Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 00 (2010) 000000

Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 29 (2011) 606 610

Procedia
Social and
Behavioral
Sciences
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International Conference on Education and Educational Psychology (ICEEPSY 2011)

The effect of motivational self-talk on reaction time

Shahzad Tahmasebi Boroujenia, Banafsheh Ghaherib, a, *
a
b

Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

Sports Medicine Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Abstract
It is well documented that self-talk (ST) as a cognitive strategy can enhance motor tasks and sport performance. The first
purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of motivational self-talk (MST) on the auditory whole body, simple and choice
reaction time (RT). Secondly, we aimed to examine the relationship between participants belief in self-talk and performance.
Thirty-four female university students (21.94 1.89 years) voluntarily participated in the study. Subjects accomplished three
reaction time tasks on two occasions. At the first day whole body, simple and choice reaction times were assessed separately in
five trials. In the second session participants engaged in MST before each trial and then filled out the belief in self-talk
questionnaire (BSQ). A Paired samples t-test revealed that MST leads to a significant decrease in choice RT (p < 0.01).
Although, there were no significant differences between pre-test and post-test of whole body and simple reaction time.
Furthermore, bivariate correlation showed no significant correlation between belief in self-talk and performance. The results
suggest that using motivational self-talk can help to react remarkably fast in choice reaction time tasks.

2011
Published
Elsevier
Ltd. Selection
and/or peer-review
underofresponsibility
of Dr Zafer
Bekirogullari.
2011 Published
by by
Elsevier
Ltd. Selection
and/or peer-review
under responsibility
Dr. Zafer Bekirogullari
of Cognitive
Counselling,
Research & Conference Services C-crcs.
Keywords: Motivational self-talk, Belief in self-talk, Whole body RT, Simple RT, Choice RT

1. Introduction
It is well documented that using cognitive strategies can improve motor tasks and sport performance (Orlick
1986; Hardy et al. 2004; Kolovelonis et al. 2010). Self-talk (ST) as one of the most common cognitive strategies
employed by athletes (Edwards et al. 2008) refers to overt or covert selfverbalizations which appear to serve both
instructional and motivational functions (Hardy et al. 2004). Motivational self-talk (MST) defines statements made
to facilitate performance by boosting confidence and energy expenditure, expanding effort, and evoking a positive
mood. On the other hand, designing instructional self-talk (IST) assists performance by initiating desired movements
through attentional focus on strategic and technical aspects of motor skills (Theodorakis et al. 2000).
Numerous studies examined the effect of motivational and instructional self-talk on a variety of tasks and settings
and many supported that self-talk can improve task performance. For instance, Hatzigeorgiadis et al. (2004)
expressed that ST can improve water-polo tasks. Goudas et al. (2006) also showed that ST can enhance amateur

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +982161118846; fax: +982161118871.

E-mail address: bghaheri@ut.ac.ir.
1877-0428 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Dr Zafer Bekirogullari.
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.11.282

