
contribution to their research. Therefore, the perfect article may go unnoticed because of a
poorly written abstract.
The abstract usually contains a concise summary of
(a) the article's problem under investigation or the hypothesis,
(b) pertinent information on the participants,
(c) brief review of methodology,
(d) statistical analyses,
(e) results of the study, and
(f) implications of the study.

The Introduction
The Introduction serves as the body of the paper. It begins with a broad statement of the
problem under investigation and then proceeds to narrow the focus to the specific hypothesis
or hypotheses of the study. The purpose of this section is to introduce the reader to the
overall issue/problem that is being tested and to provide justification for the hypothesis or
hypotheses. In order to accomplish these tasks, the author needs to review past research on
the same topic, discussing their findings. Some students get confused reading this section
because it is hard to distinguish "previous research" from important information about the
"current study"; consequently, we will take a closer look at the basic structure of a typical
introduction. (Keep in mind that not all published articles may have all of these sections.)

Introducing the problem.

The paper should begin by broadly specifying the research problem or point of the
study. This section is usually 1 - 2 paragraphs long and may include the research
questions(= general questions asked by the study), a description relating the
hypothesis and experimental design to the problem and the theoretical implications
of the research.
Background literature.
This subsection will be the longest of the introduction. It contains prior research
studies relevant to the current study. A researcher cannot merely create a
hypothesis and test it. He or she must provide a rationale or case for why that
hypothesis should be tested. For example, if I were to state the hypothesis "rats will
press on a bar faster and longer if they are given a food reward each time than if
they are given no reward", I would not get very far writing my introduction. I

would realize quickly that my hypothesis is not new, nor does it add anything to the
"reinforcement" literature. Therefore, the background literature section prevents
people from 'reinventing the wheel'. Likewise, if I make the bold claim "women are
genetically superior to men" and provide no background literature to support such a
claim or hypothesis, then every reader has a right to be extremely suspicious and
regard my study as unscientific. A helpful way to see an introduction is to view the
author as a lawyer who must convince you, the judge/jury, that the proposed
hypotheses improve upon past research and have some importance. The "evidence"
is the review of previous research.
Purpose, rationale, and hypothesis.
The final subsection of the introduction includes formally stating the study's
purpose, the rationale for that purpose, and the specific hypothesis or hypotheses.
The previous subsection should naturally lead up to this point. A reader should be
able to understand what is being tested and why. There should not be a "surprise
hypothesis" or something that was not covered under the background subsection.
Each hypothesis should have a clear rationale describing the logic behind the
predictions. Keep in mind that sometimes the hypotheses will be spelled out for
you; other times, they may be listed as predictions or "we believe such and such
will happen".
Method Section.
The purpose of the Method section is to provide a detailed description of how the study was
conducted. An overarching goal of science is the replication of research. It is in the Method
section that authors need to specify their participants and procedures to allow others to
duplicate the study. Think of this section as being a recipe with an exact description for
others to follow. This section is usually divided into subparts:

Participants/Subjects
(Participants is the term used when humans are involved in the study while
Subjects is the term used when animals are in the study.)
This subsection contains information such as:
a) number of participants and how they were selected & assigned
(e.g., at random?)
b) major demographic characteristics
(e.g., sex, age, race, ethnicity, level of education, socioeconomic status)
c) description of agreements and payments made
d) statement of ethical principles used in relation to the participants
For nonhuman subjects:
a) genus, species
b) strain number or location of supplier
c) number, sex, age, weight, and physiological condition
d) ethical guidelines on treatment and handling

This subsection allows readers to make comparisons of samples across different

studies & to make judgments of generalizability of results.
Materials/Apparatus/Measures
All physical aspects of the research design are described in this subsection. It
lists everything that was used in the study to help others replicate it . When an
author uses new materials or measures for the study, often a copy of the information
is included as an Appendix, located at the back of an article.
Procedure
This subsection provides a detailed account of what happened in the study
Results.
The Results section is the statistical reporting of the data. Its purpose is to describe what was
found after statistically analyzing the data. Authors typically report results of each
hypothesis, in order as they appear in the introduction to assist your
comprehension. Additional analyses may be described if initial results suggested a new
direction. Tables and figures are often used to convey important information in an organized
manner. This section may not be fully understandable until you have had a statistics and/or
research methods course. Therefore, check with your professor to see how you should treat
this section. It is beyond the scope of this tutorial to provide instruction on how to interpret
the various statistical analyses that might be presented in articles. Indeed, some statistical
analyses might not be understood until you take graduate courses! The results section,
however, tends to become more important once one develops further as a scientific
psychologist.
The Discussion.
The Discussion section reviews, interprets, and evaluates the results of the study. The review
of the results is done in everyday, nontechnical language, using no statistics. Discussion
sections typically begin by listing the hypothesis or hypotheses and then stating if the results
supported or contradicted the hypothesis or hypotheses. Next, writers usually discuss
similarities and differences between the current findings and findings of previous research.
Any weaknesses of the current study are also reviewed and suggestions are made on
improving the research design. Finally, a discussion section usually ends with the writer
providing directions for future research. Opposite to the Introduction, the discussion section
begins with a narrow focus on the findings and then proceeds more broadly by drawing
conclusions until it ends with future implications.
Reference Section.: The last important section of an article is the list of references. It lists, in
alphabetical order, the empirical studies mentioned throughout the paper. There is a specific
format that must be used to write references.