Thesis Master RBRUNET PG PDF

Numerical simulation of fluid flow in
absorbent diapers, using FeFlow
Robert Brunet Sol

FINAL THESIS 309131
Master in Chemical Engineering and Processes
Universitat Rovira i Virgili
Procter & Gamble
Schwalbach Technical Center
R&D Baby Care
Supervisor P&G: Mr. Rodrigo Rosati
Supervisor URV: Prof. Laureano Jimenez
May-2009
This thesis
and
all
documents
forming
part
thereof
may
contain
Procter&Gamble proprietary information and are to be treated as confidential.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to give my thanks and gratitude to my supervisor Rodrigo Rosati,
for his advice, his support during the project, training me in physics and modeling concepts,
for providing me an opportunity to grow as a student and engineer in this incredible research
environment.
Also I am thankful to my section head Ana Montilla and my buddy Fernando Sierra for their
help and involvement in my project and for clarify specific problems. I would like to extend
this thanks to the people that I have meet here, the people of the department, the rest of R&D
scientist and the rest of the P&G employees that I had the pleasure to know. In general the
P&G company for providing me an opportunity to grow as a student and engineer in this
marvelous research group.
Moreover I would like to give my thanks for my family, mainly my father for his continuous
support in our decisions; he was always there to listen and to give advice. He taught me how
to ask questions and express my ideas. He showed me different ways to approach a problem
and the need to be persistent to accomplish any goal. He is an example to follow as an
engineer and as a father. I also I would like to extent to the rest of my life; my mother and my
two brothers, since they are the people whose I love more in this world.
Besides, I would like to thank my university for the education I have been given during these
last four years of studies. It has been essential to achieve the technical skills that are
necessary to become a good engineer.
Very special thanks go out to Dr. Laureano Jimnez, one of the best professors that I had in
my life, whose expertise, understanding, and patience, added considerably to my graduate
experience.
P&G Confidential- Restricted use
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Project description. 8
1.2 Literature overview... 9
BACKGROUND
2.1 The Procter & Gamble Company....
2.2 Baby care (Pampers)........
2.3 The disposable diaper....
2.3.1 Diaper history.......
2.3.2 Diaper composition..........
2.4
11
12
12
12
14
2.3.2.1 Diaper Core...... 15

2.3.2.2 Diaper Chassis...... 16
Absorbent gelling material (AGM).............. 18
2.4.1 Structural characteristics......

2.4.2 Swelling behavior....
2.4.3 Gel blocking....
2.5 Disposable diaper manufacturing process..
2.5.1 Disposable diaper materials ........
2.5.2 Nonwoven fabric manufacturing .....
2.5.3 The manufacturing process .....
2.6 Disposable diaper sustainability......
2.6.1 Introduction..
2.6.2 Goal and scope.
19
19
20
21
21
21
22
24
24
24
2.6.2.1 Number of changes... 25

2.6.2.2 Disposable diapers 25
2.6.2.3 Reusable diapers... 26
2.6.3 Life cycle inventory. 26
2.6.3.1 Inventory data for disposable diapers... 26
2.6.3.2 Inventory data for reusable diapers..
2.6.4 Life cycle impact assessment
27
28
2.6.4.1 Disposable diapers 28

2.6.4.2 Reusable diapers... 28
2.6.5 Interpretation.... 29
2.7 How can start a new diaper factory?...

2.7.1 How much capital is required?.....................................................
2.7.2 How many people would needed to be hire?...............................
2.7.3 What should be the size of the building?.....................................
2.7.4 Where can be purchased diaper raw materials?...........................
30
30
30
31
32
FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW IN POROUS

MATERIALS
3.1
3.2
Introduction.
Capillary effects describing fluid flow in porous materials
3.2.1 Interfacial tension.
3.2.2 Interfacial tension in liquid- vapor systems.............
3.2.3 Interfacial tension in solid- liquid- vapor systems...
3.2.3.1 Capillary pressure in a tube .....
34
34
34
36
36
37
3.2.3.2 Contact angle ... 40

3.2.3.3 Non-wetting (Hydrophobic) / Wetting (Hydrophilic) :.... 41
3.3 Hysteresis effects....

3.4 Osmotic forces describing fluid flow in AGM.
3.5 Properties describing fluid flow in porous materials..
3.5.1 Porosity.
42
43
45
45
3.5.1.1 Defnition of porosity........ 45

3.5.1.2 Experimental test method......... 47
3.5.2 Capillary pressure. 48
3.2.2.1 Defnition of capillary pressure..... 48
3.5.3 Permeability. 50
3.5.3.1 Definition of permeability........ 50
3.5.4 Swelling kinetics (only for swelling materials)... 52
3.5.4.1 Definition of swelling kinetic parameters.... 52
MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF FLUID FLOW IN

POROUS MEDIA
4.1 Introduction 54
4.2 Mathematical modeling of fluid flow in non-swelling porous 55
materials..
4.2.1 Introduction.. 55
4.2.2 Balance equations. 56
56
57
4.2.3 Derivation of the Richards equation. 57
4.2.2.1 Mass conservation equation.....
4.2.2.2 Momentum conservation equation.......
4.2.4 Constitutive relationships. 58

58
58
Numerical solution of fluid flow in non-swelling porous 59
4.2.4.1 Relative permeability-saturation relationship..
4.2.4.2 Capillary pressure-saturation equation........
4.3
materials..
4.3.2 Richards equation re-formulations...
4.3.3 Discretization of the model...
4.3.4 Linearization of the non-linear equation systems...
4.4 Mathematical modeling of fluid flow in swelling porous
materials..
4.4.2 Assumptions.
4.4.3 Set of balance equations......
4.5 Numerical solution of fluid flow in swelling porous
materials
4.5.1 Discretization...
59
59
60
60
61
61
61
62
64
64
LAB TEST METHODS

5.1 Introduction 66
5.2 Speed of acquisition test........ 66
5.3 Results..... 67
5.3.1 Speed of acquisition..... 67
5.3.2 Length distribution.. 69
5.3.3 Liquid load in the different layers... 71
SIMULATION
DIAPERS
FLUID
FLOW
IN
ABSORBENT
6.1 Introduction 72
6.2 Input parameters....... 73
6.2.1 Material parameters...... 73
6.2.1.1 Non-swelling materials.....
6.2.1.2 Swelling materials.....
6.2.2 Geometry parameters...

