LODA e Book2

Learning object design assistant
Clive Shepherd
www.aboveandbeyond.ltd.uk
2003 Above and Beyond Ltd
By the same author and published by Above and Beyond:

E-learnings Greatest Hits (2003)
Copyright 2003 Clive Shepherd

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopy, recording or any other information storage and
retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.
Clive Shepherd has asserted his right under the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988 to be identified as the author of this work.
Cover and illustrations by David Kori.
Extracts from demonstrations for the Lobster online authoring system
used by kind permission of The Training Foundation Ltd.
First published in the United Kingdom in 2003.
Published by Above and Beyond Ltd, Brighton Business Centre, 95
Ditchling Road, Brighton, BN1 4ST; tel: 01273 573821;
www.aboveandbeyond.ltd.uk.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data: A catalogue entry for this
book is available from the British Library.
ISBN: 0-9545904-3-0
Learning Object Design Assistant
Contents
Introducing LODA
Using LODA
Learning object type index
Object type selection
Instructions for tutorial objects
23
Instructions for information objects
61
Instructions for practice objects
101
Demos
119
Introducing LODA
What is LODA?
LODA is a Learning Object Design Assistant. LODA

helps designers to create effective, modular elearning and performance support materials. LODA
is not an authoring tool - it can sit alongside
virtually any tool to help the designer to make
effective design decisions.
What constitutes a
learning object as far
as LODA is
concerned?
Here's our definition: "A learning object is a small,

reusable digital component that can be selectively
applied - alone or in combination - by computer
software, learning facilitators or learners
themselves, to meet individual needs for learning
or performance support."
Currently LODA does not provide support for nondigital objects (such as workbooks), face-to-face
events (such as classroom sessions), or
collaborative online events (such as discussion
forums or virtual classrooms). All of these could be
valuable components in an overall blended learning
strategy theyre just not digital and re-usable.
In what settings are

objects designed
with the help of
LODA intended to be
used?
LODA has been developed first and foremost to

assist in the design of objects for individual, online
self-study. However, the majority of the learning
strategies can be easily adapted for small groups to
use online, or for use by a facilitator in a
classroom.
How does LODA

work?
LODA provides help at the object level - it does not

address macro design issues. Before working with
LODA, you must already have analysed the need,
determined your learning objectives and agreed
your technical platform.
What LODA does first of all is to help you select
from one of 41 different object types. Some of
these are completely self-contained; others will be
used as components in larger, multi-object
strategies for learning or performance support.
When you have selected the type of object that you
wish to create, LODA then provides you with a
series of recommendations for its design, which
you can then implement as you see fit.
On which learning
model is LODA
based?
LODA is designed to be independent of a particular

learning model (behaviourist, humanist,
constructivist, etc.). Rather, the recommendations
it makes are influenced by and draw upon a variety
of schools of thought, leaving it up to you to either
filter out those recommendations which do not suit
your preferred model, or to re-order recommended
actions to suit your particular approach.
What if I disagree
with a
recommendation
made by LODA or
can think of a better
solution?
LODA makes recommendations based on current

best practice. However, the selection of what is
best practice is a subjective activity and open to
controversy. It is also constantly changing as we
discover more about what does and what does not
work in e-learning.
So, trust your own judgement. And if you come up
with a real gem of an idea, why not let us know, so
we can pass this on to other designers in future
versions of LODA?
What technical
platform is LODA
designed to support?
LODA makes no assumptions about the bandwidth,

multimedia capabilities, software tools and other
technical facilities available to you and your
audience. It is up to you to filter out those
recommendations which are not feasible in your
situation.
Using LODA
If you are quite clear about the type of object you are designing, select
from the Learning Object Type Index opposite and turn directly to the
page specified for information relating to that object type.
If you are unsure about how to classify the type of object you are
designing, turn to Object Type Selection on page 9, where you will be
guided through the process of classification.
Learning object type index

Tutorials
Factual and background information
24
Concepts / classes
26
Structure
29
Rule
31
Principle
34
Attitude
37
Process (self-contained)
40
Process overview
43
Stage in process
45
Process summary
47
Procedure (self-contained)
49
Procedure overview
53
Step in procedure
55
Procedure summary
57
Information objects
62
Concepts / classes
64
Structure
66
Rule
68
Principle
70
72
Process overview
74
Stage in process
76
Process summary
78
80
Procedure overview
82
Step in procedure
84
Procedure summary
86
Decision aid
88
Definition
90
Demonstration / worked example
91
Illustration / story / case history
93
Paper
95
Programme introduction
97
Programme conclusion
99
Practice objects
Offline procedural practice
102
Case study / scenario / problem
104
Simulation
106
Game
109
Drill and practice
111
Test
113
Questionnaire / inventory
116

1 Select main category
Select from the following three main learning object categories:
Tutorials
Short, self-contained chunks of learning, in

any area of knowledge, skill or attitude.
Tutorials include information, practice
activities and all other elements necessary
for effective learning.
Go to
step 2
Information
objects
Reference materials for use either in

performance support or as components in
learning strategies requiring multiple
learning objects. Examples: procedures;
case histories; introductions and
summaries; decision aids.
Go to
step 3
Practice
objects
Practice, assessment and discoverylearning activities for use within learning

strategies requiring multiple learning
objects. Examples: scenarios; tests;
simulations.
Go to
step 4
2 Select tutorial type

Select from the following types of tutorial:
Factual and
background
information
Facts that need to be remembered or

background information to support other
tutorial types. Examples: the Kings of
England; the origins of the Internet; an
author's previous works.
Go to
page 24
Use this object type when the information

stands alone or when to integrate the
information directly into other types of
tutorial might risk overload for the learner.
Concepts /
classes
Distinctions between classes (kinds) of

objects, events, persons or ideas, each
with their own unique attributes. Examples:
schools of thought in economics; kinds of
PC printer; the concept of equal
opportunities; the concept of objectorientation.
Go to
page 26

information directly into a process,
procedure or other tutorial might risk
overload for the learner.
10
Structure
The layout or parts of an object or

environment. Examples: the parts of an
engine; an organisation structure; the
layout of a new building; the components
of a software interface.
Go to
page 29

information directly into a process or
procedure tutorial might risk overload for
the learner.
Rule
What to do in particular situations, i.e. "if

... then do ...". Examples: never admit
guilt; do not use the office phone for
personal calls; teach addition before
multiplication; if it starts to smoke, turn it
off.
Go to
page 31
Use this object type when the rule stands

alone or when to integrate the information
directly into a procedure or other tutorial
might risk overload for the learner.
Principle
A generalised assertion, e.g. a law, theory,

value or belief. Examples: garbage in
garbage out; the law of relativity;
customers come first; you create your own
luck.
Go to
page 34
Use this object type when the principle

information directly into a process or other
Attitude
A predisposition to think, feel or act in a

certain way in relation to particular events,
people, ideas, etc. Examples: attitudes to
computers, customers, public speaking,
education, the opposite sex.
Go to
page 37
Use this object type when the attitudinal

issue stands alone or when, if integrated
directly as an element in a rule, principle,
process or procedure tutorial, might risk
Process
"How something works." A series of cause

and effect relationships. Examples: how a
mobile phone works; the water cycle; the
recruitment process; the process by which
cheques are cleared.
Go to
step 5
11
Procedure
"How to do something." A series of steps

comprising a task to perform. Examples:
fitting a toner cartridge; handling a
customer complaint; solving a quadratic
equation; completing a form.
Go to
step 6
A mix of
these
Go to
step 7
None of
these
Go to
step 8
3 Select information type

Select from the following types of information:
Factual and
background
information
Facts that need to be remembered and

background information that can not be
more accurately categorised as one of the
other types listed below. Examples: the
Kings of England; the origins of the
Internet; an author's previous works; the
letters of the alphabet.
Go to
page 62

information directly into other object types
might risk overload for the learner.
Concepts /
classes
Distinctions between classes (kinds) of

objects, events, persons or ideas, each
with their own unique attributes.
Examples: schools of thought in
economics; kinds of PC printer; the
concept of equal opportunities; the
concept of object-orientation.
Go to
page 64

information directly into a process,
procedure or other object type might risk
Structure
The layout or parts of an object or

environment. Examples: the parts of an
engine; an organisation structure; the
layout of a new building; the components
of a software interface.
Go to
page 66

information directly into a process or
procedure might risk overload for the
12
learner.
Rule
What to do in particular situations, i.e. "if

... then do ...". Examples: never admit
guilt; do not use the office phone for
personal calls; teach addition before
multiplication; if it starts to smoke, turn it
off.
Go to
page 68
Use this object type when the rule stands

alone or when to integrate the information
directly into a procedure or other object
type might risk overload for the learner.
Principle
A generalised assertion, e.g. a law,

theory, value or belief. Examples: garbage
in garbage out; the law of relativity;
customers come first; you create your own
luck.
Go to
page 70
Use this object type when the principle

information directly into a process or other
object type might risk overload for the
learner.
Process
"How something works." A series of cause

and effect relationships. Examples: how a
mobile phone works; the water cycle; the
recruitment process; the process by which
cheques are cleared.
Go to
step 9
Procedure
"How to do something." A series of steps

comprising a task to perform. Examples:
fitting a toner cartridge; handling a
customer complaint; solving a quadratic
equation; completing a form.
Go to
step 10
Decision aid
A tool to aid a user in reaching an

appropriate decision in a particular
situation. Could take the form of a
flowchart, wizard or expert system.
Examples: assessing an application for
credit; selecting a training method;
choosing a suitable mortgage;
troubleshooting a faulty VCR.
Go to
page 88
Definition
An explanation of the meaning of a term

used within one or more other learning
objects.
Go to
page 90
13
Demonstration
/ worked
example
An example of the execution of one or

more steps in a procedure. Examples: a
video demonstration of how to open a
disciplinary interview; a textual example
of how to calculate tax in a particular
situation.
Go to
page 91
Use this object type when to include the

demonstration directly within a procedure
could cause overload for the learner or
when customised demonstrations are
required for different target audiences or
different levels within an audience.
Illustration /
story / case
history
Used variously to present examples of how

a process can play out or has played out in
practice; to illustrate how rules can be or
have been applied in practice; to clarify
distinctions between classes; to illustrate
how a procedure has been executed in
practice. Examples: a medical case
history; 'war stories' describing projects
that went dramatically wrong; a story of
how a sales presentation was adapted to a
particular type of customer.
Go to
page 93

material directly within another tutorial or
information object could cause overload
for the learner or when customised
illustrations are required for different
target audiences or different levels within
an audience.
Paper
A source of reference to support any type

of learning or work activity. Examples: a
research report; a summary of the
competition in a particular market; a
review of alternative theories; a detailed
proposal.
Go to
page 95
Programme
introduction
The opening component in a learning

strategy involving multiple learning
objects. Necessary to ensure the
suitability of the programme to the
learner, to engender motivation and to
provide the learner with an advance
organiser.
Go to
page 97
14
Programme
conclusion
The closing component in a learning

strategy involving multiple learning
objects. Necessary to integrate and
summarise the learning material and to
encourage transfer of learning.
Go to
page 99
A mix of these
Go to
step 11
None of these
Go to
step 12
4 Select practice type

