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Solar Energy 98 (2013) 434439
www.elsevier.com/locate/solener

The interaction of standards and innovation: Hybrid

photovoltaicthermal collectors
Korbinian Kramer , Henning Helmers
Fraunhofer ISE, Heidenhofstr. 2, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
Received 8 January 2013; received in revised form 21 May 2013; accepted 3 August 2013
Available online 7 November 2013
Communicated by: Associate Editor Bibek Bandyopadhyay

Abstract
Hybrid photovoltaicthermal solar collectors (PVT collectors) convert solar radiation into both electrical power and useable heat.
The goal of combining these two forms of energy conversion in one product is to increase overall eciency by accessing a higher technical
energy potential. Combining the two types of energy transformation in a hybrid product is an innovative approach that is currently
entering the market in the form of several products from several producers. As a result of boundary conditions (the early stage of market
diusion and the absence of standards, norms, and certications), there is an enormous decit of technical information for PVT collectors. This leads to restrained policy implementation from government entities, fewer incentives for producers and more wariness on the
part of the end consumer; the combination of these factors constitutes a strong market barrier. In addition, with respect to product quality labels and product certication, PVT collectors must be discussed in a sophisticated way and, therefore, require an appropriate scientic description. In this paper, possible changes and steps with regards to standards, regulations and certication procedures are
suggested to provide solutions over the short, medium and long terms. In addition, an extended hybrid collector model (in analogy
to the quasi-dynamic thermal performance model) is presented and proposed for implementation into the existing certication.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: PVT collector; Hybrid collector; Product certication; Solar Keymark; Standardization; Combined heat and power

1. Introduction
Hybrid photovoltaicthermal solar collectors (PVT collectors) convert solar radiation into both electrical power
and useable heat. The aim of combining these two forms
of energy conversion in one product is to increase overall
eciency by accessing a higher technical energy potential.
Standard at-plate photovoltaic modules based on crystalline silicon convert approximately 15% of the incident solar
radiation into electrical power (compare Fraunhofer ISE,
2012); the remainderexcept for reection lossis transformed into heat, as shown in Fig. 1.
Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 761 4588 5139.

E-mail address: korbinian.kramer@ise.fraunhofer.de (K. Kramer).

0038-092X/$ - see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2013.08.042

From a technical point of view, many dierent variations of collector congurations are possible. The simplest
is to add a heat-removing hydraulic structure to the existing standard PV module. If the collector design is not optimized for good thermal bonding between the PV cell and
the hydraulic layout, the cell temperature is signicantly
higher than the temperature of the heat removing structure.
Because the PV cells in such a conguration are not insulated from the environment well, thermal losses are relatively large and the temperature level is comparably low
(40 C). Thus, such products are often sold in combination with a heat pump that is used to raise the temperature
of the uid in the heat storage tank to enable heating and
domestic hot water applications at temperatures from 60 to
80 C (depending on the heating system), which is a normal

K. Kramer, H. Helmers / Solar Energy 98 (2013) 434439

435

Nomenclature
Aa
a0  a6
b0  b3
Ge
Pel
Pth
Pout

aperture area of the PVT collector [m2]

collector coecients [various]
collector coecients [various]
eective irradiance [W/m2]
electrical power output [W]
thermal power output [W]
total power output, Pel + Pth [W]

Ta
Tm
Tsky
t

DT

range for domestic use. This type of product has been

labeled an uncovered PVT collector (see Fig. 2).
To increase overall eciency, it is important not to narrowly focus only on the electrical energy segment, but to
increase the solar fraction of the solar thermal (ST) energy
part of the heating system throughout the year. This can
only be achieved by generating temperatures of approximately 50 C and higher, particularly during winter times.
To generate this type of heat, so-called covered PVT collectors were developed. In such a product, the thermal absorber is constructed out of the PV cell, thermally coupled
with a heat removal structure and mounted within a collector box; it also contains a transparent front cover and
backside insulation to reduce thermal loss. With these
products, signicant solar gains (fsol > 10%) can be generated even during the winter months in Central Europe.
To further reduce heat loss, solar radiation may be
concentrated by concentrator optics (typically reecting

Spectral Irradiance [W/m2/nm]