6.2.2.1 Geometry inputs........
6.2.2.2 Layer profiles............
6.2.3 Mesh discretization......

6.2.4 Test protocol....
6.3 Simulation of fluid flow in diaper cores.......
6.3.1 Simulation results describing fluid flow in diaper cores.
6.3.2 Simulation results.
6.4 Validation of virtual acquisition test against lab data........
6.4.1 Correlation plot between predicted and lab acquisition times
6.4.2 Sensitivity analysis, maximum difference 10%,,,,,.
73
76
80
80
81
81
82
82
83
85
86
87
89
CONCLUSIONS & NEXT STEPS

7.1 Conclusions. 92
7.2 Next steps........ 93
BIBLIOGRAPHY..
95
APPENDIX
A LIST OF FIGURES.
B LIST OF TABLES
C NOMENCLATURE.....
98
100
101
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Project description
An existing model, based on FEFLOW DHI-Wasy software, is used in this project to simulate
the fluid flow in the diapers core, composed of the acquisition, distribution and storage layer.
Simulation results with this model have an important dependency on three intrinsic properties
in non-swelling porous materials: porosity, capillary pressure and permeability. In swelling
porous materials are determined by four, the previous three and the swelling kinetics.
Furthermore, the equations that determine these intrinsic properties are more complex in
porous materials.
Therefore, in the diaper core simulation, two mathematical models are used; one described
by the Richards equation for the non-swelling materials and the other is a non-linear set
balance of equations describing flow, absorption and deformation process in the AGM. These
equations are derived from the capillary and osmotic flow and the total volume equation.
The objective of this work is to validate the acquisition test model for diaper cores against the
lab data, (e.g. comparing acquisition times, liquid content per layer, distribution lengths,
liquid distribution, void saturation distribution,...).
However the real work of an engineer and a R&D scientist is to understand the importance of
the inputs in the model, how the model works, which equations and relations are used, and
finally what can be extracted for the results to optimize and/or improve the product. For this,
it is very important to have the theoretical and experimental knowledge to obtain results for
this project. Therefore, the first part of the thesis explains these theoretical concepts, (such
as: disposable diaper background, fundaments and properties that describe the fluid flow in
non-swelling and swelling porous media and the mathematical models used to predict the
liquid dynamics in the diaper core) a methodological concepts (such as: lab methods used to
obtain the parameters and Feflow DHI-Wasy software modeling). Feflow is a software based
in Finite-elements, which was developed for the calculation of the fluid flow inside the
porous materials of the core.
The section of the model simulation and validation represents a part of the project work done
at P&G, while the rest of the work will not be presented due to confidential reasons. The
model is validated using experimental data obtained from the lab tests known as Speed of
Acquisition test.
The simulation results must be satisfactorily physically accurate and
analyzed with the Lab data obtained to determine some possible gaps in the input parameters
or model assumptions that explains the results obtained. Once improved or corrected the
input parameters for the model is done a new iteration until reach the validation of the model.
This model is very important, and will be used for future product design, where validation
criteria is relatively strict.
Finally, the last part of the thesis will involve the sections that are not included and/or related
with the internship that I am doing in Procter & Gamble, but are mandatory in the guide
How to elaborate a final thesis by the PFC coordinators, such as: disposable diaper process
production, diaper sustainability and economical studied. I have done this part using nonconfidential data.
1.2. Literature overview

This thesis is Procter & Gamble confidential, therefore some of the literature and knowledge
used is obtained from Procter & Gamble confidential documents.
The company background and brand introductions are available at www.pg.com. However,
the information used for disposable diaper and the superabsorbent material descriptions are
obtained from training manuals by P&G R&D scientists.
There is some information about the physics fundamentals describing fluid flow in absorbent
diapers on the internet, but this section was written using, Capillary Liquid Transport
Training R.Rosati and the non-confidential book, Chattorjee, P.K. Gupta.B.S. Textile
science and Technology, Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier 2002.
General information on numerical modeling of fluid flow and transport in porous media is
obtained from a P&G internship student Project Thesis that describes the numerical modeling
in non-swelling material, and from internal document Modeling unsaturated flow in
absorbent swelling porous media.
In the last chapters, Lab test methods and Simulation of fluid flow in absorbent diapers,
using FeFlow, presents the relevant work on this thesis. In this case, the literature used to
develop the hypothesis and the results definition are the information described in the
previous chapters, mainly the fundamentals that describes the fluid flow in porous materials.
Furthermore, the recommendations and explanations of my supervisor, Rodrigo Rosati, and
the rest of the people related with the project were the key resources used in this Thesis.
10
Chapter 2. BACKGROUND
2.1. The Procter & Gamble Company

In 1837, The Procter & Gamble Company was founded in Cincinnati, Ohio, the United States
by William Procter, a candlemaker, and James Gamble, a soap-maker, who met when they
married sisters
[1]
. Since then the company, has spread worldwide and is one of the most
important American, multinational corporations. In 2008, P&G was the 8th largest
corporation in the world by market capitalization and 14th largest US company by profit[2].
P&G has business operations in more than 130 countries and company-sites in US, Canada,
Central and South America, Europe, and others. Although it has expanded impressively
throughout its history, its headquarters still remains in Cincinnati. The company presided by
A.G.Lafley, employs 138,000 people worldwide.
P&G product operations are categorized into three Global Business Units (GBUs): Beauty
care (Beauty segment and grooming segment), household care (Baby Care, Family Care,
Fabric Care and Home Care) and health & well-being (Health Care, snacks, coffee and pet
care) [1].
These GBUs include around 300 brands. Among them, 23 brands net more than 1 billion
dollars in annual sales[3]. These include: Ariel, Always (Ausonia), Braun, Duracell, Gillette,
Head & Shoulders, Ivory Soap, Mr. Proper, Pampers (Dodot), Pantene, Pringles, Tampax,
Vicks , Wella, and others [1].
11
Background
2.2. Baby care (Pampers)

Pampers is a brand of disposable diapers marketed by Procter & Gamble. Pampers were
produced and commercialized in 1961. This product was created by Victor Mills, one of the
most important scientists in the history of P&G[4].
The first disposable diapers were composed of fluff pulp as absorbent, cellulose fibers in
topsheet and polyethylene backsheet. During the following years there were some
improvements to obtain better performance in the disposable diaper. These improvements
reduced the weight and the thickness, increased comfort and reduced leakage and dryness.
One of the most important improvements was the introduction of the absorbent gelling
material in place of fluff pulp in 1986. In the 90's, we saw the introduction of gender specific
Pampers and also the return to unisex diapers at the end of the decade.
Actually Pampers is an $8 billion brand, on of the most important brands in The Procter &
Gamble Company.
2.3. The disposable diaper

A diaper is a sponge-like garment used for the people who cannot control their urine and
bowel movements. They are used mainly by babies, but can be used by adults in special
cases. The most important factors in consumer opinion are the diapers ability to absorb and
lock away liquid, and its storage capacity. These factors help to avoid leakages and prevent
skin irritation[5].
2.3.1 Diaper history