Select from the following types of practice activity:
Offline
procedural
practice
An activity designed to provide an

opportunity for practising a procedure,
which does not involve direct interaction
with the learning object.
Go to
page 102
Examples: trying out a task with a

software application; a face-to-face role
play to practice interviewing skills; an
activity involving sorting an in-tray into
priority order; a chemical experiment.
Use this object type when the procedure
cannot effectively be practised online, or
when to include the practice directly within
a procedure tutorial could cause overload
for the learner, or when customised
practice activities are required for different
an audience.
Case study /
scenario /
problem
An activity in which the learner is

presented with an account of an event or
situation and is asked to respond to that
event or situation in some way.
Go to
page 104
Used variously to demonstrate principles;

to influence attitudes; or to provide
practice or assess proficiency in applying
rules appropriately, differentiating between
classes, predicting or interpreting
behaviours within a process or applying a
procedure in a particular set of
circumstances.
Examples: a corporate case history,
probing the causes of events that arose;
an extract from a historic novel, used as a
15
basis for discussion; a video depiction of an

imaginary sales interview for critique;
a statement of earnings and outgoings as a
basis for calculating tax liability.
scenario directly within a tutorial could
cause overload for the learner or when
customised scenarios are required for
different target audiences or different
levels within an audience.
Simulation
A representation of one or more real-life

processes, in which the user is able to
initiate action or respond to situations or
events.
Go to
page 106
Used variously to demonstrate principles;

influence attitudes; or to provide practice
or assess proficiency in predicting or
interpreting behaviours within a process or
applying a procedure in a particular set of
circumstances.
Examples: a simulated video interview in
which the course of the interview is
governed by the learner's decisions; a
simulation of the controls of a fork lift
truck; a model of the economy, in which
learners can see the effect of their
decisions.
simulation directly within a tutorial could
customised simulations are required for
Game
An activity with a goal and rules, in which

the learner competes against others, real
or imaginary, or to better their own,
previous attainments.
Go to
page 109
Used variously to influence attitudes, or to

provide practice or assess proficiency in a
wide variety of learning situations,
including the recall or recognition of facts,
applying rules appropriately, differentiating
between classes, locating parts or places,
or the application of a psychomotor skill
(such as typing).
Examples: a business game; a Space
Invaders game to help teach typing; a quiz
played against the clock.
16

game directly within a tutorial could cause
overload for the learner or when
customised games are required for
Drill and
practice
An activity designed to increase proficiency

in a task, through repetitive rehearsal.
Go to
page 111
Used in a wide variety of learning

situations, including the recall or
recognition of facts, applying rules
appropriately, differentiating between
classes, locating parts or places, or the
application of a psychomotor skill (such as
typing).
Examples: a sequence of increasingly
difficult mental arithmetic problems; a
series of sentences to type; a quiz
requiring recall of important dates; a
sequence of pictures of cars to identify.
practice directly within a tutorial could
customised practice is required for different
an audience.
Test
An activity, typically a series of questions,

designed to assess proficiency against
specific learning objectives.
Go to
page 113
Examples: a diagnostic test designed to

assess which modules of a course a learner
needs to focus on; a series of short essay
questions, submitted to a tutor for review;
a mastery test composed of a variety of
interactive question formats.
test directly within a tutorial could cause
overload for the learner or when
customised tests are required for different
an audience.
17
Questionnaire
/ inventory
A series of questions, the answers to

which, when summarised and interpreted,
provide some insight into a learner's
attitudes, personality, preferences, etc.
Go to
page 116
Examples: a questionnaire designed to

assess attitudes towards customers; a
learning style questionnaire; an opinion
poll; a course 'happy sheet'.
questionnaire directly within a tutorial
could cause overload for the learner or
when customised questionnaires are
required for different target audiences or
A mix of
these
Go to
step 13
None of these
Go to
step 14
5 Select process sub-type

Select from the following sub-types of process tutorial:
Selfcontained
process
A fully self-contained process tutorial.

Select this option only if the process is
simple (with no supplementary non-process
information - facts, classifications, layouts,
rules, etc.) and has relatively few (five or
less) stages. Otherwise break the process
down into elements and use the sub-types
below.
Go to
page 40
Process
overview
The opening element in a multi-object

process tutorial.
Go to
page 43
Stage in
process
Material covering a single stage in a multiobject process tutorial.
Go to
page 45
Process
summary
The closing element in a multi-object

process tutorial.
Go to
page 47
18
6 Select procedure sub-type

Select from the following sub-types of procedural tutorial:
Selfcontained
procedure
A fully self-contained procedural tutorial.

Select this option only if the procedure is
simple (with no supplementary nonprocedural information - facts,
classifications, layouts, rules, etc.) and has
relatively few (five or less) steps. Otherwise
break the procedure down into elements
and use the sub-types below.
Go to
page 49
Procedure
overview

procedural tutorial.
Go to
page 53
Step in
procedure
Material covering a single step in a multiobject procedural tutorial.
Go to
page 55
Procedure
summary

procedural tutorial.
Go to
page 57
7 Mixing tutorial types

It is sometimes acceptable to mix tutorial types in a single learning
object:
Factual and background information may be integrated into any

other tutorial type.
Classes/categories and layout/parts may be integrated into

processes and procedures to provide background material
Rules and principles may be integrated into processes and

procedures to support individual stages or steps.
However, do not integrate tutorial types if there is a risk that the resulting
learning objects could cause an overload. If in doubt, separate out.
8 No match with tutorial types

A number of factors could have caused this problem:
You have been unable to recognise the appropriate tutorial type

from the list provided. The list is intended to cover most
eventualities, but inevitably there will be omissions.
You are trying to categorise a learning task that is too broad and
undifferentiated. LODA works only at the learning object level - it
can not help you to develop the list of specific learning objectives
that is an essential prerequisite to effective use of LODA.
You have selected an inappropriate main category of learning

object. Return to the category menu and make another selection.
19
9 Select process sub-type

Select from the following sub-types of process information:
Selfcontained
process
A fully self-contained process description.

Select this option only if the process is
simple (with modest amounts of
supplementary non-process information facts, classifications, layouts, rules, etc.)
and has relatively few (five or less) stages.
Otherwise break the process down into
elements and use the sub-types below.
Go to
page 72
Process
overview

process description.
Go to
page 74
Stage in
process
Information covering a single stage in a

multi-object process description.
Go to
page 76
Process
summary

process description.
Go to
page 78
10 Select procedure sub-type

Select from the following sub-types of procedural information:
Selfcontained
procedure
A fully self-contained procedural

description. Select this option only if
the procedure is simple (with modest
amounts of supplementary non-procedural
information - facts, classifications, layouts,
rules, etc.) and has relatively few (five or
less) steps. Otherwise break the procedure
down into elements and use the sub-types
below.
Go to
page 80
Procedure
overview

procedural description.
Go to
page 82
Step in
procedure
Information covering a single step in a

multi-object procedural description.
Go to
page 84
Procedure
summary

procedural description.
Go to
page 86
20
11 Mixing information types

It is sometimes acceptable to mix information types in a single learning
object:
Factual and background information may be integrated into any

other information type.
Classes/categories and layout/parts may be integrated into

processes and procedures to provide background material
Rules and principles may be integrated into processes and

procedures to support individual stages or steps.
However, do not integrate information types if there is a risk that the

resulting learning objects could cause an overload. If in doubt, separate
out.
12 No match with information types

You have been unable to recognise the appropriate information

type from the list provided. The list is intended to cover most

13 Mixing practice types

LODA does not support mixed practice types. Select the practice type
which best matches your requirement.
14 No match with practice types

You have been unable to recognise the appropriate practice type

from the list provided. The list is intended to cover most

21
Tutorials
23

Category: tutorial
Short, self-contained chunks of learning, in any area of knowledge, skill or
attitude. Include information, practice activities and all other elements
necessary for effective learning.
Type: factual and background information
Facts that need to be remembered or background information to support
other tutorial types.
Use this object type when the information stands alone or when to
integrate the information directly into other types of tutorial might risk
1 Introduce the tutorial

Why:
To ensure the tutorial provides a good match with the learner's needs.
To maximise motivation.
To equip the learner with an advance organiser.
To enable the learner to plan their time.
How:
Provide the name of the tutorial.
Explain the purpose and positioning of the tutorial within a broader
learning strategy (if appropriate).
Explain what the learner will be able to do as a result of the tutorial (the
objectives).
Explain how the learner will benefit from the tutorial.
Explain what content is to be covered and, if relevant, how the content is
structured.
Explain the process used by the tutorial to facilitate learning.
State the amount of time required to complete the tutorial.
2 Provide the required information

Why:
To make the learner aware of essential factual information.
To satisfy the learner's curiosity to know more about the subject in
question.
How:
Build on the learner's existing knowledge.
Provide just enough information.
Use appropriate media. For example, an object may be best depicted by a
still graphic; an event by a video clip.
Distinguish between essential and inessential information.
24
3 Provide memory aids for essential facts

Why:
To aid the retrieval of facts from long-term memory.
How:
Use verbal association techniques, including stories.
Use visual association techniques. For example, in language learning,
show a picture of an object alongside the word that describes it.
Use rhymes, for example: Thirty days have September, April, June and
November.
Use acronyms, for example: KISS (keep it simple, stupid).
4 Rehearse the recall of essential facts

Why:
To aid the storage of essential facts in long term memory.
To assess the extent to which essential facts have been memorised.
How:
Have the user write out the facts or repeat the facts out loud.
Use text input questions to test recall.
5 Conclude the tutorial

Why:
To encourage the transfer of learning.
How:
Summarise the main learning point(s) from the tutorial.
Suggest ways in which the learning can be applied.
Suggest ways in which the learner can continue their learning in the
subject area.
25
Concepts/classes
Category: tutorial
Type: concepts/classes
Distinctions between classes (kinds) of objects, events, persons or ideas,
each with their own unique attributes.
integrate the information directly into a process, procedure or other

Why:
How:
objectives).
structured.
2 Present the discriminating attributes of the concept

Why:
To make it possible for learners to differentiate the concept from other
concepts.
How:
Restrict the number of attributes to be presented.
Explain any unfamiliar terms to be used in labelling the attributes.
Build on the learner's existing knowledge.
Where relevant, use graphics to help present attributes.
26
3 Provide examples and non-examples