Shahzad Tahmasebi Boroujeni

and Banafsheh
Procedia
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and Behavioral
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athletes' performance on throwing skill. Further examination of Hatzigeorgiadis et al. (2009) evaluated the effects of
motivational self-talk on self-confidence, anxiety, and task performance in tennis players. Results showed that the
experimental group practicing the use of motivational self-talk surpassed the control group in task performance.
Furthermore, in self-talk group self-confidence increased and cognitive anxiety decreased significantly. Findings
suggested that the facilitating effects of self-talk on performance are likely to stem from positive changes in selfconfidence. A recent study by Kolovelonis et al. (2010) reported that instructional and motivational ST were
effective in enhancing students motor tasks performance.
Researchers mostly have focused on skills requiring coordination, endurance, and maximal strength (Edwards et
al. 2008). To our knowledge, seldom before has the effect of self-talk on reaction time (RT) as an integral
component of most sports been examined. RT is a fundamental component of a number of skills requiring quick and
effective decision making and represents the speed of information processing. Simple RT is the interval of time
that elapses from a sudden presentation of a stimulus to the beginning of a persons response. While choice RT
refers to the interval of time that elapses between the presentation of one of several possible stimuli and the
beginning of one of several possible responses (Schmidt and Wrisberg 2008).
As reaction time is an indicator of information processing (Schmidt and Wrisberg 2008), it is expected that any
changes in three stages of information processing (1. perceptual processing; 2. decision processing; and 3. effectors
processing) can contribute to changes in RT (Hardy 2006). Landin (1994) suggested that employing verbal cues can
positively influence these stages. Thus we assumed that using ST can lead to a shorter RT.
Besides, belief in the potency of self-talk is another factor that may impact the performance. Few studies that
mentioned the relationship between belief in self-talk and performance expressed that those who believe in their ST
and its helpfulness perform better than nonbelievers (Van Raalte et al. 1994; Theodorakis et al. 2000) As well as in a
study of Hardy et al. (2004), skilled athletes reported stronger belief in ST use compared to their less skilled
counterparts. However, this concept has been challenged by Araki et al. (2006) study demonstrating no relation
between participants belief in ST and dynamic balance performance. If ST impacts performance, it is reasonable to
have a more clear understanding of the relation between belief in ST and performance.
According to a recent investigation (Boroujeni and Shahbazi 2011) motivational self-talk can have greater impact
on tasks demanding speed. As the primary purpose was to examine the effects of ST on reaction time, motivational
self-talk was preferred. Hence, the present study set out to determine whether motivational self-talk can decrease
whole body, simple and choice RT (hypothesis 1). Secondly, we aimed to examine the assumption that there is a
significant relation between belief in ST and performance (hypothesis 2).
2. Methods
2.1. Participants
Participants were thirty four females and novice undergraduate students (M age = 21.94 1.89 years).
Participation in the study was one of several options that students could select for extra credit in a physical
education class at University of Tehran. The students were informed that they could stop participating at any time
without fear of reprisal.
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Reaction time
Simple and choice reaction times were measured by YB-1000 (Yagami, Nagoya, Japan). To evaluate simple RT,
two tests were conducted. In the first test (whole body RT), subjects stood still with their knees quite bent on a
sensory mat being able to jump as soon as hearing an auditory stimulus. In the second test, subjects were told to
press a button with their dominant hand upon the auditory stimulus. To examine choice RT, three auditory stimuli
were presented (100, 500 and 1000 Hz) randomly. Each stimulus corresponded to a different button. After
participants got familiar with the sound and correct button of each stimulus in three experimental trials, they were
asked to press the correct button as soon as hearing its corresponding stimuli. The average RT of five trials for each
test was recorded as subjects reaction time.
2.2.2. Belief in Self-talk Questionnaire (BSQ)
The belief in self-talk questionnaire is a 8-items self-report inventory for assessing ones belief in the
effectiveness of ST (Araki et al. 2006). Each participants belief score could range from 0-40 and higher score

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Shahzad Tahmasebi
Boroujeni
Banafsheh
Ghaheri
/ Procedia Sciences
- Social and
Behavioral
Sciences 29 (2011) 606 610
Author
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demonstrated stronger belief. The questionnaire validity was approved by 8 assistant and associate professors (CVR
= 0.97, CVI = 1). Moreover, a pilot study was carried out on 25 volunteers who completed the questionnaire twice
with 2 weeks apart. An intraclass correlation indicated a high stability coefficient of r = 0.82 and p < 0.001 for the
test-retest scores as well as the Cronbach alpha coefficients demonstrated an acceptable internal consistency (alpha
= 0.74).
2.3. Procedures
Participants accomplished three reaction time tasks in two sessions at the same time of day. At the first day,
whole body, simple and choice reaction times were recorded separately in five trials and the averages of trials were
assessed for each test. In the second session, participants completed the same tests except that they were engaged in
motivational self-talk before the reaction time tests. Subjects were asked to say out repeatedly the phrase "I can react
fast" during the 15 seconds preceding each trial. The MST employed in the present study was modeled on that used
in previous works (Tod et al. 2009). Finally, subjects filled out the BSQ after completing the reaction time tests.
2.4. Analyses
Data normality and homogeneity were met using K-S and Leven tests. A paired-sample t-test was undertaken to
compare students reaction times before and after the self-talk intervention. Bivariate correlation and Cronbach
alpha coefficients were employed to test BSQ reliability and consistency. Values are reported as mean SD and
statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Analyses were computed using SPSS version 17.0.
3. Results
Table 1 illustrates the results obtained from the pre and post tests of different reaction times. Expectedly,
participants choice RT was longer than their simple reaction times. The most striking observation to emerge from
the data comparison using paired-samples t-test was that the mean choice RT significantly decreased from pre-test to
post-test (p = 0.001). No significant difference was found between whole body (p = 0.7) and simple (p = 0.21)
reaction times of pre- and post-tests. Moreover, Pearson bivariate correlation revealed no significant correlation
between participants belief in self-talk score and their post-tests records of choice (r = 0.02, p = 0.91), simple (r =
0.04, p = 0.82) and whole body (r = -0.05, p = 0.71) reaction times.
Table.1 Pre- and post-tests of whole body, choice and simple RT
Reaction times