The need for a baby diaper dates as far back as the history itself, i.e. The Egyptians, Aztecs,
the Romans, and others. All used different natural resources including milkweed leaf wraps
and animal skins to dress their babies. In later years, the diapers of many European societies
12
Background
consisted of swaddling bands made of linen and wool. In the 1800s with progressing
industrialization the progenitor of the disposable diaper was developed. In 1889 it was first
created by Maria Allen, an American woman, and consisted of a piece of linen folded into a
rectangular shape and held in place with safety pins[6].
The diaper evolved in 20th century through the innovations of many different people. In
1942, Paulistrm, a Swedish company, developed the first absorbent diaper in which the pad
was made by cellulose tissues. A few years later in 1946, an American housewife, Marion
Donovan, replaced the dangerous pins for plastic snaps. In 1947 the nonwoven fabric was
introduced. In this period the disposable diaper was a luxury product, used only in special
occasions.
In 1961 Pampers diapers by Procter & Gamble was lunched into the US market. These
diapers were conceptualized at the end of 50s by Victor Mills, and employee of the
company, when he was looking for better products to use on his grandson. Since the first
Pampers appeared in the market, the company has always focused to develop this product by
searching for better materials, creating different sizes and reducing leakage.
In the 70s, disposable diapers become available in all developed countries and even in some
other, less developed areas of the world. At the same time, the competition between Procter
& Gamble and Kimberly Clark resulted in rapid diaper design improvements and lower
prices for the consumer. During the following years, some advances were made such as: an
increase in absorbent capacity, diaper machine running speed (250 diapers per minute), better
materials for baby skin and diaper fit using elastomers.
In 1982 super-absorbent particles (SAP) were introduced into the diaper by Unicharm in
Japan. With their introduction, diapers became thinner and reduced the leakage below 2%.
Diaper rush, as well as diapers weight were reduced by about 50% from the previous.
13
Background
In the 90s, the main developments resides in the mechanical tapes, which were introduced in
the form of Velcro, as well improved SAP, which used a new surface cross linker, to reduced
gel blocking. Gel blocking is the phenomena which prevents liquid movement when the
absorbent is saturated. In addition, diapers machines began to run above 300 diapers per
minute[6].
In this decade, diapers are becoming thinner, have more absorbance capacity (30 g/g of
urine), leak less and can better protect babys skin. On top of that, diaper machines can now
achieve a production of 1000 diapers per minute. The recent diaper sales volumes for the
year 2006 are around 50 billion units around the world. Of all the diapers sold around the
world, 18.6 billion units where sold in the United States and 20.4 billion in Europe[7].
2.3.2 Diaper composition

A diaper is composed of the chassis and the core. The core, which is the focus of our
investigations, is composed of different layers, each designed and distributed, to absorb high
amounts of liquid (urine) in a short time and to retain it in the absorbent gelling material
(AGM), against external pressures. The chassis functions to keep the core in place, avoiding
possible leakages maintaining dry clothes. The chassis also allows for different diapers sizes
which can fit a large range of babies[8].
Figure 2.1. Typical disposable diaper design[4]
14
Background
2.3.2.1 Diaper Core

The requirements of the core are fast acquisition times with good liquid distribution, keeping
the skin dry and healthy, and leakage prevention. At the same time, that the core geometry
should be optimized in order to use much thinner and smaller cores.
The core is studied depending on the size, with gushes with an average of 50-75 mL of urine
with a flow rate up to 22 mL/s. The urine gushes are expected every 60 to 70 minutes. The
fulfillment of diaper requirements has to be reliable under different external pressures
conditions. Babies perform a variety of activities, such as: standing, walking, sitting,
crawling or laying[9]. The top core layer in contact with the baby skin has to be dried in short
times, e.g. within few minutes, and the urine storage has to be enabled up to 300-500 mL
depending on the size of the diaper core.
The diaper core is composed by 5 layers glued to each other, topsheet (TS), acquisition layer
(AL), distribution layer (DL), storage layer (SL) and the backsheet (BS). Remarkably, that in
the storage layer is composed of 2 nonwoven layers enclosing the super-absorbent material
and fluff between them.
Topsheet
Acquisition layer
Distribution layer
Storage layer
Backsheet
Figure 2.2. Layers composed the diaper core
Each layer in the diaper core has its own functions, characteristics and requirements.
Topsheet has the function of separating the core materials from the baby skin, keeping it dry
and healthy. This surface layer contains lotion stripes to protect the baby skin against
possible irritations.
15
Background
The acquisition patch, consists of an acquisition layer and a distribution layer. The
acquisition layer is an open structure with a high permeability, so that the liquid can get
quickly below the topsheet. This material has a very low storage capacity. The distribution
layer is a cross-linked cellulose, which can temporarily store the liquid until the superabsorbent takes it up. The advantage of this layer is that the liquid can be distributed rapidly
along the patch so that in the storage layer all the liquid is not focused at the same point.
The function of the storage layer is to take up as much urine as possible and lock it away.
This property, called storage capacity, transports the urine within the swollen gel bed and
works reasonably fast. Storage layer contains AGM and fluff, wrapped by two nonwovens.
Generally the nonwoven on the top is hydrophilic and the nonwoven on the bottom is
hydrophobic.
The backsheet is a polyethylene film, which prevents the liquid from leaking through the
bottom of the diaper.
2.3.2.2 Diaper Chassis
The chassis geometry impacts the fit and the size of the diaper in addition keeping the core in
place. The main parts that compose the chassis are[10]:
Topsheet (TS)
The topsheet is also considered in some cases a part of the core. Topsheet material is
made from a hydrophilic polymer or coated with hydrophilic surfactant in order to allow
the acquisition through it. Taking into account that it has to keep the skin dry, it can also
be hydrophobic with apertures or holes.
Backsheet (BS)
The diaper backsheet consists of a poly film hydrophobic laminate. This film functions to
prevent possible leakage from the storage core, through the visible exterior of the diaper.
Barrier Leg Cuffs (BLCs)

These are the primary chassis leakage protection. They consist of a nonwoven material
with a couple of elastic strings folded into them in order to keep them in contact with the
16
Background
babys skin. These cuffs are made from hydrophobic material to prevent the liquid
flowing through them.
Fastening system
The Landing zone and mechanical fasteners belong to the fastening system. The
adjustment of tapes allows the possibility of refastening to engage a better fit. A
permanent fastening during use is guaranteed.
Elastics/ Stretch
Elastics are used to improve the waist sizing as well as the leg sizing to have a closed
circumference. They expand the size range and allow tolerance of a wide variety of baby
shapes and sizes. They play an important role in leakage protection, as are crucial in
providing a good fit and gasketing.
Front ears (FE) & Back ears (BE)