Why:
To situate the concept in real-life.
To help the learner relate the concept to their own experience.
How:
Draw on examples relevant to the learner's experience.
Start with simple examples conforming to the most important attributes.
Provide examples from co-ordinate classes (non-examples). For example,
a hard disk is not an example of read-only memory.
Provide borderline examples, where fine discriminations must be made.
4 Have the learner provide further examples

Why:
To provide the user with practice in working with the concept.
To build on the body of usable examples and non-examples.
How:
Where feasible to match the possible answers, have learners type in their
own examples and provide feedback on the suitability of the selection.
Have users list further examples off-line and then self-check these against
a list of discriminating attributes.
5 Check for learning

Why:
To aid the storage of concept labels and attributes in long term memory.
To assess the extent to which concept labels and attributes have been
understood.
How:
Present new examples and non-examples of a concept and have learners
identify which are the valid examples. For example, show pictures of
different types of animal and have the learner identify which are
mammals.
Present new examples of the concept and co-ordinate classes and have
learners identify to which class each example belongs. For example, play a
number of pieces of music and have the learner identify which are house,
garage, drum and bass, hardcore, etc.
Present a list of attributes and have learners identify those that apply to
the concept. For example, list a number of characteristics of different
types of animal and have the learner identify which are particular to
amphibians.
Present a list of attributes and have learners label the concept that they
describe. For example, list the characteristics of a genre of painting and
have the learner identify the genre.
Have learners define the concept in their own words.
27

Why:
How:
subject area.
28
Structure
Category: integrated tutorial
Type: structure
The layout or parts of an object or environment. Use this object type
when the information stands alone or when to integrate the information
directly into a process or procedure tutorial might risk overload for the
learner.

Why:
How:
objectives).
structured.
2 Allow the learner to explore the structure

Why:
To allow the learner to discover the structure for themselves, in their own
way and at their own pace.
To provide familiarity with the spatial relationships between parts of the
structure.
How:
Provide a simple diagram of the structure, for example, an organisation
chart.
Provide a working two-dimensional model of the structure, for example,
an animated model of the wing of an aeroplane.
Provide a three-dimensional model or video walkthrough of the structure.
For example, create a 3D model of an oil rig that the learner can walk
around.
29
Have the learner explore the real object offline.
3 Present information on the parts

Why:
To provide the learner with a formal nomenclature for the parts of the
structure.
To provide the learner with an understanding of the functionality of the
various parts of the structure.
How:
Ask the learner to name any parts with which they may already have
some familiarity.
Ask the learner to suggest the function of any parts with which they may
already have some familiarity or which can be deduced logically.
Provide information on the names and function of parts on demand, as the
learner explores the structure.
Provide a table of the parts and their functions.

Why:
To assess the extent to which the learner is able to locate parts correctly
within the structure.
To assess the extent to which the learner is able to name the parts of the
structure correctly.
To assess the extent to which the learner understands the functionality of
parts within the structure.
To remedy any misunderstandings about the functionality of the parts of
the structure.
How:
Provide a diagram or model of the structure and have learners locate
particular parts.
Point out a location on a diagram or model of the structure and have
learners name the part at that location.
Provide a name of a part or the location of a part on a diagram or model
and have the learner identify the function of the part.

Why:
How:
subject area.
30
Rule
Category: tutorial
Type: rule
What to do in particular situations, i.e. "if ... then do ...".
Use this object type when the rule stands alone or when to integrate the
information directly into a procedure or other tutorial might risk overload
for the learner.

Why:
How:
objectives).
structured.
2 Provide an activity that demonstrates the validity of

the rule
Why:
To provide concrete evidence that the rule is valid.
To provide learners with the opportunity to establish the validity of the
rule for themselves.
How:
Present a case study or scenario for the learner to read or view. Follow
this by asking the learner questions to help them interpret the case study.
For example, show a video clip where a customer cannot get through
because the receptionist is taking a personal call. Ask the learner what the
problem is and how it could be avoided.
31
Provide a mini-simulation with which the learner can interact. For

example, to demonstrate the rule dont jump to conclusions, present the
learner with a picture of three people and ask them which one is the
criminal. Then show who really was the criminal (in this case, the least
likely option from first impressions).
Have the learner conduct a simple offline experiment. For example, to
demonstrate the rule you dont have to give a reason, have the learner
say no to the next request that they do not wish to comply with, without
giving a reason, in order to see what reaction they get.
Have the learner reflect on past experiences which may help to
demonstrate the validity of the rule. For example, to demonstrate the rule
do it now, not later, have the learner think back to situations when they
have kept putting things off and reflect on the effect that this had on
them.
3 Explain the rule

Why:
To formalise learning achieved through experimentation.
To clarify the boundaries within which the rule can be applied.
How:
Explain any unfamiliar concepts which are components of the rule.
Explain the rationale for the rule.
Describe any exceptions to the rule and why they apply.
4 Show how the rule can be applied

Why:
To help learners relate the rule to their own experience.
To demonstrate the applicability of the rule.
How:
Have the learner suggest ways in which the rule can be satisfied. For
example, in teaching children the rule dont talk to strangers, ask them
what they should do if approached by an unfamiliar adult outside their
school.
Suggest additional examples of ways in which the rule can be satisfied.
For example, to satisfy the rule make an effort to speak the kanguage,
provide a list of simple phrases that a tourist could use to accomplish
simple, everyday tasks.
Present examples, relevant to the learner's experience, of how the rule
has been applied in practice.
5 Check understanding of the rule

Why:
To assess the extent to which the rule has been understood.
To remedy any misunderstandings of the rule.
32
How:
Provide examples of situations and have the learner determine whether
the rule explains these situations. For example, show a video clip of a
public speaker and have the learner identify possible problems, such as
the speaker failing to look directly at members of the audience.
Provide examples of extreme situations where the rule may or may not
still apply. Have the learner identify whether the rule does apply. For
example, to check understanding of the rule limit alcohol intake to 21
units a week, ask the learner whether the rule applies at Christmas and
New Year.
Provide an example of a situation and have the learner select ways of
satisfying the rule in that case. For example, to check understanding of
the rule check that it is safe before pulling out, have the learner identify
ways of checking that it is safe.

Why:
How:
subject area.
33
Principle
Category: tutorial
Type: principle
A generalised assertion, e.g. a law, theory, value or belief. Use this object
type when the principle stands alone or when to integrate the information
directly into a process or other tutorial might risk overload for the learner.

Why:
How:
objectives).
structured.
2 Provide an activity that demonstrates the principle

Why:
To provide concrete evidence that the principle holds true.
To provide learners with the opportunity to work out the principle for
themselves.
How:
For example, to demonstrate that most crime is caused by drugs,
present a case study of a series of burglaries in a major city carried out by
a teenage girl and ask the learner for possible causes of these crimes.
example, to demonstrate that price affects demand, construct a
simulation in which raising or lowering price affects the number of units
sold.
34

prove the theory of gravity, have the learner throw an object into the air
and see what happens.
demonstrate the principle.
3 Explain the principle

Why:
To clarify the boundaries of the principle.
How:
Explain any unfamiliar concepts which are components of the principle.
Explain the logic underlying the relationship between component concepts.
For example, if the principle is that power corrupts, explain how and
why increases in power can lead to increases in the amount of corruption.
Describe any exceptions and why they apply.
4 Provide evidence to support the principle

Why:
To help learners relate the principle to their own experience.
To demonstrate the applicability of the principle.
How:
Provide case histories that support the principle.
Provide any statistical evidence to support the principle.
Have students supply additional examples from their own experience.
5 Check understanding of the principle

Why:
To assess the extent to which the principle has been understood.
To remedy any misunderstandings of the principle.
How:
the principle explains these situations.
Provide examples of borderline situations where the principle may or may
not still apply. Have the learner identify whether the principle does apply.
Provide examples of situations and ask the learner to describe what is
likely to result (given the principle).
35

Why:
How:
subject area.
36
Attitude
Category: tutorial
Type: attitude
A predisposition to think, feel or act in a certain way in relation to certain
events, people, ideas, etc.
Use this object type when the attitudinal issue stands alone or when, if
integrated directly as an element in a rule, principle, process or procedure
tutorial, might risk overload for the learner.

Why:
How:
objectives).
structured.
2 Recognise the learner's current attitude

Why:
To determine the necessity for any change in attitude.
To help prevent defensiveness on the behalf of the learner.
How:
Present the learner with situations and ask them to select how they would
respond.
Provide the learner with a number of words or phrases that could
represent an attitude to the issue in question. Have the learner select
those words or phrases that they agree with. For example, to determine
the learners attitude to performance appraisal, present a number of
words that could be used to describe appraisal (boring, motivating,
etc.), and have the learner select those with which they agree.
37
Provide feedback that acknowledges but does not criticise the learner's
response.
3 Provide activities that may influence the learner's

attitude
Why:
To stimulate a reassessment of attitude given new evidence.
How:
Present a case study, scenario, game or simulation that provides a new
perspective on the issue in question.
Show peers, role models and others likely to be respected by the learner
demonstrating a positive attitude to the issue in question.
Provide a role play exercise in which the learner plays the role of a
character representing a group to which the learner currently has a
negative attitude. For example, have the learner role play a customer in a
situation in which they receive poor customer service.
4 Provide opportunities for reflection and discussion

Why:
To draw out conclusions from previous activities in the tutorial.
To assist the learner in assessing the value of any new evidence gained
from the activities.
To reinforce the benefits to be gained by adopting a more positive attitude
to the issue in question.
How:
Ask questions that help the learner to reflect on issues arising from
previous activities in the tutorial. Avoid the temptation in any feedback to
dictate correct values and attitudes.
Where a group of learners has been working jointly with the tutorial,
provide questions for offline discussion about the issues arising from
previous activities.
Where feasible, provide questions for synchronous or asynchronous online
discussion between learners about the issues arising from previous
activities.
5 Assess any change in attitude

Why:
To determine the progress being made in influencing appropriate attitudes
to the issue in question.
How:
Present the learner with situations and ask them to select how they would
respond.
Provide the learner with a number of words or phrases that could
represent an attitude to the issue in question. Have the learner select
those words or phrases that they agree with.
Present a formal attitude questionnaire.
38

Why:
How:
subject area.
39
Category: tutorial
Type: process
"How something works." A series of cause and effect relationships.
Sub-type: self-contained process
A fully self-contained process tutorial. Select this option only if the
process is simple (with no supplementary non-process information - facts,
classifications, layouts, rules, etc.) and has relatively few (five or less)
stages.