Pre-test

Post-test

SD

SD

Whole body RT (s)

34

0.444

0.07

0.449

0.07

0.700

Simple RT (s)

34

0.272

0.05

0.264

0.03

0.210

Choice RT (s)

34

0.710

0.21

0.612

0.15

0.001*

**Significant difference p < 0.01

4.Discussion
While researchers have reported the effect of self-talk on several sports and motor tasks, there appears to be a
dearth of studies that examine ST impact on pace-based tasks like reaction time. The present study set out to
determine the effect of motivational self-talk on simple, whole body and choice reaction times. In addition, the
relation between participants performance and their belief in self-talk was tested. The present study found that MST

Shahzad Tahmasebi Boroujeni

and Banafsheh
Procedia
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and Behavioral
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can considerably shorten choice reaction time, yet not whole body and simple reaction times. Therefore the first
hypothesis was partially supported. Furthermore, the results of this study did not show any significant correlation
between participants belief in ST and their performance in post-test. So, the second hypothesis of the study was not
supported.
The result from MST intervention in choice RT in this study is consistent with previous researches found that
MST can improve performance, particularly in tasks demanding speed (Edwards et al. 2008; Theodorakis et al.
2000; Boroujeni and Shahbazi 2011). However, the findings of whole body and simple reaction times were not
supportive of them. This inconsistency can be viewed from an information processing perspective. Since RT is a
measure representing the speed of information processing (Schmidt and Wrisberg 2008), facilitating information
processing can lead to a shorter RT. According to Landin (1994) verbal cues can influence all three stages of
information processing by helping beginners search for correct stimuli as well as facilitate the decision-making
process via decreasing the number of available options (Hardy 2006). Hence, on account of more representative
stimuli in choice RT compared to simple RT, it may be that choice RT benefited from self-talk greater than simple
RT. Another possible explanation could be that simple RT is innately fixed. Some studies reported that simple RT
was not shortened by long-term practice as well as it was not influenced by neither sports experience nor skill levels
(Kida et al. 2005; Mero et al. 1989).
The finding of the current study accords with those of Araki et al. (2006) who found no relation between
participants belief in ST and performance, though it is not supportive of preliminary studies pointed out a positive
association (Van Raalte et al. 1994; Theodorakis et al. 2000; Hardy et al. 2004). Considering the maximum belief
score (40) and the participants mean belief score (M = 33.24, SD = 3.67), it seems possible that this result is due to
participants strong belief in ST. A sample containing individuals with a wide variety of belief score may reveal
different findings.
This study may be limited by subjects sleeping. However, participants were asked to report their sleep latency
of the night before the tests and those with remarkable difference were excluded from the study.
Overall, the results from choice RT in this study support previous findings as regards the effective of ST on task
performance. Nonetheless, these results were not encouraging in whole body and simple RT as well as no evidence
was investigated regarding the relation between participants belief in ST and performance. More research on this
topic needs to be undertaken to examine this relationship. In future investigations using instructional and kinesthetic
self-talk and prolonging the ST intervention might enhance the effectiveness. Future studies on the current topic are
recommended in highly trained athletes.
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Ghaheri
/ Procedia Sciences
- Social and
Behavioral
Sciences 29 (2011) 606 610
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