Front ears help to close the diaper at the front during the application of the diaper onto
the baby.
Figure 2.3. Diaper chassis schema (1- Front ears; 2- Back ears; 3-Barrier Leg cuffs)
17
Background
The diaper chassis study is divided into three specific areas:
Engineering fit: study the mechanics of the interactions between diaper and child. This
mainly includes pressures that the diaper puts onto the baby and product gasketing on the
body to prevent leakage.
Technical fit: is focused in sizing. The physical range of sizes that a products geometry
can accommodate and the consumer size perception must be considered.
Aesthetic fit: this area involves the colour, style, and texture of the product.
2.4. Synthetic superabsorbents

The superabsorbent used is a hydrophilic polymer with the ability to absorb and retain
aqueous solution, e.g. urine. There are several names used to describe it, the most used are:
absorbent gelling material (AGM) and superabsorbent polymer (SAP)[11]. In the following,
the term AGM will be used.
One gram of this absorbent gelling material can absorb and keep around 1000-1200 mL
deinoized water, or in the case of the urine around 30-50 mL. This is a ten times higher
capacity than that of the fibers and foams used as absorbents in original diapers[11].
AGM is the key material in diapers. Its function is to absorb urine and lock it away. The
amount of urine that can be absorbed, is referred to as gel volume capacity. Another
important parameter is permeability, since it has to allow the transport of urine within itself.
It is also important that the superabsorbent works reasonably fast to absorb the material.
Therefore, the key properties of the AGM are storage capacity, permeability and absorbance
velocity. These properties are determined mainly by four intrinsic characteristics of the
material: porosity, capillary pressure, permeability and swelling kinetics. These properties
are analyzed and explained in the section 3.5.
18
Background
The principle behind AGM absorption is that it is soluble in water and at the same times has
the tendency to also be dissolved in water. At this point, the crosslinks between the polymer
chains do not allow the polymer get dissolved, because they act as retractive springs.
Consequently, the water is absorbed via diffusion into the network and the molecules expand
until equilibrium is reached between the driving and retractive forces.
2.4.1. Structural characteristics

Most common and commercially AGM is polyacrylates crosslinked with organic
crosslinkers. Their chains are neutralized with sodium hydroxide[7].
CO2H
C=O
O
COONa+
CO2H
COONa+
R C - Et
Na+
O
COO-
C=O
CO2H
Na+
COO-
CO2H
Na+
COO-
Figure 2.4. AGM molecule [7]
2.4.2. Swelling behavior

In the dry state, AGM is flowing powder. After absorbing liquid, e.g. water or urine, it turns
into a softer and more flexible gel. The softness and hardness of this gel bed is a function of
the number of crosslinks and the amount of liquid absorbed.
Adding liquid
Figure 2.5. AGM swelling behavior
19
Background
Liquid flows into the AGM particles and the particle swells until the system reaches the
equilibrium between the driving and retractive forces. Equilibrium forces are described by
the equation 1.1.
Pext
Pelas
Pmix
Posm
Figure 2.6. Balance of forces in an AGM particle
Pmix Posm Pelast Pext
(1.1)
The driving forces are Pmix which describes the interactions between the phases and the
osmotic pressure (Posm) involves electrostatic interactions in the particle. In the other side the
network elasticity (Pelast) and the external pressure (Pext) are the retractive forces.
2.4.3. Gel blocking

Gel blocking occurs when the swelling effect blocks the void spaces between AGM particles.
This causes permeability to decrease, increasing diaper leakage drastically. In this case, the
liquid can flows through the material only by diffusion.
Gel blocking is reduced by using higher gel strength or by lowering external pressure.
Uncontrolled Swelling/ Gel blocking
Controlled Swelling/ High permeability
Figure 2.7. Gel blocking in an AGM bulk [7]
20
Background
2.5. Disposable diaper manufacturing process

The data and information showed in this section is not related with P&G, as well is not
related with P&G manufacturing process for disposable diapers. This section is mandatory
for the University Rovira i Virgili (Tarragona). The information shared is obtained from
internet. The link used is www.madehow.com/Volume-3/Disposable-Diaper
2.5.1. Disposable diaper materials

Actually disposable diapers are made with synthetic fibers which far exceed the capacity of
natural fibers, e.g. cotton material. Disposable diaper will absorb 15 times its weight in
water, due to the absorbent pad design found in the core of the diaper. The pad is composed
of two essential elements, a hydrophilic polymer and fibrous materials.
Diaper core is composed by 5 layers glued to each other, topsheet is an hydrophilic
nonwoven fabric, polypropylene with lotion stripes applied applied in the top to maintain
baby skins healthy. Acquisition layer is a nonwoven with an open structure, commonly
polystyrene, distribution layer is a cross-linked cellulose treated with citric acid. Storage
layer (SL) is composed for the AGM, cross-linked polymer network, e.g. poly acrylate salts
and two nonwoven between two nonwoven fibers, the nonwoven in the top is hydrophilic
and the nonwoven in the back is hydrophobic. Finally the bottom layer is the backsheet (BS),
hydrophobic polymer. Manufacturers have optimized the combinations of polymers and
fibrous material to yield the most efficient absorbency possible.
2.5.2. Nonwoven fabric manufacturing