Why:
How:
objectives).
structured.
2 Present the process

Why:
To provide the learner with a framework that can be tested through
experimentation and experience.
To formalise learning achieved through experimentation and experience.
How:
Where the learner has any experience of, or familiarity with the process,
have the learner suggest what each stage in the process might be and
why.
Use an animation, video or series of diagrams to explain the sequence of
events that constitutes the process. Where appropriate, illustrate how the
process might result in different effects in different circumstances.
40
Provide a table listing the stages in the process and the rationale behind
each stage.
3 Allow the learner to experiment with the process

Why:
To provide learners with the opportunity to see for themselves how the
process plays out.
To provide learners with the opportunity to construct their own model of
the process (where this stage precedes any exposition of the process).
To provide learners with the opportunity to see how different situational
variables affect the outcome of the process.
How:
Provide a simulation or game in which the learner can affect the outcome
of the process by altering different situational variables. For example,
create a business game in which the learner can make a number of
different business decisions and then see the outcome on profitability,
cash flow and other measures.
Have the learner conduct a simple offline experiment. For example, have
the learner plant a shrub and measure its growth over a number of
months.
4 Provide real-life examples of how the process has

played out
Why:
To help learners relate the process to their own experience.
To demonstrate how the process explains real-life situations and events.
How:
Have the learner reflect on situations they have encountered and the
extent to which these can be explained by the process. For example, have
learners reflect on the changes in their attitudes that took place as they
went through puberty.
Provide case studies and examples of how the process has played out in
real-life. For example, tell the story of the Great Depression to explain
what happens when there is sustained negative economic growth.

Why:
To assess the extent to which the process has been understood.
To remedy any misunderstandings of the process.
How:
Using case studies, scenarios or simulations, provide examples of events
and have the learner determine the likely consequence(s). For example,
to check for understanding of the process of money laundering, relate a
situation in which the required checks are not made and have the learner
select likely consequences from a list.
41
Using case studies, scenarios or simulations, provide examples of

situations and have the learner determine the likely cause(s). For
example, describe a situation in which a person has died of a heart attack
and have the learner identify possible causes.

Why:
How:
subject area.
42
Process overview
Category: tutorial
Type: process
Sub-type: process overview
The opening element in a multi-object process tutorial.
1 Introduce the overall process tutorial

Why:
How:
Provide the name of the learning object and of the overall process tutorial.
Explain the purpose and positioning of the overall process tutorial within a
broader learning strategy (if appropriate).
Explain the purpose and positioning of the learning object within the
overall process tutorial.
Explain what the learner will be able to do as a result of the overall
process tutorial (the objectives).
Explain how the learner will benefit from the overall process tutorial.
Explain the process used by the overall process tutorial to facilitate
learning.
State the amount of time required to complete both the overview and the
overall process tutorial.
2 Present underlying facts, concepts, structures and

principles
Why:
To remove any obstacles to an understanding of the process.
To provide a context for the process overall.
How:
Where necessary, briefly provide any necessary factual and background
information. Make clear what information is essential and what is just 'nice
to know'. If more comprehensive coverage is required, link to a separate
tutorial or information object.
43
Where necessary, briefly explain any concepts which underly the process
overall. Provide a label for each concept, a list of the key discriminating
attributes and at least one example. If a more comprehensive tutorial is
required, link to a separate concept tutorial or information object.
Where necessary, briefly explain any structures which underly the process
overall. Illustrate the structure with a diagram showing all key parts
clearly labelled. If a more comprehensive tutorial is required, link to a
separate structure tutorial or information object.
Where necessary, briefly explain any unfamiliar principles which underly
the process overall. If a more comprehensive tutorial is required, link to a
separate principle tutorial or information object.
3 Present an overview of the process

Why:
To formalise learning already achieved through experience.
How:
Where the learner has any experience of, or familiarity with the process,
have the learner suggest what each stage in the process might be.
events that constitutes the process.
Provide a table listing the stages in the process.

Why:
To assess the extent to which underlying facts, concepts, structures and
principles have been understood.
To remedy any misunderstandings of the above.
To check, where necessary, that the learner has an overview of the stages
in the process.
How:
Use check questions to test for recall of facts, concept recognition,
knowledge of structures and understanding of principles. See the separate
tutorials for each of these types of learning for suggestions on appropriate
question formats.
Have the learner list the stages in the process in the correct sequence.
This can be achieved by having the learner label the stages in a process
diagram.
44
Stage in process
Category: tutorial
Type: process
Sub-type: stage in process
Material covering a single stage in a multi-object process tutorial.
1 Introduce the process stage

Why:
To ensure the object is appropriate for the learner's needs.
How:
Provide the name of the object.
Explain the purpose and positioning of the object within the overall
process tutorial.
Explain what content is to be covered.
Explain the process used by the object to facilitate learning.
State the amount of time required to complete the object.
2 Provide an activity that demonstrates the principles

underlying the stage
Why:
To provide concrete evidence that the principles hold true.
To provide learners with the opportunity to work out the principles for
themselves.
How:
For example, to demonstrate that most crime is caused by drugs,
present a case study of a series of burglaries in a major city carried out by
a teenage girl and ask the learner for possible causes of these crimes.
example, to demonstrate that price affects demand, construct a
simulation in which raising or lowering price affects the number of units
sold.
prove the theory of gravity, have the learner throw an object into the air
and see what happens.
demonstrate the principles.
45
3 Explain the principles underlying the stage

Why:
To clarify the boundaries of the principles.
How:
Explain any unfamiliar concepts which are components of the principles.
4 Provide evidence to support the principles

Why:
To help learners relate the principles to their own experience.
To demonstrate the applicability of the principles.
How:
Provide case histories that support the principles.
Provide any statistical evidence to support the principles.
Have students supply additional examples from their own experience.
5 Check understanding of the principles underlying

the stage
Why:
To assess the extent to which the principles have been understood.
To remedy any misunderstandings of the principles.
How:
these are explained by one or more of the principles.
Provide examples of borderline situations where the principles may or may
not still apply. Have the learner identify whether the principles do apply.
Provide examples of situations and ask the learner to describe what is
likely to result (given the principles).
46
Process summary
Category: tutorial
Type: process
Sub-type: process summary
The closing element in a multi-object process tutorial.
1 Introduce the process summary

Why:
How:
process tutorial.
structured.
2 Revise the process overall

Why:
To refresh and reinforce previous learning.
To re-establish the process as an integrated whole.
How:
Use an animation, video or series of diagrams to describe the sequence of
3 Allow the learner to experiment with the process

Why:
To provide learners with the opportunity to see for themselves how the
process plays out.
To provide learners with the opportunity to construct their own model of
the process (where the simulation precedes any exposition of the
process).
To provide learners with the opportunity to see how different situational
variables affect the outcome of the process.
47
How:
Provide a simulation or game in which the learner can affect the outcome
of the process by altering different situational variables. For example,
create a business game in which the learner can make a number of
different business decisions and then see the outcome on profitability,
cash flow and other measures.
Have the learner conduct a simple offline experiment. For example, have
the learner plant a shrub and measure its growth over a number of
months.

played out
Why:
How:
Have the learner reflect on situations they have encountered and the
extent to which these can be explained by the process. For example, have
learners reflect on the changes in their attitudes that took place as they
went through puberty.

Why:
To assess the extent to which the process has been understood.
To remedy any misunderstandings of the process.
How:
Using case studies, scenarios or simulations, provide examples of events
and have the learner determine the likely consequence(s). For example,
to check for understanding of the process of money laundering, relate a
situation in which the required checks are not made and have the learner
select likely consequences from a list.
Using case studies, scenarios or simulations, provide examples of
situations and have the learner determine the likely cause(s). For
example, describe a situation in which a person has died of a heart attack
and have the learner identify possible causes.

Why:
How:
subject area.
48
Category: tutorial
Type: procedure
"How to do something." A series of steps comprising a task to perform.
Sub-type: self-contained procedure
A fully self-contained procedural tutorial. Select this option only if the
procedure is simple (with no supplementary non-procedural information facts, classifications, layouts, rules, etc.) and has relatively few (five or
less) steps.

Why:
How:
objectives).
structured.
2 Present an overview of the procedure

Why:
How:
Where the learner has any experience of, or familiarity with the
procedure, have the learner suggest what each next step in the procedure
might be.
List the steps of the procedure in the correct sequence.
Where necessary, use illustrations, diagrams, photographs, video, etc. to
clarify the step descriptions.
49
3 Demonstrate the procedure

Why:
To provide the learner with a model to follow.
To show the learner how the procedure needs to be adapted to suit a
variety of situations.
How:
Demonstrate the procedure step by step, in the correct sequence.
Where necessary, use video, animation, diagrams, etc. to support the
demonstration.
Make clear what the consequences are of performing each step correctly.
For example, in describing how to use a scanner, explain what happens if
the paper is inserted the wrong way up, upside down or aligned
incorrectly.
Explain any rules governing application of the procedure in different
circumstances. For example, in explaining how to use an electronic drill,
describe how the procedure differs when drilling in to wood or masonry.
Make clear where precautions need to be taken or particular actions
avoided. For example, in explaining how to use weedkiller on a path,
describe what precautions need to taken to avoid poisoning or
contamination.
Allow the learner to step back and forwards through the demonstration or
to select individual steps for demonstration.
Provide additional demonstrations to show how the procedure might need
to be adapted to different or more demanding situations.
4 Check knowledge of the procedure

Why:
In those situations where it is impractical for the learner to practise the
procedure online, to assess the extent to which the learner knows and
understands the steps in the procedure.
For more complex procedures, to assess the extent to which the learner
understands the rules underlying application of the procedure.
How:
Have the learner list the steps of the procedure in order. Alternatively,
take the learner through the steps in sequence, asking the learner to
select the correct action to take at each stage.
Present a scenario using video, audio, animation or a sequence of stills.
Have the learner interrupt the sequence when they spot a fault in the way
the procedure is being applied. If they do, have them select, from a list,
what they feel is the error or omission and what would have been the
correct action to take. Should the learner fail to spot a fault, either
provide them with further opportunities to view the scenario or present
what the fault was and how it should be corrected.
50
5 Have the learner practise the procedure