1,8
1,6
Solar Spectrum AM 1.5

1,4

a + b : Part of the spectrum

absorbed in the PV module
a : Heat production
b : PV conversion

1,2
1
0,8
0,6

0,4
0,2
0
300

b
700

1100

1500

1900

ambient temperature [C]

mean uid temperature [C]
sky temperature [C]
time [s]
wind speed [m/s]
reduced temperature, Tm  Ta [K]

mirrors) onto a comparably smaller receiving area. This

technology is called concentrating PVT (CPVT). One may
further distinguish this technology into low- and high-concentrating PVT (LCPVT and HCPVT, respectively). The
term low typically denotes concentration ratios from 1 to
100, whereas high concentration typically means concentration ratios in the range of 3001000 and even higher. With
CPVT systems, heat can be generated at 120 C and above
reasonably eciently. For high concentration ratios (concentration ratio > 10), the eective solar resource is
reduced to the direct beam radiation because of the concentrating optics. Therefore, utilizing concentrator systems
with tracking is more appropriate in regions with a high
proportion of direct normal irradiance (DNI). In these
regions, the heat generated can be used in process heat
applications for industry or in polygeneration approaches,
such as thermally driven chillers or water desalination
(compare Helmers, 2013a).
Several producers today oer hybrid PVT products on
the market. To encourage transparency in this emerging
market and support its development, the information typically required in both relevant market sectors should be
provided to consumers.
This article rst describes the market status of these
products at present. Second, the existing normative and
quality-assuring processes of the relevant types of products
(PV and ST) are analyzed with respect to PVT collectors
and existing gaps and ambiguities are identied. Third, distinct proposals are made to bridge these gaps over the
short, middle and long term. In the nal chapter, we gather
the results of our analysis to nd a solution.

2300

Wavelength [nm]
Fig. 1. The graph shows the spectral irradiance distribution of the solar
radiation (according to AM1.5g). Part of this solar irradiance is lost
through reection. In a PV module, the part of the irradiance that is
shown as areas a + b can be received. The part of the irradiance that is
converted into electricity in a typical silicon solar cell is shown as area b.
The majority of the radiation power, however, is absorbed and converted
into heat, which is shown as area a. In a PVT collector, this large fraction
is utilized as additional power output. (Dupeyrat et al., 2012) (Reprinted
from Energy and Buildings, P. Dupeyrat, C. Menezo, S. Fortuin, Study of
the thermal and electrical performances of PVT solar hot water system,
Copyright 2012, with permission from Elsevier.)

2. The market status of PVT

At present, the market share of PVT collectors on the
global solar thermal product market is small (0.02% of
newly installed collector areas in 2010, see Wei, 2012).
However, heating systems that combine heat pump technology with PVT were introduced in a growing number
of markets at various exhibitions over the past two years
in Germany and other Central European countries. PVT
products will benet by the development of the PV branch
and existing market distribution systems of the ST branch.

436

K. Kramer, H. Helmers / Solar Energy 98 (2013) 434439

Fig. 2. From left to right: non-covered PVT air-heating collector (Reprinted with permission from Grammer Solar) covered at-plate water-heating PVT
collector (Dupeyrat et al., 2012) (Reprinted from Energy and Buildings, P. Dupeyrat, C. Menezo, S. Fortuin, Study of the thermal and electrical
performances of PVT solar hot water system, Copyright 2012, with permission from Elsevier.); low-concentrating CPVT collector (C = 37; Coventry,
2005) (Reprinted from Solar Energy, 78(2), J.S. Coventry, Performance of a concentrating photovoltaic/thermal solar collector, pp. 211222, Copyright
2005, with permission from Elsevier.); high-concentrating PVT collector (C = 522; Helmers et al., 2013b).

PV products are cheaper than they ever have been and have
established widespread market penetration. Thus, innovative technologies are required to justify higher prices and
trigger new market sector development Because of its early
stage of market penetration and the absence of standards
and quality certication mechanisms, PVT collectors must
contain trustworthy technical information. The absence of
standards and proper certication mechanism leads to governmental reluctance to implement PVT products into
appropriate policy schemes. As a consequence, producers
are not able to make substantial investment decisions in
favor of PVT collector production. Conversely, end consumers and installers cannot compare dierent products
on an informed basis. As a consequence, the information
decit is a strong market barrier. Thus, a common standard and certication scheme must be crafted and implemented to increase the transparency of these products.

Board) prevented this possibility in March 2012 (compare

Druck, 2012). Since that date, it has not been possible to
license Solar Keymark labels to PVT collectors.1 Recently
the Solar Keymark Network could establish a working
group to dene minimum requirements for PVT collector
certication on the basis of PV safety test to bridge the
gap for the time being. Due to this work, certication of
PVT collectors according to Solar Keymark scheme rules
is now possible again. This quality label is the most established guarantee for solar thermal products in Europe and
is therefore decisive in being able to sell a solar thermal
product. For deeper understanding, it should be recalled
that EN 12975-2:2006-A1:2011 covers two topics, i.e.,
information on both eciency and functionality of a
respective product.