Nonwovens are typically made from plastic resins, such as nylon, polyester, polyethylene, o r
polypropylene, and are assembled by mechanically, chemically, or thermally interlocking the
plastic fibers. The principal method of assembling nonwovens, called the dry laid process,
consist in a plastic resin is melted and extruded, through tiny holes by air pressure. As the
P&G
Confidentialuse
Not related with
P&GMandatoryRestricted
URV- www.madehow.com
21
Background
air-blown stream of fibers cools, the fibers condense onto a sheet. Heated rollers are then
used to flatten the fibers and bond them together. With this process is produced the topsheet
layer, polypropylene and the backsheet layer polyethylene.
2.5.3. The manufacturing process
The first part of the process to produce an absorbent pad is composed by a movable conveyer
belt. Which is composed for various pressurized nozzles spray either polymer particles or
fibrous material along the conveyer. In the bottom is perforated, and as the pad material is
sprayed onto the belt, a vacuum is applied from below so that the fibers are pulled down to
form a flat pad.
It is applying polymer and fiber involves application of the absorbent material onto the top
surface of the pad after it has been formed. However, it is produced a pad which has
absorbent material concentrated on its top side and does not have much absorbency
throughout the pad. Another disadvantage is that a pad made in this way may lose some of
the polymer applied to its surface. This approach tends to cause gel blocking.
These problems are solved by controlling the mixture polymer and fibrous material. Multiple
spray dispensers are used to apply several layers of polymer and fiber. As the fiber is drawn
into the chamber and the bottom of the pad is formed, a portion of the polymer is added to
the mix to form a layer of combined polymer and fiber. One of the principal advantages of
this process is that the polymer just where it is needed.
Figure 2.8. Disposable diaper manufacturing process
ConfidentialRestricted
Not relatedP&G
with P&GMandatory
URV- use
www.madehow.com
22
Background
The second part of the process consist to proceeds down the conveyor path to a leveling
roller near the outlet of the forming chamber. This roller removes a portion of the fiber at the
top of the pad to make it a uniform thickness. The pad then moves by the conveyor through
the outlet for next operations.
Sheets of nonwoven fabric are formed from plastic resin using the meltblown process as
described in the section 2.5.2. These sheets are produced as a wide roll known as a "web,"
which is then cut to the appropriate width for use in diapers. There is a web for the top sheet
and another for the bottom sheet. This step is in sequence after pad formation in the case that
the nonwoven fabrics are made in the same location. The production of these large bolts of
fabric are connected to special roller equipment that feeds fabric to the assembly line.
Stretched elastic bands are attached to the backing sheet with adhesive. After the diaper is
assembled, these elastic bands contract and gather the diaper together to ensure a snug fit and
limit leakage.
Generally in the process there are still three separate components, the absorbent pad, the top
sheet, and the backing sheet. These three components are in long strips and must be joined
together and cut into diaper-sized units. This is accomplished by feeding the absorbent pad
onto a conveyor with the polyethylene bottom sheet. The polypropylene top sheet is then fed
into place, and the compiled sheets are joined by gluing, heating, or ultrasonic welding. The
assembled diaper may have other attachments, such as strips of tape or Velcro, which act
as closures. Finally the long roll is then cut into individual diapers, folded, and packaged for
shipping.
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2.6. Disposable diaper sustainability

related with P&G life cycle assessment and sustainability studies for disposable diapers. This
section is mandatory for the University Rovira i Virgili (Tarragona). The information shared
is obtained from internet. The link used is a science report titled An update lifecycle
assessment study for disposable and reusable nappies by UK Environmental Agency life
cycle assessment model
2.6.1. Introduction
The target of this section is to realize a Life cycle assessment between the disposable diapers
and reusable diapers. The goal of LCA is to compare the full range of environmental and
social damages assignable to products and services, to be able to choose the least oppressive
one. A Life Cycle Assessment is executed in four steps.
Goal and scope: Formulates and specifies the goal and scope of study in relation to
the intended application. the goal and scope phase includes a description of the
method applied for assessing potential environmental impacts and which impact
categories that are included.
Life cycle inventory: involves data collection and modeling of the product system, as
well as description and verification of data.
Life cycle impact assessment: is evaluating the contribution to impact categories such
as global warming, acidification, etc.
Interpretation: Involves an analysis of major contributions, sensitivity analysis and

uncertainty analysis
2.6.2. Goal and scope

The study realized is aimed to explain the significance, of the environmental impact of the
diapers. These included considerations of how actions can be, and have been. The functional
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unit used is defined as the use of diapers during the first two and a half years of a childs
life. These results are the same for disposable and reusable diapers.
Table 2.1. Children wearing diapers by child age
Age of child
Children wearing
diapers (%)
100.0 %
95%
89%
45%
20%
5%
2%
0.5%
0.1%
Up to 6 month
6 to 12 months
12 to 18 months
18 to 24 months
24 to 30 months
30 to 36 months
36 to 42 months
32 to 48 months
48 to 66 months
2.6.2.1. Number of changes
In the case of disposable diapers, the number of changes per day decreased from an average
of seven at birth to an average of five at two and a half years. While in the case of reusable
diapers, the average number of changes per day for children decreased from eight at birth to
an average of six at two and a half years.
2.6.2.2. Disposable diapers

Disposable diapers typically consist of a palstic outer layer with integral fastening and a core
of absorbent materials with protective top layer. The diaper core is composed of fluff pulp
(cellulose fibre) and water-absrobent polymer (AGM), sodium polyacrylate. In the following
table is shown the disposable nappy composition and weight.
Table 2.2. Average disposable diapers composition and weight
Total
weight
40 g
Fluff
pulp
35%
AGM
PP
LDPE
Adhesives
PET
Other
33%
15%
5%
5%
2%
5%
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Using an average of 4.16 diapers used per day, and an average diaper weight of 40g, an
average of child will use 146.5 kg of nappies over the two and a half year period considered
here.
The manufacturers have reduced the environmental impact of disposable diaper through
product design and development. Since 2001/02, the industry has reduced diaper weight by
13.5%.
2.6.2.3. Reusable diapers

There are several types of reusable cotton diapers. The different diapers systems can be
divided into the following categories:
All in ones shaped, fitted diapers with velcro or popper fastening, which include a
waterproof cover.
Shaped nappies, similar to all in ones, but wraps or pants have to be purchased
separately to provide waterproof cover.
Prefolds, require folding and a separate waterproff wrap/pant, with fasteners used in
some cases.
The major retail routes for reusable diapers appear to be through high street shops, mail order
and via the internet. Reusable diapers are sold in birth to potty packs.
2.6.3. Life cycle inventory

The basis of any life cycle inventory is the creation of a model, that contains the amounts of
all inputs and outputs of processes that occur during the life cycle of a product.
2.6.3.1. Inventory data for disposable diapers

The number of diapers used over the average of two and a half period that a child is in
diapers taken from the previous table 2.3.
Waste management: It was assumed that 365kg of excreta was disposed with diapers as
municipal solid waste over two and a half years. The composition of excreta was assumed to
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be, 18% faeces and 82% urine. The model the 100 per cert anaerobic digestion sensitivity
scenario, the MBT- Hydro-Mechanical Spearation and Aerobic Digestion (with energy
recovery) technology.
Table 2.3. Disposable diaper composition after it used
Scenario
Urine
Faeces
Plastics
Pulp
Miscellaneous
Disposable diaper
300 kg
70 kg
80 kg
50 kg
15 kg
2.6.3.2 Inventory data for reusable diapers