Why:
To provide learners with experience in applying the procedure.
To enable the learner to work towards mastery of the skill.
How:
Where appropriate, present the user with a series of problems to solve
using the procedure.
Where appropriate, provide a short simulation or role play with which the
learner can interact in order to apply the steps of the procedure.
Where difficult or impossible to simulate the procedure adequately online,
have the learner practise the procedure offline.
If possible, and in particular where the procedure is complex, provide
multiple opportunities for practice.
6 Provide feedback
Why:
To make the learner aware of any errors or omissions in their practice of
the procedure.
To help learners to improve their mastery of the skill.
To provide learners with encouragement and recognition.
How:
Provide intrinsic feedback within simulations and role-plays. For example,
in a customer service simulation, have the customer react badly if the
procedure is not followed correctly.
Where practice takes place off-line, provide checklists with which learners
can self-check their performance. If external validation is essential, and
the learner's work can be recorded digitally, have the work submitted to
an external tutor for review.
Where performance can be adequately recorded using a video camera or
microphone, record the learner's practice in the computer's memory or on
disk. Allow the learner to replay the audio or video and review their own
performance.
Provide learners with access to reference material and demonstrations, as
support in correcting or improving their performance.
Base feedback on observable behaviour, not opinion. Detail the steps
carried out correctly and their likely consequences, and those steps
omitted or carried out incorrectly and their likely consequences.
51

Why:
How:
subject area.
52
Procedure overview
Category: tutorial
Type: procedure
A fully self-contained procedural tutorial. Select this option only if the
procedure is simple (with no supplementary non-procedural information facts, classifications, layouts, rules, etc.) and has relatively few (five or
less) steps.
1 Introduce the overall procedure tutorial

Why:
How:
Provide the name of the learning object and of the overall procedure
tutorial.
Explain the purpose and positioning of the overall procedure tutorial within
a broader learning strategy (if appropriate).
Explain the purpose and positioning of the learning object within the
overall procedure tutorial.
Explain what the learner will be able to do as a result of the overall
procedure tutorial (the objectives).
Explain how the learner will benefit from the overall procedure tutorial.
Explain the process used by the overall procedure tutorial to facilitate
learning.
State the amount of time required to complete both the overview and the
overall procedure tutorial.

principles
Why:
To remove any obstacles to an understanding of the procedure.
To provide a context for the procedure overall.
How:
53
Where necessary, briefly explain any concepts which underly the

procedure overall. Provide a label for each concept, a list of the key
discriminating attributes and at least one example. If a more
comprehensive tutorial is required, link to a separate concept tutorial or
information object.
Where necessary, briefly explain any structures which underly the
procedure overall. Illustrate the structure with a diagram showing all key
parts clearly labelled. If a more comprehensive tutorial is required, link to
a separate structure tutorial or information object.
the procedure overall. If a more comprehensive tutorial is required, link to
a separate principle tutorial or information object.

Why:
How:
Where the learner has any experience of, or familiarity with the
procedure, have the learner suggest what each next step in the procedure
might be.
List the steps of the procedure in the correct sequence.
clarify the meaning of the step descriptions.

Why:
To assess the extent to which underlying facts, concepts, structures and
principles have been understood.
To remedy any misunderstandings of the above.
To check, where necessary, that the learner has an overview of the steps
in the procedure.
How:
Use check questions to test for recall of facts, concept recognition,
knowledge of structures and understanding of principles. See the separate
tutorials for each of these types of learning for suggestions on appropriate
question formats.
Have the learner list the steps of the procedure in order. Alternatively,
take the learner through the steps in sequence, asking the learner to
select the correct action to take at each stage.
54
Step in procedure
Category: tutorial
Type: procedure
Sub-type: step in procedure
Material covering a single step in a multi-object procedural tutorial.
1 Introduce the step in the procedure

Why:
How:
procedure tutorial.
Explain what content is to be covered.
2 Demonstrate the step

Why:
To show the learner how the step may need to be adapted to suit a
How:
demonstration.
Make clear what the consequences are of performing the step correctly.
Explain any rules governing the way the step is carried out in different
circumstances.
avoided.
Provide additional demonstrations to show how the step might need to be
adapted to different or more demanding situations.
55
3 Have the learner experiment with the step

Why:
To provide learners with experience in carrying out the step.
To allow the learner to discover what happens if the step is carried out in
different ways.
How:
Where appropriate, present the user with a series of problems to which
the rules associated with the step can be applied.
learner can interact in order to apply the step. Build in feedback on the
learner's performance.
Where difficult or impossible to simulate the step adequately online, have
the learner practise the step offline. Provide a checklist to assist the
learner in critiquing their own performance.
If possible, and in particular where the step is complex, provide multiple
opportunities for practice.
56
Procedure summary
Category: tutorial
Type: procedure
Sub-type: procedure summary
The closing element in a multi-object procedural tutorial.
1 Introduce the procedure summary

Why:
How:
procedure tutorial.
structured.
2 Demonstrate the procedure as a whole

Why:
To refresh and reinforce previous learning.
To re-establish the procedure as an integrated whole.
How:
demonstration.
Where appropriate, have the learner identify the correct actions,
precautions to be taken and actions to be avoided at each step.
57
3 Have the learner practise the procedure

Why:
To provide learners with experience in applying the procedure.
To enable the learner to work towards mastery of the skill.
How:
Where appropriate, present the user with a series of problems to solve
using the procedure. For example, to provide practice in long
multiplication, present a series of numbers to multiply.
learner can interact in order to apply the steps of the procedure. For
example, to practise negotiation techniques, provide a role play in which
the learner plays the customer seeking to obtain an advantageous deal
from a supplier.
Where difficult or impossible to simulate the procedure adequately online,
have the learner practise the procedure offline. For example, to practise a
tennis stroke, have the learner try the stroke out for real in a match.
If possible, and in particular where the procedure is complex, provide
multiple opportunities for practice.
4 Provide feedback
Why:
To make the learner aware of any errors or omissions in their practice of
the procedure.
To help learners to improve their mastery of the skill.
To provide learners with encouragement and recognition.
How:
Provide intrinsic feedback within simulations and role-plays. For example,
in a customer service simulation, have the customer react badly if the
procedure is not followed correctly.
Where practice takes place off-line, provide checklists with which learners
can self-check their performance. If external validation is essential, and
the learner's work can be recorded digitally, have the work submitted to
an external tutor for review.
Where performance can be adequately recorded using a video camera or
microphone, record the learner's practice in the computer's memory or on
disk. Allow the learner to replay the audio or video and review their own
performance.
Base feedback on observable behaviour, not opinion. Detail the steps
carried out correctly and their consequences, and those steps omitted or
carried out incorrectly and their consequences.
58

Why:
How:
subject area.
59
Information Objects
61

Category: information objects
Reference materials for use either in performance support or as
components in learning strategies requiring multiple learning objects.
Type: factual and background information
Facts that need to be remembered and background information that can
not be more accurately categorised as one of the other types listed below.
integrate the information directly into other tutorial types might risk
1 Introduce the information object

Why:
To ensure the information object is appropriate for the learner's needs.
How:
Provide the name of the information object, the date on which it was last
revised (and/or a version number), the name of the author and the
department/organisation responsible for the information.
Explain the purpose and positioning of the information object as part of a
collection of learning objects (where appropriate).
Explain what information is to be covered and, if relevant, how the
information is structured.
Explain the relevance and importance of the information.

Why:
To make the learner aware of essential factual information.
question.
How:
Use the media required (text, still images, animation, audio, video, etc.)
to convey the information efficiently. For example, an object may be best
depicted by a still graphic; an event by a video clip.
Provide sufficient information to meet the needs of average learners.
Where additional information is required for novices or experts, make this
available separately.
Distinguish between essential and inessential information.
Provide information that is factually correct, up-to-date and error-free.
Break the content down into chunks and label each chunk clearly and
unambiguously.
Present each main point in a separate paragraph. Make the point in the
first sentence.
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Use bulleted or numbered lists rather than describing lists of items in

ordinary prose. For two-dimensional data, use tables.
3 Provide memory aids for essential facts

Why:
To aid the retrieval of facts from long-term memory.
How:
Use verbal association techniques, including stories.
Use visual association techniques. For example, in language learning,
show a picture of an object alongside the word that describes it.
Use rhymes, for example: Thirty days have September, April, June and
November.
Use acronyms, for example: KISS (keep it simple, stupid).
4 Conclude the information object

Why:
To encourage application of the new information.
To enable the learner to follow up with a human contact.
How:
Summarise the key points.
Suggest ways in which the information can be applied.
Provide a contact name/email address/telephone number for reporting
inaccuracies and changes.
Provide a contact name/email address/telephone number for clarification
or further information.
Suggest ways in which the learner can continue their search for
information in the subject area.
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Concepts/classes
Type: concepts/classes
Distinctions between classes ( kinds) of objects, events, persons or ideas,
each with their own unique attributes.
integrate the information directly into a process, procedure or other object
type might risk overload for the learner.

Why:
How:
2 Present the discriminating attributes of the concept

Why:
To make it possible for learners to differentiate the concept from other
concepts.
How:
Restrict the number of attributes to be presented.
Explain any unfamiliar terms to be used in labelling the attributes.
Use bulleted or numbered lists rather than describing lists of attributes in
ordinary prose.
Use tables for comparing the attributes of different concepts.
Where relevant, use graphics to help present attributes.
3 Provide examples and non-examples

Why:
To situate the concept in real-life.
To help the learner relate the concept to their own experience.
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How:
Draw on examples relevant to the learner's experience.
Start with simple examples conforming to the most important attributes.
Provide examples from co-ordinate classes (non-examples). For example,
a hard disk is not an example of read-only memory.
Provide borderline examples, where fine discriminations must be made.

Why:
How:
65
Structure
Type: structure
The layout or parts of an object or environment. Use this object type
when the information stands alone or when to integrate the information
directly into a process or procedure might risk overload for the learner.

Why:
How:
2 Allow the learner to explore the structure

Why:
To allow the learner to discover the structure for themselves, in their own
way and at their own pace.
To provide familiarity with the spatial relationships between parts of the
structure.
How:
Provide a simple diagram of the structure, for example, an organisation
chart.
Provide a working two-dimensional model of the structure, for example,
an animated model of the wing of an aeroplane.
Provide a three-dimensional model or video walkthrough of the structure.
For example, create a 3D model of an oil rig that the learner can walk
around.
Have the learner explore the real object offline.
3 Present information on the parts

Why:
To provide the learner with a formal nomenclature for the parts of the
structure.
To provide the learner with an understanding of the functionality of the
various parts of the structure.
66
How:
Provide information on the names and function of parts on demand, as the
learner explores the structure.
Provide a table of the parts and their functions.

Why:
How:
67
Rule
Type: rule
What to do in particular situations, i.e. "if ... then do ...". Use this object
type when the rule stands alone or when to integrate the information
directly into a procedure or other object type might risk overload for the
learner.

