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and March and half die of malnutrition during their first five weeks
20% on the Antipodes since the mid 1990s and the latter by about
Islands where the only nesting sites occur. The latter breeds on
subantarctic islands including the Antipodes, the Bounties, and on
Disappointment Island in the Aucklands. Outside the breeding
season individuals of both species disperse widely and have been
recorded regularly in Australia. Fledgling Snares crested penguins are
occasionally found wrecked on Southland beaches in summer(5). Low
numbers of erect-crested penguin fledglings are found beach-cast on
the southeast coast of the South Island during March and April(5).
The native species with the most northerly breeding distribution,
extending from Northland to Stewart Island and the Chatham
Islands, is the blue penguin or korora (Eudyptula minor). At least five
phenotypic variants, or subspecies, occur around New Zealand; one
is known as the white-flippered penguin. Blue penguins are common
and frequent the Hauraki Gulf, Cook Strait, Kapiti coast, Otago,
Foveaux Strait and the Chathams. Between1960 and1982 almost
16,000 were recorded in beach surveys for sea bird mortality(5). This
Infectious diseases
Viral infections
penguins breed and moult ashore and then spend about four
cloacal swabs collected between 1976 and 1979 from royal and king
(8)
page
(18)(19)
(18)
that the virus may have been introduced into Antarctica with
seroprevalence data.
some isolates share epitopes with PMV-1 isolates from the northern
a zoo in North America(29). The disease has not been reported for
(19)
(16)
unknown but the isolates were not pathogenic for chickens or blue
penguins(17). However, infection could predispose penguins to
opportunistic infections or confer immunity against pathogenic
viruses such as NDV. Antibodies against the latter were detected in
the serum of Adlie and royal penguins(15)(18). The significance of
NDV for free-living birds is unknown but mortalities have occurred
Adlies were captured in 1973 near Scott Base in the Ross Sea and
several hundred birds that were in good body condition, but each
had focal ulcers on the dorsal surface of the feet(31). No aetiology was
established.
(20)
was believed that infection was contracted in the wild because the
birds were maintained in quarantine.
page
Aspergillus spp are ubiquitous and even found in soils and skua
page
part of their life on the birds. Lice and fleas are of little pathogenic
viruses.
latter lasts for life and stress such as oiling or transportation may
chicks and moderate for adults but parasite burdens were low and
(13)
(51)
shows that avian malaria has the potential to cause mortality among
(41)
(52)
page
breeding season.
Conclusions
Most of the disease surveillance on penguins has occurred in the
Antarctic and subantarctic. The focus has been on potentially exotic
diseases that may have been introduced through human traffic to
these once remote regions. The risk has been minimised by a
protocol on Environmental Protection (Madrid, 1998) as part of the
Antarctic Treaty, 1991. This banned the importation of live poultry
and other birds into the Antarctic and requires the inspection of
page
(15)
(16)
(17)
not implicated. A novel enveloped RNA virus was isolated but not
fully characterised and its pathogenicity not established. Research is
(18)
(19)
(21)
(22)
(23)
Acknowledgements
S McDonald, Otago University, provided unpublished data on avian
malaria seroprevalence in yellow-eyed penguins. J Gill, LABNET
(25)
(26)
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Padraig J Duignan
New Zealand Wildlife Health Centre
Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biological Sciences
Massey University
Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North
Email: P.J.Duignan@massey.ac.nz
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