An average weight of 140 g per reusable diaper is assumed. The reusable diapers are 100%
cotton. A minimum of 30 nappies are required over two and a half year period.
Wraps
Is calculated a wrap weight of 50 g, and a minimum of 12 wraps required for two and a half
period. The composition of these wraps was 20% cotton, 40% polyester and 40%
polyurethane.
Washing data
Calculated domestic washing and drying performance, stock average for: water use and
electricity use. The table 2.4. shows the electricity and water used for washing a reusable
diaper. Table 3.2. shows the electricity and water consumption used in pre-wash cycle. And
table 3.3. shows the electricity and water use figures for driers.
Table 2.4. Summary washing performance
Washing
temperature
40C
60C
90C
Electricity use:
stock average
0.8 kWh per load
1.0 kWh per load
1.8 kWh per load
Water use: stock

average
70 litres per load
70 litres per load
70 litres per load
Table 2.5. Summary pre-washing performance
Washing
temperature
20C
Electricity use:
Water use: stock
stock average
average
0.25 kWh per load 35 litres per load
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Table 2.6. Summary drying performance
Electricity use:
stock average
3 kWh per load
Water use: stock

average
20 litres per load
2.6.4. Life cycle impact assessment

2.6.4.1 Disposable diapers
Table 4.2. summarizes a selection of the life cycle inventory flows for the manufacture and
use of disposable diapers. Table 4.. show the whole life impact profile for the disposable
diaper. The main driver for the impacts is the production of materials used to construct the
disposable diapers.
The greatest influence this scenario has is on the water pollution impact categories. The
anaerobic digestion sensivity analysis shows that diversion of disposable diapers away from
current residual waste management routes can benefit greenhouse gas profiles through
digestion and energy recovery from the biogas produced. If we consider that the potential
global warming impact scenario is 600kg carbon dioxide equivalents per child over two and a
half year period, this equates to an estimated global warming potential of approximately
0.4Mt carbon dioxide equivalents per year. This assumes that all children wear disposables
(based on 1.7 million children in diapers at any one time).
Table 2.7. Inventory analysis sensitivity scenario (Manufacture and use excluding disposal)
Coal
Oil gas
Carbon Methane
SOx
NOx
N2O
natural dioxide
50 kg
100 kg
450 kg
Total
water
1 kg
2 kg
2 kg
0.05 kg
150 m3
Table 2.8. Impact for disposable diapers and sensitivity scenarios (Whole Life- Includes disposal)
Abiotic
depletion
5 kg Sb eq
Acidification
Eutrophication
3.5 kg SO2 eq
0.5 kg PO43eq
Global warming
potential
600 kg CO2 eq
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2.6.4.2 Reusable diapers

Table 4.5 summaries a selection of life cycle inventory environmental consumptions and
flows for the manufacture and use of shaped diapers for these two scenarios.
Table 2.9. Electricity and water consumption
Electricity consumption
Water consumption
Washing
Drying
Washing
Drying
High temperature
700 kWh
150 kWh
5000 L
1500 L
Reuse, high load efficiency
250 kWh
3500 L
2.6.5. Interpretation
The average of disposable diapers would result in a global warming impact of approximately
550 kg of carbon dioxide equivalents used over the two and a half year a child is typically in
diapers.
For reusable diapers, based on average washer and drier use produced a global warming
impact of approximately 570 kg of carbon dioxide equivalents. However the impacts for
reusable nappies are highly dependent on the way they are laundered.
The environmental impacts of using shaped reusable diapers can be higher or lower than
using disposables, depending on how they laundered. The report shows that, in contrast to the
use of disposable diapers, it is consumers behaviors after purchase that determines most of
the impacts from reusable diapers.
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2.7. How can start a new diaper factory?

related with P&G. This section is mandatory for the University Rovira i Virgili (Tarragona).
The information shared is obtained from internet. The link used is www.disposablediaper.net
In this section is it explained some of the requirements and issues to take into account to start
a new business in disposable diapers
2.7.1. How much capital is required?
A modest used diaper line (10 to 20 years old) costs a few hundred thousand dollars
($300,000 to $700,000).
A brand new baby diaper machine, complete with peripheral
equipment and most basic features, can cost anywhere between $750,000 and 3.5 million
dollars, depending on the design of the diapers proposed to be produced and the speed of the
machine.
In addition to the capital required to buy the diaper machines, another very important issue is
the working capital. The raw material suppliers, especially at the very start of your
operations. Capital required to have just 15 days inventory of raw materials and 15 days
inventory of finished products could be around one half of the capital invested in the whole
diaper machine. Another important point is to rent or buy a building.
A diaper factory is much more than just buying a diaper machine, a building, and a few raw
materials. It is necessary to have to set up diaper specifications and an internal laboratory,
give the right training to your technical staff. As well to be aware of the building and layout
requirements, the peripheral equipments, the required logistics, etc.
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2.7.2. How many people would I need to hire?

Considering a larger machine, for example, 300 to 600 or more diapers per minute, it will be
needed an important group of operators to make sure the equipment runs 24 hours a day.
One of the most important factors affecting the number of operators required to run a diaper
line has to do with the number of packages and whether or not you plan to use automatic or
manual packaging equipment.
A diaper machine producing 300 to 600 or more diapers per minute, will require at least one
operator and one assistant to help him feed the raw materials. In addition, at least one
packer is required for every 10 to 12 bags produced per minute. For example, if the
company wants a 20 count bag and you run your machine at 400 diapers per minute with
manual packaging, it will be needed two people just for stacking the diapers into the bags and
sealing them. As well is needed a person to stack the sealed bags into the box, or an
automatic case sealer. Depending on the number of bags inside the box, will be needed two
people to do this job. Have to be considered some extra staff to be able to operate
continuously without a stop during the lunch break. A typical machine with manual
packaging will need about eight people per shift; if you use automatic packaging, you will
probably need only about four or five per shift. You need to multiply these numbers by the
number of shifts that you want to run.
In fact, to run the plant for all the 30 days in a month, you need at least four teams to be able
to keep the machine running during weekends and holidays. Remarkably that all these people
are just for the direct labor in-line.
It is needed more employees to run the laboratory, the diaper inspections, the spare parts
room, the instrumentation, the finished products warehouse, the raw material warehouse, in
addition to all of the engineering infrastructure required to run an efficient factory. A typical
diaper factory running only one diaper machine at 300 to 600 diapers per minute and three
shifts per week (full capacity) with manual packaging and using a typical count of 20 diapers
per bag, will require about 50 people.
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2.7.3. What should be the Size of the Building?