3. Status of relevant product standards

Non-concentrating terrestrial photovoltaic modules are

tested world-wide under IEC 61215:2005 (crystalline PV)
or IEC 61646:2008 (thin lm PV). The only exceptions
are the USA and Canada with their own additional regulations. These tests are performed for design homologation
and type certication. Moreover, the relevant safety tests
are mandatory according to IEC 61730-1, 2:2004. Specifying the electrical power output is detailed in IEC 60904.
IEC 61215 and IEC 61730 are currently under revision.
The expected date of availability (DAV) is 2013/2014.
IEC 61215 and IEC 61646 focus on the electrical and basic
functionality of the modules and ensure that the electrical
performance is kept stable under typical operating conditions. IEC 61730-1 denes requirements for the use of the
PV module and also species safety features. Part 2 of
IEC 61730 nally gives explanations about how to perform
these safety tests in a laboratory. If one would look on a

3.1. Solar thermal

Solar thermal collectors are currently tested according
to EN 12975-1,2:2006-A1:2011, and both standards have
recently been mandated for revision. The technical part
of the revision process will be nalized in the spring of
2013, and the new standards should be published by January 2014 at the latest. These standards dene product
requirements (part 1) and establish and explain the appropriate testing procedures that allow validation of the product requirements (part 2). The applicability of the
respective standards to particular products is dened in
the respective scope. PVT collectors are not explicitly
excluded from EN 12975-1,2:2006-A1:2011. Thus, from a
formal point of view the existing collector test standard
already applies to PVT collectors. From a purely administrative point of view, it appears to be possible to certify a
PVT collector with a Solar Keymark (compare Nielsen,
2012) at rst glance. However, the CCB (CEN Certication

3.2. Photovoltaic

It should be noted that the situation was not dened in detail before
March 2012. Certain products had somehow previously obtained the Solar
Keymark label; for these products, the status quo was xed.

K. Kramer, H. Helmers / Solar Energy 98 (2013) 434439

PVT collector as a pure PV-module, it is of course covered

within the scope of the standards discussed above. Therefore, it would be formally acceptable to test a PVT according to the above-discussed IEC standards. Consequently, it
is possible to certify a PVT collector according to IEC
61215/61646 with safety class 2, which denes the relevant
certication for the market.
In particular, tests on functionality are not completely
adequate or even applicable for PVT collectors, as shown
by Dupeyrat et al. (2011). This is true because PVT collectors, particularly covered ones, are built with an open
frame, as opposed to standard PV modules. Therefore,
the functionality test on the dielectric strength from PV
testing would destroy the PVT product completely or have
an enormous inuence on the thermal performance. Conversely, in the case of a covered PVT collector, the mechanical load test of IEC is not necessary because the covering
box interacts with the ambient conditions. These examples
show the need to adapt and change the current testing
instructions and methods related to PVT collectors in
detail.
4. Certication and CE-marking
Similar to testing for standardizing product-quality
labels, product certication for PVT collectors must be discussed and must require appropriate scientic information
disclosure. To sell a PV module on the European market,
the product must be CE marked because it is an electrical
device (compare Schonau and Na, 2012). The declaration
of conformity must be in compliance with the EU Low
Voltage Directive, on the basis of the harmonized EN
61730-1, 2 standard that is dened in the formal publication of the EU parliament (see Amtsblatt der Europaischen
Union, 2009). If the product fullls the requirements of the
standard, the manufacturer is allowed to ax the CE mark
on it and oer the product to the EU market. In addition,
there are voluntary quality labels available for the PV market (compare Schonau and Na, 2012). At present, the
most relevant label appears to be from the IECEE (Worldwide System for Conformity Testing and Certication of
Electro Technical Equipment and Components) (compare
also IECEE, 2012).
From the solar thermal perspective, a CE labeling of the
product is only mandatory if the collector (a) is to be integrated in the facade/roof of a building, (b) contains a large
volume of uid under pressure or (c) consists otherwise of
parts addressed in any EU directive. In the case of a facade/roof integration, the EU directive on construction
products applies and the product must be double-checked
for conformity with the directives requirements. The harmonization process of the relevant product standard that
is necessary to base such conformity declaration on its
results is under development. In the near future, it will be
standard that the conformity can be declared on the basis
of EN 12975-1, which means that the test procedures of
EN ISO 9806 will have been passed and all requirements