Why:
How:
2 Explain the rule

Why:
To help convince the learner that the rule is valid.
To clarify the boundaries within which the rule can be applied.
How:
Explain any unfamiliar concepts which are components of the rule.
Explain the rationale for the rule.
Describe any exceptions to the rule and why they apply.
3 Show how the rule can be applied

Why:
To help learners relate the rule to their own experience.
To demonstrate the applicability of the rule.
How:
Provide examples of ways in which the rule can be satisfied. For example,
in teaching children the rule dont talk to strangers, ask them what they
should do if approached by an unfamiliar adult outside their school.
Present examples, relevant to the learner's experience, of how the rule
has been applied in practice.
68

Why:
How:
69
Principle
Type: principle
A generalised assertion, e.g. a law, theory, value or belief. Use this object
type when the principle stands alone or when to integrate the information
directly into a process or other object type might risk overload for the
learner.

Why:
How:
2 Explain the principle

Why:
To explain why the principle holds true.
To clarify the boundaries of the principle.
How:
Explain any unfamiliar concepts which are components of the principle.
3 Provide evidence to support the principle

Why:
To help learners relate the principle to their own experience.
To demonstrate the applicability of the principle.
How:
Provide case histories that support the principle.
Provide any statistical evidence to support the principle.
70

Why:
How:
71
Type: process
Sub-type: self-contained process
A fully self-contained process description. Select this option only if the
process is simple (with modest amounts of supplementary non-process
information - facts, classifications, layouts, rules, etc.) and has relatively
few (five or less) stages.

Why:
How:
2 Present the process

Why:
To provide the learner with a framework that can be tested through
experimentation and experience.
To formalise learning achieved through experimentation and experience.
How:
events that constitutes the process. Where appropriate, illustrate how the
process might result in different effects in different circumstances.
Provide a table listing the stages in the process and the rationale behind
each stage.

played out
Why:
72
How:

Why:
How:
73
Process overview
Type: process
Sub-type: process overview
The opening element in a multi-object process description.

Why:
How:

principles
Why:
To remove any obstacles to an understanding of the process.
To provide a context for the process overall.
How:
Where necessary, briefly explain any concepts which underly the process
overall. Provide a label for each concept, a list of the key discriminating
attributes and at least one example. If a more comprehensive tutorial is
required, link to a separate concept tutorial or information object.
Where necessary, briefly explain any structures which underly the process
overall. Illustrate the structure with a diagram showing all key parts
clearly labelled. If a more comprehensive tutorial is required, link to a
separate structure tutorial or information object.
the process overall. If a more comprehensive tutorial is required, link to a
separate principle tutorial or information object.
74
3 Present an overview of the process

Why:
How:

Why:
How:
75
Stage in process
components in learning strategies requiring multiple learning objects..
Type: process
Sub-type: stage in process
Information covering a single stage in a multi-object process description.

Why:
How:
2 Explain the principles underlying the stage

Why:
To explain why the principles hold true.
To clarify the boundaries of the principles.
How:
Explain any unfamiliar concepts which are components of the principles.
3 Provide evidence to support the principles

Why:
To help learners relate the principles to their own experience.
To demonstrate the applicability of the principles.
How:
Provide case histories that support the principles.
Provide any statistical evidence to support the principles.
76

Why:
How:
77
Process summary
Type: process
Sub-type: process summary
The closing element in a multi-object process description.

Why:
How:
2 Revise the process overall

Why:
To refresh and reinforce previous information.
To re-establish the process as an integrated whole.
How:
Use an animation, video or series of diagrams to describe the sequence of

played out
Why:
How:
78

Why:
How:
79
Type: procedure
A fully self-contained procedural description. Select this option only if
the procedure is simple (with modest amounts of supplementary nonprocedural information - facts, classifications, layouts, rules, etc.) and has
relatively few (five or less) steps.

Why:
How:

Why:
How:
Use a table to list the steps of the procedure in the correct sequence.
3 Demonstrate the procedure

Why:
To show the learner how the procedure needs to be adapted to suit a
How:
demonstration.
80
incorrectly.
contamination.

Why:
How:
81
Procedure overview
Type: procedure
Sub-type: procedure overview
The opening element in a multi-object procedural description.

Why:
How:

principles
Why:
To remove any obstacles to an understanding of the procedure.
To provide a context for the procedure overall.
How:
Where necessary, briefly explain any concepts which underly the
procedure overall. Provide a label for each concept, a list of the key
discriminating attributes and at least one example. If a more
comprehensive tutorial is required, link to a separate concept tutorial or
information object.
Where necessary, briefly explain any structures which underly the
procedure overall. Illustrate the structure with a diagram showing all key
parts clearly labelled. If a more comprehensive tutorial is required, link to
a separate structure tutorial or information object.
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the procedure overall. If a more comprehensive tutorial is required, link to
a separate principle tutorial or information object.

Why:
How:
Use a table to list the steps of the procedure in the correct sequence.

Why:
How:
83
Step in procedure
Type: procedure
Sub-type: step in procedure
Information covering a single step in a multi-object procedural
description.

Why:
How:
2 Demonstrate the step

Why:
To show the learner how the step may need to be adapted to suit a
How:
demonstration.
Make clear what the consequences are of performing the step correctly.
Explain any rules governing the way the step is carried out in different
circumstances.
avoided.
Provide additional demonstrations to show how the step might need to be
adapted to different or more demanding situations.
84

Why:
How:
85
Procedure summary
Type: procedure
Sub-type: procedure summary
The closing element in a multi-object procedural description.

Why:
How:
2 Demonstrate the procedure as a whole

Why:
To refresh and reinforce previous information.
To re-establish the procedure as an integrated whole.
How:
demonstration.

Why:
86
How:
87
Decision aid
Type: decision aid
A tool to aid a user in reaching an appropriate decision in a particular
situation. Could take the form of a flowchart, wizard or expert system.

Why:
How:
2 Present the decision aid

Why:
To assist the learner in reaching a decision, where the factors governing
the appropriateness of the decision are complex or unfamiliar.
To help the learner to internalise the principles underlying the decisionmaking process.
How:
Use the appropriate form for the decision aid, e.g. simple flowchart,
spreadsheet, interactive question sequence.
Explain why each question is being asked, as this will help the learner to
answer appropriately. For example, if the question is Is the customer
married?, explain how this information is relevant.
Ensure options are clear and unambiguous. Link to separate definitions to
explain any unfamiliar terms.
Disclose the logic behind any conclusions. Where necessary, link to
separate tutorial or information objects to clarify any underlying concepts,
principles or rules.
With interactive question sequences, allow the learner to retrace their
steps and provide alternative answers.
Where appropriate, link to separate tutorial or information objects to
clarify the procedure the learner needs to follow to act on the decision.
88

Why:
How:
89
Definition
Type: definition
An explanation of the meaning of a term used within one or more other
learning objects.
1 Introduce the definition

Why:
How:

Why:
To clarify a term with which the learner is unfamiliar.
How:
to convey the information efficiently.
Where terms used within the definition may also be unfamiliar, provide
links to further definitions.
When defining concepts provide links to definitions of any co-ordinate
classes. For example, if a definition is provided of the learning style
activist, provide links to definitions for pragmatists, theorists and
reflectors.
3 Conclude the definition

Why:
To point the user to further information.
How:
Where the definition is part of a glossary, provide a link to the glossary
index.
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Demonstration / worked example

Type: demonstration/worked example
An example of the execution of one or more steps in a procedure.
Use this object type when to include the demonstration directly within a
procedure could cause overload for the learner or when customised
demonstrations are required for different target audiences or different

Why:
How:
2 Provide the demonstration

Why:
To show the learner how a procedure needs to be adapted to suit a variety
of situations.
How:
demonstration.
incorrectly.
contamination.
91

Why:
How:
92
Illustration/story/case history
Type: illustration/story/case history
Used variously to present examples of how a process can play out or has
played out in practice; to illustrate how rules can be or have been applied
in practice; to clarify distinctions between classes; to illustrate how a
procedure has been executed in practice.
Use this object type when to include the material directly within another
tutorial or information object could cause overload for the learner or when
customised illustrations are required for different target audiences or

Why:
How:
2 Present the illustration

Why:
To help the learner to relate an abstract concept, principle or process to
concrete experience.
To help the learner to appreciate the applicability of a rule or procedure.
How:
Adapt the illustration to match the interests and experiences of learners
and to meet the needs of the subject matter.
Start with a brief synopsis.
unambiguously.
first sentence.
93

Employ a writing style that will engage the learner. Consider using the
first person, if the illustration is based on personal experience.

Why:
How:
94
Paper
Type: paper
A source of reference to support any type of learning or work activity.

Why:
How:
2 Present the paper

Why:
To make the learner aware of factual and other information supporting a
position, argument or decision.
question.
How:
Start with a synopsis.
unambiguously. Use a menu to provide direct access to each chunk
first sentence.
Provide information that is factually correct, up-to-date and error-free.
95

Why:
How:
96
Programme introduction
Type: introduction
The opening component in a learning strategy involving multiple learning
objects. Necessary to ensure the suitability of the programme to the
learner, to engender motivation and to provide the learner with an
advance organiser.
1 Create a positive first impression

Why:
To attract the learner's attention.
To inspire the learner's confidence in the quality of the learning
programme/materials.
How:
Use professional layout, typography and graphic design.
Ensure easy usability.
Ensure no mistakes in grammar, spelling or content.
2 Ensure the appropriateness of the programme

Why:
To ensure the programme provides a good match with the learner's
needs.
How:
Provide the name of the programme.
Explain the purpose and positioning of the programme within a broader
curriculum (if appropriate).
Describe the target audience / required prior learning.
3 Establish the usefulness and relevance of the

programme
Why:
How:
Explain what the learner will be able to do as a result of the learning
(objectives).
Explain how the learner will benefit from this learning.
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4 Provide an overview of the programme

Why:
To inspire the learner's confidence in their ability to achieve the learning
objectives using the learning programme/materials.
How:
structured.
Explain the process by which learning will be accomplished.
State the amount of time required to complete the programme.
98
Programme conclusion
Type: conclusion
The closing component in a multi-object learning strategy.
1 Suggest ways in which the learner can apply the

learning
Why:
How:
Provide the learner with a list of research questions.
Provide the learner with a list of easily-accomplishable steps for applying
the learning.
Have the learner prepare an action plan, specifying objectives, actions and
target dates.
2 Suggest ways in which the learner can continue

with their learning
Why:
To help the learner to follow up their interest in the subject.
To encourage the learner to see learning as a continuous process.
How:
Provide a list of fully-annotated world-wide web links.
Provide a fully-annotated reading list.
Provide a list of related learning objects and other learning programmes.
Suggest to learners that they form / join a community of fellow learners.
3 Obtain feedback on the programme

Why:
To help the learner to communicate any positive or negative feelings they
may have about the programme.
To obtain information that will help in continuously improving the
programme.
How:
Provide an online form containing rating questions and opportunities for
free-form feedback. Submit the data to a database/learning management
system and/or have the data emailed directly to the person responsible
for gathering feedback.
Provide a contact name/email address/telephone number of someone to
whom feedback can be passed directly.
99
Practice Objects
101
Offline procedural practice