Lets assume that we are looking for a large size diaper machine, something between 200 to
600 diapers per minute. For this typical diaper machine, the length of the diaper line can be
expected to be in the range of 20 to 50 meters, including the packaging equipment. There are
several issues that affect the total length of a baby diaper machine, like the required features
in your diaper design and whether or not you want to have all the equipment installed in a
straight line. If the machine is to be installed in a straight line, you will probably need an
area of 30 to 60 meters in length and 8 meters in width.
This was the space requirement for the diaper machine itself; there are other areas that
require plenty of space. Raw materials and finished products warehouses will be required,
in tune with the expected inventory levels. For example, if its planed to have only one mid
size diaper machine (200 to 400 diapers per minute), will be enough with 1,000 square
meters of space. However your inventory will then have to be limited to less than a weeks
raw materials and finished goods. In some locations, it is possible to operate just in time,
specially if the suppliers have their own inventories close by. In that case, it may be possible
to operate with less than a weeks inventory of raw materials.
Other locations may require
as much as a months inventory due to complicated logistics or customs regulations, which

involve bringing raw materials from far away places.
Another important factor to take into
account is the required changes in diaper size on the machine itself; the higher the inventory
of finished products you hold, the lower will be the need for machine stoppages for size
change (example: from large to newborn); on the other hand, working capital requirements
go up. All diaper companies must consider working capital requirements. Some part of
working capital is indeed met by credits from raw material suppliers but a new company
starting from scratch, without commercial references, is unlikely to get any credit from the
suppliers, at least in the beginning. You need to look at costs and benefits to decide the
optimal size for your warehouse, based on your financial situation and ability to buy
materials on credit. Finally, you will also have to take into account space for office, spare
parts storage, quality control laboratory, training room and the required space for the trucks
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to manoeuvre, besides space for peripheral equipment (dryers, compressor, dust collector,
scrap collector, machine shop room, etc.).
2.7.4. Where can be purchased diaper raw materials?
Another important issue to take into account is to research the market to find the suppliers to
purchase the raw materials for the disposable diapers production, in the following points are
showed some suppliers for the disposable diapers raw materials.
Fluff Pulp (Cellulose and Air Laid): Asia Pulp and Paper, Bowater Incorporated,
Buckeye Technologies, Celanese Acetate, Cellutissue Holdings, Great Lakes Pulp, Ilim
Pulp, Klabin, Koch Cellulose, Mercer, Rayonier, Rexcell, Walkisoft, Weyerhaeuser,
SAP (Sodium prolyacrylate): Arkema, BASF, Degussa Superabsorber, Elf Atochem,

Formosa Plastics, Incopack, Kolon Chemical, Lysay, Mc Airlaids, Nanning Qiaohong,
Sanyo Chemical, Sumitomo Seiki,
Nonwovens: Advanced Fabrics SAAF, BBA Fiberweb, Bonlam, Buckeye Technologies,

Consolidated Fibers, DuPont, Fibertex, Libeltex, Mada Nonwovens, Mediane, Nikoo
Group, Providencia, RKW AG Rheinische Kunststoffwerke, Tenotex,
Elastomerics: Arimatex, Caligen, ExxonMobil, Fillatice, Koester GmbH, Nordenia,

Woodbridge Group,
Bags: A-Roo, Flexico Moreau, Imbalplast SRL, Pelsan, Pliant Corporation, Relapasa,
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Chapter 3. FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID

FLOW IN POROUS MATERIALS
3.1. Introduction
The basic principle of the diaper design is to absorb and store liquid in the different layers of
the core and prevent leakage. To design the core well, it is essential to study the effects that
describe the fluid flow in the different porous materials that composes the core. There are
two different groups the non-swelling porous materials (e.g. acquisition layer, distribution
layer and topsheet) and the swelling porous materials (e.g. AGM in the storage core).
The liquid movement in porous media is described mainly by the capillary effects, as well
the hydrostatic pressure, gravity, external pressure and hysteresis effects, associated with
capillary pressure[12]. In swelling porous media the fluid flow is additionally described by
fluid absorption into AGM particles, which is essentially driven by osmotic pressure.
3.2. Capillary effects describing fluid flow in porous media

One of the key driving forces that describe the liquid movement in porous media is the
wetting phenomenon. This physical phenomenon is determined by the capillary effects and
describes the fluid flow in the microscopic pore channels. Furthermore it explains the liquid
absorption into the porous material.[12]
3.2.1. Interfacial tension

Some fluids tend to keep contact with the solid surface of the porous materials. This effect is
called wetting. When liquid is in contact with another immiscible liquid, gas or solid,
intermolecular interactions are generated producing an interfacial energy between these two
phases. The force of these interactions depends on both substances, whereas Hydrogen-
34
bridges dominate in the interaction between water and miscible liquid, Van-der-Waals forces
dominate in the interaction with gas.
The interfacial tension is the work done to separate a liquid and another substance (Wseparate)
per unit of area (Surface Area). The surface tension () will increase with a stronger
interaction of the molecules[12] [13].
Wseparate
(3.1)
Surface Area
In the following system water and gas are present. The interactions among water molecules
are stronger than the interactions with the gas molecules. Since the system tends to minimize
the energy, water molecules and gas molecules tend to be separated in two phases.
Vapor-Vapor
interaction
Vapor Liquid
interaction
Liquid-Liquid
interaction
Figure 3.1. Molecular interactions between two fluid phases
Dispersion and polar forces are the two types of forces which produce the molecular
interaction of different phases in contact and are the cause of the existing phase interface.
Dispersion forces of attraction affects any neighboring par of molecules without influence of
their chemical composition. These forces of attraction depend exclusively of the distance
between both molecules (F=1/r6). The polar force of attraction is a function of the molecules
charge, i.e. ion-dipole, dipole-dipole, induced dipole interactions or to any combinations of
these[12] [13].
35
3.2.2. Interfacial tension in liquid-vapor systems

Across the interface (gas-liquid interaction zone) showed in the figure 3.1 exists a
discontinuity of pressure. This difference of pressure from the non-wetting (Pnon-wet) and the
wetting side (Pwet), is called capillary pressure (Pc).
Pc Pwet Pnonwet
(3.2)
Capillary pressure is a function of the interfacial tension. This relation between the pressure
difference with the curvature in the interface and the resulting tension is described in the
equation 3.3, also known as Laplace equation on the interfacial tension.
1 1
Pc P1 P2
r1 r2
(3.3)
In system equilibrium, P1-P2 is constant on the surface. For spherical interface r1=r2, and
consequently the equation 3.3 is reduced to the equation 3.4. [12] [13]
Pc P1 P2
2
r
(3.4)
Where; Pc is the capillary pressure, P1 the pressure from the wetting side, P2 the pressure from
the non-wetting side, r is the radius of the capillary and is the interfacial tension.
3.2.3. Interfacial tension in solid-liquid-vapor systems