437

of EN 12975-1 will have been fullled, including all

requirements of the building product directive.
The most important voluntary quality label in the market for solar thermal products is the Solar Keymark label.
The label is product related and granted if the product fullls all requirements of the Solar Keymark scheme rules,
which includes compliance with the relevant European
product standard (EN 12975).
The consequence for PVT collectors at the moment is
the following:
A conformity declaration according to the Low Voltage
Directive is mandatory because PVT includes PV. For the
ST side, even more declarations may be required, depending on the context. This may be required with building integration (EU Building products directive), installation of a
larger uid volume under pressure (EU Pressure directive)
or when a electro-mechanical tracking device is being integrated (EU Machinery directive).
At present, the only voluntary quality label that can be
granted is based on IECEE. The Solar Keymark label is
currently not applicable for PVT collectors (status,
November 15, 2012). For accelerated market penetration,
it is important to reduce the hurdles for market entrance
by enabling the application of Solar Keymark for PVT
products, which would generate condence in the end consumer (compare Trommsdor and Steinho, 2007). In the
following chapter, possible changes and implementational
steps are suggested to solve the situation over the short,
medium and long term.

5. Approach
To make the Solar Keymark label applicable for all
types of PVT collectors, the following steps are suggested:
1. Development of consistent test procedures for PVT collectors and discussion of the results/experiences in the
testing community (e.g., Solar Keymark Network).
2. Integration of PVT collectors into the scope of an international and/or European standard, i.e., including
developed and/or accepted procedures with detailed test
procedures and references on existing standards with
products where possible.
3. Including PVT collectors into the Solar Keymark system, which means adopting the power output calculator
(see chapter 5.1) for PVT, integrating PVT products in
the scope of the scheme rules and requiring mandatory
certicates for safety testing.
4. Integration of all dened test procedures at accredited
(according to EN ISO 17025) test laboratories within
their scope of accreditation (which must cover all relevant test standards).
The basic characteristics of neutrality on technical variants and signicant regarding, accuracy repeatability, and
fairness must be implemented. The test procedures for

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K. Kramer, H. Helmers / Solar Energy 98 (2013) 434439

PVT (similar to ST and PV) must be categorized into performance, functionality and accelerated aging tests.
5.1. Performance (power output)
The Solar Keymark label demands an annual energy
output calculation for a solar thermal collector with the
SCEnO-Calc2 tool. The calculation is based on either the
steady state or the quasi dynamic performance model of
EN 12975-2. There is no analogous standardized performance model for both electrical and thermal energy output
for PVT collectors. To overcome this deciency, we present
a model that may be used in a way similar to the existing
purely thermal model. A detailed derivation of the model
and an exemplary application have been presented by Helmers and Kramer (2013c). It should be noted that the
model applies for both non-concentrating and concentrating collectors.
Similar to the quasi dynamic method for solar thermal
collectors, as described by Perers (1997), the proposed
model comprehensively describes a PVT collector by a set
of empiric coecients. The coecients are obtainable by
performing multi-linear regressions on the usual standard
measurement data, i.e., the typical ambient and thermal
measurement data plus the electrical power output Pel.
Because the principle loss mechanisms to the environment
remain unchanged whether solar cells are present, the total
power output Pout = Pth + Pel of a PVT collector is
assumed to be well described by the existing quasi-dynamic
model (see nomenclature for the denitions of the
symbols):
P th P el
aD G  a1 DT  a2 DT 2  a3 DT m  a4 DT sky
Aa
dT m
 a5
 a6 Gm
dt

In addition, the following expression for electrical power

Pel was derived (see Helmers and Kramer, 2013c):
P el
bD G  b1 GT m  b2 GT a  b3 G2
Aa

The derivation of Eq. (2) is based on the assumption of

the linear dependence of the PV eciency on temperature
and general energy balance considerations of a PVT collector. Furthermore, reasonable simplications are undertaken, as described in Helmers and Kramer (2013c).
Subtracting Eq. (2) from Eq. (1) yields the expression for
the thermal power Pth:

2
SCEnO-Calc (compare SCEnO-Calc, 2011) is an Excel-based gross
collector output calculator, which is part of the Solar Keymark scheme,
rules V.19. It sums hour-by-hour yield calculations based on climate data
of a given site. It is mandatory to publish the power output calculated with
this tool together with other descriptive technical data on the product
described on www.solarkeymark.org.