Category: practice objects
Practice, assessment and discovery-learning activities for use within
learning strategies requiring multiple learning objects.
Type: offline procedural practice
An activity designed to provide an opportunity for practising a procedure,
that does not involve direct interaction with the learning object.
Use this object type when the procedure cannot effectively be practised
online, or when to include the practice directly within a procedure tutorial
could cause overload for the learner, or when customised practice
activities are required for different target audiences or different levels
within an audience.
1 Introduce the activity

Why:
To ensure the activity is appropriate for the learner's needs.
To prepare the learner to participate in the activity.
How:
Provide the name of the activity.
Explain the purpose and positioning of the activity within the broader
learning strategy.
Where different activities are provided for different target audiences,
make clear the audience at which the activity is aimed.
Explain how the learner will benefit from the activity.
Explain the process to be followed.
Provide a brief for the activity, including goals, timings, rules and facilities.
2 Provide a brief for the activity

Why:
To ensure the learner is clear about the task they have to perform.
How:
Clearly describe the task(s) to be performed. Use bulleted or numbered
lists rather than describing lists of tasks in ordinary prose.
Where the activity is to be performed by more than one person, clearly
describe the roles of all the participants.
If the activity is to take place away from the computer, format the brief
such that it is easily printable.
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3 Help the learner to review their performance

Why:
To help the learner to discover any errors or omissions in their practice of
the procedure.
To provide a basis for the provision of further feedback online.
How:
Where appropriate, provide the learner with a checklist that they can use
to rate their performance or the performance of fellow learners.
Where appropriate, provide the learner with an illustration or description
of the end state that should have been obtained following correct
execution of the procedure.
Where appropriate, have the learner submit a report, a recording or some
other evidence of their performance for review by a tutor.
Where necessary, provide links to tutorial or information objects in order
to clarify any rules, procedural steps or other learning points related to
the activity.
Where necessary and appropriate, have the learner attempt the same or
similar practice activity again, in order to remedy any deficiencies in their
performance and gain mastery of the skill.
4 Conclude the activity

Why:
To provide a bridge to other elements within the overall learning strategy.
How:
Summarise the key issues / learning points arising from the activity.
Suggest ways in which the learning can be applied to real-world tasks.
Explain or suggest the next step within the broader learning strategy.
103
Case study/scenario/problem
Type: case study/scenario/problem
An activity in which the learner is presented with an account of an event
or situation and is asked to respond to that event or situation in some
way.
Used variously to demonstrate principles, to influence attitudes or to
provide practice or assess proficiency in applying rules appropriately,
differentiating between classes, predicting or interpreting behaviours
within a process or applying a procedure in a particular set of
circumstances.
Use this object type when to include the scenario directly within a tutorial
object could cause overload for the learner or when customised scenarios
are required for different target audiences or different levels within an
audience.

Why:
How:
learning strategy.
2 Deliver the case

Why:
To provide a stimulus for reflection on the applicability of principles,
processes, rules and procedures to real-world or life-like situations.
To provide a basis for practice of problem-solving procedures.
104
How:
Adapt the case to match the interests and experiences of learners and to
meet the needs of the subject matter.
Provide sufficient information to enable the learner to interpret or act on
the situation as they would in real-life. To better simulate the real-life
situation, also provide inessential/superfluous information.
Start with a brief synopsis.
unambiguously.
first sentence.
3 Have the learner respond to the case

Why:
To assist the learner in drawing conclusions from the case / scenario /
problem.
To stimulate decision-making based on the case / scenario / problem.
To challenge the learner with regard to their conclusions and suggested
actions.
How:
If the activity is a case study, ask questions that cause the learner to
analyse or characterise the situation. Where appropriate ask learners to
justify their answers with reasons.
If the activity is a problem scenario, ask the learner to suggest or select
from alternative ways of resolving the problem. Where appropriate,
provide additional tools and/or information to assist the learner in
developing their plan of action.
Provide feedback to the learner's responses. Provide extracts from, or
links to the case material to illustrate why an alternative interpretation
could have been made.
Provide links to tutorial or information objects in order to clarify any
unfamiliar concepts, principles or processes arising from the simulation.

Why:
How:
105
Simulation
Type: simulation
A representation of one or more real-life processes, in which the user is
able to initiate action or respond to situations or events.
Used variously to demonstrate principles, to influence attitudes or to
provide practice or assess proficiency in predicting or interpreting
behaviours within a process or applying a procedure in a particular set of
circumstances.
Use this object type when to include the simulation directly within a
tutorial object could cause overload for the learner or when customised
simulations are required for different target audiences or different levels
within an audience.

Why:
How:
learning strategy.
2 Deliver the simulation

Why:
To provide learners with the opportunity for repetitive practice of one or
more tasks in a safe environment.
To provide learners with the opportunity to construct their own model of a
process.
To provide learners with the opportunity to see how their actions or
decisions can affect outcomes in a variety of situations.
106
How:
Select an appropriate format, e.g. 2D equipment/software simulation with
controls, 3D virtual environment, stepped decision-making, mathematical
model with numeric or graphical output, etc.
Determine the appropriate degree of physical fidelity (the extent to which
the simulation looks like the real thing) and functional fidelity (the extent
to which the simulation behaves like the real thing), given the learning
objective(s) and the learner's experience of the task(s) being simulated.
Design the simulation to provide intrinsic feedback to the learner on their
performance. In other words, the outcomes from the learners actions
should, in themselves, help the learner to understand the suitability of the
actions.
Where possible, allow the learner to experiment with the outcomes of
alternative actions, decisions or settings. For example, in a simulation of
an interview, the learner may be allowed to backtrack and try an
alternative response.
Where possible, design the simulation to allow for repetitive re-use. For
example, a simulation based on an economic model could allow the
learner to try any number of alternative strategies.
3 Provide opportunities for reflection

Why:
To assist the learner in drawing conclusions from the simulation.
How:
Where relevant and feasible, provide facilities for playback of elements of
the simulation.
Provide performance data to assist the learner in reviewing their
performance in the simulation. For example, a simulation based on an
economic model could output information on the balance of payments,
inflation rate, unemployment rate, exchange rate, etc.
Have the learner identify the likely causes of the outcomes of the
simulation. For example, in a project management simulation, provide the
learner with a checklist of common faults in project management and
have them select those that they believe occurred in this case.
Have the learner propose alternative strategies that would remedy any
negative outcomes that occurred. For example, in a project management
simulation, ask the learner what they would do next time to remedy each
negative outcome that occurred.
Provide links to tutorial or information objects in order to clarify any
unfamiliar concepts, principles or processes arising from the simulation.
107

Why:
How:
108
Game
Type: game
An activity with a goal and rules, in which the learner competes against
others, real or imaginary, or to better their own, previous attainments.
Used variously to influence attitudes or to provide practice or assess
proficiency in a wide variety of learning situations, including the recall or
recognition of facts, applying rules appropriately, differentiating between
classes, locating parts or places or the application of a psychomotor skill
(such as typing).
Use this object type when to include the game directly within a tutorial
object could cause overload for the learner or when customised games are
required for different target audiences or different levels within an
audience.

Why:
How:
learning strategy.
2 Run the game

Why:
To provide learners with a challenging and engaging environment in which
to develop skills, demonstrate knowledge, or gain experience through
which learning may occur.
How:
Select an appropriate format, e.g. stepped decision-making, continuous
play in 2D environment, continuous play in 3D virtual environment, etc.
Create goals for the game that are challenging yet achievable. Where
appropriate, use time constraints as a way of increasing pressure.
109
Introduce the element of competition: against the learner's previous high

score, against other learners (previous or current), against the computer.
Where appropriate, arrange the game on different levels, from easy to
hard.
Where feasible, encourage collaboration and generate peer pressure by
forming learners into teams.
Display clear and constant data showing the learner's progress against the
goals of the game. For example, in a quiz, the current score can be
displayed.
Where possible, design the game to allow for repetitive re-use by
introducing random elements or a large bank of alternative elements. For
example, in a maths game, any number of new problems can be
generated from random numbers.
3 Provide opportunities for reflection

Why:
To assist the learner in drawing conclusions from the game.
How:
Provide performance data to assist the learner in reviewing their
performance against the goals of the game. For example, in a business
game, this may take the form of a series of key business indicators, such
as profitability or cash flow.
Where relevant, have the learner identify the likely causes for their
relative success or failure in meeting the goals of the game.
Where relevant, have the learner propose alternative strategies that would
improve their chances of success in future plays of the game.
Where relevant, have the learner articulate what they learned from
playing the game.
Provide links to tutorial or information objects to clarify any new or
unfamiliar learning points arising from the game.

Why:
How:
110
Drill and practice

Type: drill and practice
An activity designed to increase proficiency in a task, through repetitive
rehearsal.
Used in a wide variety of learning situations, including the recall or
recognition of facts, applying rules appropriately, differentiating between
classes, locating parts or places or the application of a psychomotor skill
(such as typing).
Use this object type when to include the practice directly within a tutorial
object could cause overload for the learner or when customised practice is
audience.

Why:
How:
learning strategy.
2 Run the drill

Why:
To provide the learner with the opportunity to increase their proficiency in
a skill through repetitive rehearsal.
How:
Format the activity in such a way as to encourage frequent, short practice
sessions, rather than a single, lengthy session.
Prepare practice items that test the learner's ability to carry out the task
in question, according to an established procedure. Avoid introducing into
the practice items an incidental requirement for additional knowledge or
skills which not all learners will possess.
111
Where feasible, design the activity to adapt to the learner's progress, i.e.
introduce easier practice items when the learner is having difficulty, and
introduce harder practice items when the learner is progressing without
difficulty. Where this is not feasible, arrange the activity to start with the
easiest practice items and become increasingly difficult.
Where feedback is not intrinsic to the activity, provide immediate
feedback on the user's performance with each practice item.
Where possible, design the drill to allow for repetitive re-use by
introducing random elements or a large bank of alternative practice items.
3 Review the learner's performance

Why:
To provide the learner with encouragement and recognition.
To help the learner to identify areas for improvement in their application
of the skill in question.
How:
Provide data to assist the learner in reviewing their performance.
Congratulate the learner on the progress they have made in mastering the
skill in question.
Based on data gathered during the activity, identify areas for
improvement in the learner's application of the skill. If this is not possible,
have the learner identify the likely causes for any difficulties they
experienced.
Provide links to tutorial or information objects to clarify any concepts,
structures, rules or procedural steps associated with the task.