P th
aD  bD G b1 GT m b2 GT a b3 G2  a1 DT
Aa
dT m
 a2 DT 2  a3 DT m  a4 DT sky  a5
 a6 Gm
dt

Thus, a PVT collector can be comprehensively parameterized by the sets of coecients aD to a6 and bD to b3. Eq.
(3) represents the interaction of the electrical power output
expressed in the coecients bi with thermal operation conditions and vice versa. Note that the set of coecients
describing the PVT collector in maximum electrical power
mode (mp) of the PV diers from the set of coecients for
operation in, for example, electrical open circuit mode (oc);
mp
oc
oc
it holds amp
i ai and bi bi . Finally, implementing Eqs.
(2) and (3) into the existing framework of SCEnO-Calc
enables annual energy output calculations for PVT
collectors.
5.2. Functionality tests and accelerated aging
To transfer and modify functionality tests from PV and
ST to PVT collectors, it is reasonable to distinguish short-,
mid- and long-term solutions. In the following, solutions
are proposed:
5.1.1. Short-term
At present, a Solar Keymark certication of PVT collectors regarding functionality is not permitted. Thus, a rule
of exemptions for PVT collectors is required that allows
for an alternative presentation of the power output results
and requires the safety relevant tests from PV only. It must
be proven that the required tests were performed on the
complete PVT collector at an accredited (according to
EN/ISO 17025) test laboratory (for testing according to
EN 12975-1, ISO 9806, IEC 61730-1, 2 and IEC 61215).
Regarding the test procedure in the test lab, the procedure
described by Hofmann et al. (2010) should be followed.
Such an exemption should be made until more elaborate
procedures are prepared.
5.1.2. Mid-term
The functionality tests should be processed into a Technical Regulation (TR).3 Such a regulation must combine
the relevant functionality tests from EN 12975 and EN
ISO 9806, in addition to IEC 61730-1, 2 and IEC 61215.
Further, guidelines must be implemented that oer more
decisive instructions on how to handle dierent types of
products. The implementation of an exemplary test report
default and suggestions for how to present the results in a
harmonized way are also required. Nevertheless, the
scheme rules will cover only the requirement for the proof
of the safety test according to IEC 61730-1, 2; however, in
3
Technical Regulations (TRs) are not standards; they are descriptive
only and give guidance about technical processes. After several iterations
and discussions within the relevant expert rounds, TRs often become
standards.

K. Kramer, H. Helmers / Solar Energy 98 (2013) 434439

addition to this, the national certiers will request test

reports according to this TR.
5.1.3. Long-term
The product test norm for collectors should integrate all
the experiences generated by running tests on PVT according to IEC, EN and the TR and should cover PVT collectors in its scope. In addition, new test sequencessuch as
cyclic internal shock tests, denitions of reference areas
for PVT collectors or the electric isolation between cells
and metallic parts of the hydraulicsshould be integrated
in the collector test standard and the relevant test methods.
Relevant accelerated aging tests performed according to
IEC 61730-1, 2 and IEC 61215 should be implemented or
referred to and applied to the complete PVT collector.
The CE declaration of conformity can then be issued on
the basis of the harmonized collector test standard.
6. Summary and outlook
Currently, the market for PVT collectors lacks transparency. This leads to uncertainty and confusion for all the
participants in the market, from producers and sellers to
consumers and even the public authorities. To remove this
market barrier of uncertainty, clear rules for this market
segment must be developed.
Possible steps for developing short, mid and long term
quality assuring processes were oered in the paper. The
overall goal is to harmonize the situation for PVT collectors with the situation for current solar thermal collectors,
particularly with respect to the regulation and quality system; necessary actions to accomplish this goal were
identied.
The implementation of a hybrid PVT collector performance model plays a central role in the integration of the
certication process. Therefore, the suitability of the
recently proposed model by Helmers and Kramer (2013c)
was discussed.
Finally, drafting and publishing a Technical Regulation
(TR) as an intermittent step toward full normative coverage of PVT collectors is recommended.
Intensive scientic treatment is required for comparability and accurate testing. A discussion among market participants should be sought to target the development of
regulations and standards that move toward a market relevant direction, which might possibly occur within the context of a follow-up task to Task 35 in the framework of the
Solar Heating and Cooling Program of the IEA (International Energy Agency).
Acknowledgements
This paper is part of the Ph.D. thesis of K. Kramer,
counseled by Prof. G. Oesten, Prof. V. Wittwer (University
of Freiburg, Germany), Prof. M. Rommel (Hochschule fur
Technik Rapperswil, Switzerland) and Prof. E. Meidinger

439

(Bualo University of New York, USA). H. Helmers gratefully acknowledges the scholarship support from the German Federal Environmental Foundation (DBU).
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