Why:
How:
112
Test
Type: test
An activity, typically a series of questions, designed to assess proficiency
against specific learning objectives.
Use this object type when to include the test directly within a tutorial
object could cause overload for the learner or when customised tests are
audience.

Why:
How:
learning strategy.
2 Deliver the test

Why:
To assess the learner's proficiency against specific learning objectives.
How:
Prepare test items that accurately assess the learner's attainment of
specific learning objectives. Avoid introducing into the test items an
incidental requirement for additional knowledge or skills which not all
learners will possess. Prepare sufficient test items to assess all of the
learning objectives thoroughly.
Provide the learner with an indicator of the sequential number of the
current item and the total number of items in the test. If the test is timed,
also provide an indicator of the time remaining.
Where it is important to assess the degree of attainment of a specific
learning objective, ask a series of questions, graded from easy to difficult.
113
Where feasible and where desirable to maintain the learner's confidence

and self-esteem, design the test to adapt to the learner's level of
proficiency. If the learner answers a question incorrectly, ask them
another, easier question. If the learner answers a question correctly, ask
them another, harder question. To avoid distorting the final test scores,
grade questions according to their difficulty and ensure all learners answer
the same number of questions.
Allow learners to revise their answer to a question before confirming.
Where possible, also allow learners to return to previous questions and
revise their selections.
Where the learner will not be re-taking the same test, with the same test
items, provide the learner with immediate feedback on whether their
answer was correct or, if not, the identity of the correct answer. If the test
is doubling as a tutorial and there is no time constraint, then more
detailed feedback can be provided in order to remedy any
misunderstandings.
Avoid the risk of learners passing on information to each other about
questions and answers by randomising the order of options in questions
and drawing questions randomly from separate banks of questions
addressing each of the learning objectives.
3 Review the learner's performance

Why:
To provide the learner with encouragement and recognition.
To help the learner to identify areas for improvement in the skill or
knowledge tested.
How:
Provide data to assist the learner in reviewing their performance. Make
clear how the test was scored, i.e. were the test items graded for
difficulty? how did the learner's performance against a time constraint
impact on the score? were all learning objectives weighted evenly? how
were questions scored that contained multiple elements?
Optionally, provide the learner with a summary of scores of previous
learners.
Congratulate the learner on the progress they made in attaining the skill
or knowledge in question.
Based on data gathered during the activity, identify areas for
improvement in the learner's skill or knowledge. If this is not possible,
have the learner identify the likely causes for any difficulties they
experienced.
Provide links to tutorial or information objects to clarify any of the learning
points tested.
114

Why:
How:
115
Questionnaire/inventory
Type: questionnaire/inventory
A series of questions, the answers to which, when summarised and
interpreted, provide some insight into a learner's attitudes, personality,
preferences, etc.
Use this object type when to include the questionnaire directly within a
tutorial object could cause overload for the learner or when customised
questionnaires are required for different target audiences or different

Why:
How:
learning strategy.
2 Deliver the questionnaire

Why:
To gather data that will provide some insight into an aspect of the
learner's personality, attitudes, opinions, etc.
How:
Prepare questions that accurately and evenly assess all dimensions of the
issue in question.
Provide the learner with an indicator of the sequential number of the
current item and the total number of items in the questionnaire.
If unclear, explain why a particular question is included, i.e. how the data
will be used.
Where the questionnaire is seeking opinions, provide a facility for openended responses as well as structured questions.
116
Allow learners to revise their answer to a question before confirming.

Where possible, also allow learners to return to previous questions and
revise their selections.
3 Interpret the learner's responses

Why:
To provide the learner with some insight into their personality, attitudes,
etc., based on their responses to the questionnaire and comparisons with
other learners.
To provide some justification for inferences made on the basis of the
learner's responses.
How:
Thank the learner for their time and effort in completing the
questionnaire.
Provide summary data to assist the learner in interpreting their responses.
Where necessary, clarify how the questionnaire was scored.
Optionally, provide an automated interpretation of the results. Explain the
logic used to arrive at the interpretation, including any research results
underpinning the logic.
Optionally, provide the learner with a summary of the results of previous
learners.

Why:
How:
117
Demos
This title screen simply identifies the tutorial and credits the contributors.
The next screen introduces the tutorial, explaining its purpose and
positioning, its objectives, how it will work and how long it will take.
120
This screen introduces the information providing part of the tutorial.
To engage the learner, the next screen builds on any prior knowledge the
learner may have of the subject.
121
The information is presented decade by decade, using text backed up by

short video clips representing the major events of the decade. These clips
are intended to act as memory aids.
Unfamiliar terms are supported by glossary entries, accessed from

hyperlinks.
122
Once the historical information is complete, the learner is encouraged to

rehearse their recall of the essential facts with a short quiz.
A variety of question formats is employed, in this case multiple answer

Customised feedback is provided after each user input.
123
After the quiz, the essential facts are summarised, employing key scenes
from the videos to reinforce the visual association.
The tutorial concludes with an interaction, to encourage the learner to

continue their interest in the subject.
124
Concepts/classes
The title screen identifies the tutorial and credits the contributors. It also
engages the learner with an eye-catching animation.
125
The tutorial uses activities, such as this drag and drop, to help the learner
think through the key discriminating attributes of the mammal for
themselves.
These inductive questions also serve to provide the learner with examples
and non-examples.
126
This table summarises the key discriminating attributes, associating each

with a picture.
Each attribute is then examined a little more detail.
127
The information is supplemented by further questions designed to get the

learner thinking and clarify distinctions between mammals and other types
of animal.
The learner is then encouraged to come up with their own examples.
128
This odd man out question helps the learner to check their understanding.
The final screen provides a final check for learning and encourages the
learner to find out more about the subject.
129
Structures
The title screen simply identifies the tutorial and credits the contributors.
130
The third screen continues to set the scene for the tutorial.
The learner is allowed to explore the structure from a number of different

angles.
131
This screen uses a table to present a list of the parts and their functions.
A variety of question types are used to check understanding. Here the

learner is asked to identify a part of the structure.
132
In this question the learner is asked to label a part.
In this question the learner is asked to provide additional information about

one of the part labels.
133
In this question the learner is asked to identify the function of one of the
parts.
This concluding screen points the way forward.
134
Processes
135
The next screen provides some attention-grabbing statistics and goes on to

build on any knowledge the learner may already have about the subject.
Animated diagrams are used to explain the process.
136
This screen summarises the main points.
As the information is presented, the learner is constantly challenged for

their opinions.
137
Here the learner is asked to collect their thoughts on paper.
This screen acts as a checklist for some of the ideas the learner may have
noted down.
138
As a check for understanding, the learner is asked to describe the process

in their own words.
The concluding screen provides links to sources of further information.
139
Procedure (IT skills)
140
This exercise seeks to identify what experience the learner already has of
the subject and to place the tutorial in a context that will be meaningful for
them.
This exercise seeks to demonstrate the importance of the subject to the

learner.
141
This screen follows up on the calculation the learner has made.
Screen capture movies are used to demonstrate how each step in the
procedure is carried out.
142
This table summarises the procedure. The learner is then asked to practise
the procedure using a real Word document.
If the learner was unsuccessful in carrying out the procedure, they can use
this troubleshooting checklist.
143
Drag and drop questions are used to check that learners can remember the
correct sequence in which to carry out each procedure.
The concluding screen encourages the learner to put what they have
learned into practice.
144
Procedure (soft skills)
145
To demonstrate the importance of the subject, the learner is asked to

listen to a series of openings and note down any problems they detect.
They can then compare their notes to this checklist.
146
Each rule to be applied during the opening is presented using animation

and text.
The rules are summarised in this table.
147
The opening is then demonstrated using a series of audio clips.
To check the learners knowledge of the rules, they are then shown the
animations again, without the accompanying text. They have to note down
what rule each animation represents.
148
A series of text input questions is used for the learner to enter the five
rules.
The concluding screen encourages the learner to put what they have
learned into practice and creates a link to the next tutorial in the series.
149
Clive is a founding Director of Above and Beyond Ltd,

a Brighton-based content developer and publisher.
Clive developed his interest in interactive media at
American Express in the early eighties, where he was
Director, Training and Creative Services. He was also
a co-founder of Epic Group plc, a leading content
developer.
Since he left Epic in 1997, Clive has acted as a
consultant on e-learning to a number of large public
and private sector organisations. In his role as eLearning Director for the Institute of IT Training,
Clive has developed an accreditation programme for
e-learning providers, standards for e-learning
materials and training programmes for e-learning
designers and online tutors. Since 2000, Clive has
been a regular contributor of articles on e-learning for
IT Training magazine.
He lives in Brighton with his wife Susan. When he
gets away from all things e-learning he likes to walk
on the South Downs, play tennis and keep fit
generally. Hes also a keen musician.
You can contact Clive at clive@onlignment.com.

LODA e Book2

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Learning object design assistant

2003 Above and Beyond Ltd

By the same author and published by Above and Beyond:

Copyright 2003 Clive Shepherd

Learning Object Design Assistant

Learning object type index

Object type selection

Instructions for tutorial objects

Instructions for information objects

Instructions for practice objects

2003 Above and Beyond Ltd

LODA is a Learning Object Design Assistant. LODA

Here's our definition: "A learning object is a small,

In what settings are

LODA has been developed first and foremost to

How does LODA

LODA provides help at the object level - it does not

Learning Object Design Assistant

LODA is designed to be independent of a particular

LODA makes recommendations based on current

LODA makes no assumptions about the bandwidth,

2003 Above and Beyond Ltd

Learning Object Design Assistant

Learning object type index

Demonstration / worked example

Illustration / story / case history

2003 Above and Beyond Ltd

Case study / scenario / problem

Drill and practice

Learning Object Design Assistant

Object type selection

2003 Above and Beyond Ltd

Object type selection

Short, self-contained chunks of learning, in

Reference materials for use either in

Practice, assessment and discoverylearning activities for use within learning

2 Select tutorial type

Facts that need to be remembered or

Use this object type when the information

Distinctions between classes (kinds) of

Use this object type when the information

Learning Object Design Assistant

The layout or parts of an object or

Use this object type when the information

What to do in particular situations, i.e. "if

Use this object type when the rule stands

A generalised assertion, e.g. a law, theory,

Use this object type when the principle

A predisposition to think, feel or act in a

Use this object type when the attitudinal

"How something works." A series of cause

2003 Above and Beyond Ltd

"How to do something." A series of steps

3 Select information type

Facts that need to be remembered and

Use this object type when the information

Distinctions between classes (kinds) of

Use this object type when the information

The layout or parts of an object or

Use this object type when the information

Learning Object Design Assistant

What to do in particular situations, i.e. "if

Use this object type when the rule stands

A generalised assertion, e.g. a law,