In a three-phases (SLV) system the total free energy is calculated from the free energies of
the interface produced by liquid-vapor (LV), solid-vapor (SV) and liquid-solid (LS). The free
energies of each phase are multiplied by their respective interfacial contact areas.
F LV Area LV SL Area SL SV Area SV
(3.5)
Where; F is the interfacial energy, LV is the interfacial tension in the liquid-vapor interface,
SL the interfacial tension between the solid and the liquid phases and SV between the solid
and vapor phases. AreaLV, AreaSL, AreaSV are their respective contact areas.
36
The interfacial energy (F) tends to be minimized to reach to the equilibrium system. The
relationship among the surface tension values is described by the Youngs equation,
equation 3.6 relating the three interfacial tensions with a contact angle obtained in the
system in thermodynamic equilibrium. The variables of the contact areas will be optimized
because they are the free variables of the system. [12] [13]. The importance of the contact angle
in the capillary pressure is showed more detailed in the figure 3.4.
SV SL LV cos cos
SV SL
LV
(3.6)
3.2.3.1. Capillary pressure in a tube
A simpler way to explain the Laplace equation could be using a tube with zero contact angle
( 0 ) as a reference system. When the system reaches its equilibrium, the capillary
pressure obtained is a balance between the hydrostatic and capillary forces [14].
Ph Pc P1 P2 g h
2
r
(3.7)
Where; Ph is the hydrostatic force, is the density of the liquid and g is the gravity constant.
Laplace equation defines the surface tension.
r g h
2
(3.8)
The flow velocity is expressed by the equation 3.9, as a function of the permeability and
viscosity. Nevertheless, neither parameters have an effect in the equilibrium system.
dh g K hc h
h
dt
(3.9)
37
Where; dh/dt describes the liquid height at any time, K is the permeability, is the viscosity
of the material, and hc is the height of the liquid column that would produce the equivalent of
the capillary pressure.
As it can be observed in the figure 3.2, and according to equation 3.4, a high capillary
pressure will be obtained in small pores. Assuming that the material is the same and the
radius B is two times the radius A, the difference of height is one half, equation 3.10.
hb ra 1

ha rb 2
ra
(3.10)
rb
ha
hb
Figure 3.2. Liquid transport between pores of different diameters
In porous materials, the pores are normally interconnected forming a multipore network. In
these systems the hydrostatic forces tend to move the liquid from those pores containing
more liquid or hydrostatic pressure to those containing less. Capillary pressure effects tend to
transport the liquid from the large to the small pores. In the beginning (1) there is more liquid
in the bigger pores, hydrostatic and capillary pressure transports the liquid to the smaller
pores. When the liquid reaches the same level for both pores (2) no hydrostatic force is left.
Nevertheless capillary pressure has still an effect and moves the liquid from the bigger to the
smaller pores until the system reaches the equilibrium (3). In this point the capillary pressure
and the hydrostatic pressure have the same magnitude in opposite directions. [14].
38
(3)
(3)
Pc
Ph
(2)
(2)
(1)
(1)
Pc
Ph
Figure 3.3. Liquid transport in interconnected multipore systems
In the case that the contact angle is non-zero, the radius curvature is calculated by the
equation 3.8. Capillary pressure is also a function of the contact angle, as shown in equation
3.10.
rl
Pc
rc
cos
(3.11)
2 2 cos
r
rc
(3.12)
The value of the contact angle is a function of some surface properties explained in the
following section 3.2.3. One of these parameters is the solid material. In the following case
the height of the cylinders with same radius is determined for two different materials with
0 and 60 (see figure 3.4).

Ph Pc g h
2 cos
rc
2 cos
rc g
(3.13)
(3.14)
39
hb cos b 1
ha cos a 2
Material A
0
cos 1
(3.15)
Material B
60
cos 0.5
Figure 3.4. Liquid transport between different materials
3.2.3.2. Contact angle

The contact angle is defined as the angle between two of the interfaces at the three phase line
in contact. It is obtained when the system arrives at the thermodynamic equilibrium. The
value of the contact angle does not depend on the geometry of the system. Moreover, it is
totally governed by the interfacial tensions between the three phases
[15]
. Therefore, the
contact angle only makes sense for a given solid-liquid-vapor system.
40
LV
SV
SL
Figure 3.5. Contact angle of a liquid to a solid
3.2.3.3. Non-wetting (hydrophobic) / wetting (hydrophilic)

Assuming that the gas phases and the external conditions are the same in the studied system,
the contact angle will be a function of the type of material of the solid surface and the type of
liquid. Solid surfaces with a contact angle higher than 90 ( 90 ) are called non-wetting
(see figure 3.6) and hydrophobic in the case that the liquid phase is water.
In case that the contact angle is lower than 90 ( 90 ) the liquid wets in the solid surface
phenomena known as wetting in the case that the liquid phase is water the material of the
solid surface is hydrophilic. A zero contact angle ( 0 ) represents a complete wetting[16].
Figure 3.6. Non-wetting contact angle, e.g. mercury on glass surface
120
41
Figure 3.7. Wetting contact angle, e.g. water on glass surface
14
3.3. Hysteresis effects

The hysteresis effect is one of the phenomena that explain why there are a certain differences
between the drying and wetting curve in a porous matrix. The most common hysteresis
effects are the contact angle hysteresis and the ink bottle effect.
Contact angle hysteresis is the difference between the maximum (advanced/advancing) and
minimum (receded/receding) contact angle values. The hysteresis effect is significantly
present in systems where the solid surface is heterogeneous and has roughness and mobility,
and also if the interface is in contact with a pre-wet surface, e.g. wet versus dry fibers. The
ink bottle effect can be produced if some of the pores are larger than their openings [17].
Wetting curve
Sat.
Absorption curve
Drying curve
Capillary pressure
Figure 3.8. Wetting and drying curve of capillary pressure
42
3.4. Osmotic pressure describing fluid flow in porous

media
Osmotic pressure is one of the key parameters that describe the fluid absorption into AGM. It
is one of the driving forces in the swelling behavior of the polymer network. At the same
time the external pressure Pext, the network elasticity Pelast and the polymer interactions also
have an affect in the balance of driving and retractive forces. However the balance of forces
depends mainly of the osmotic pressure [12].
(3.16)
Pext (0-0.1 atm)
Pelas (0-0.1 atm)

Pmix (0 0.1 atm)
Posm (0 500 atm)
Figure 3.9. Balance of driving force in an AGM particle
Osmotic pressure is the hydrostatic pressure produced by a difference in concentration

between solutions on the two sides of a surface. Osmotic pressure is calculated by the
equation for the ideal gases:
P V nmols R T
(3.17)
Where; P is the pressure, V is the volume of the substance, nmols the number of mols, R is the
constant of the ideal gases (8.31 J/mol/K) and T is the temperature.
In the case of the osmotic pressure between the urine and the AGM in the storage core, in the
following example is calculated:
43
Osmotic pressure in the urine
In urine 0.9 NaCl 0.154 mol / L

We count both : Na and Cl 0.308 mol / L
P 0.308
mol
Pa L
8.31
295 K 755,455 Pa
L
mol K
P 7.5 atm 110 psi
Osmotic pressure in the liquid inside the AGM
1 AGM , swollen to 30 g / g
0.01136 mol Na / 30 ml 0.379 mol / l
P 0.379
mol
Pa L
8.31
295 K 929,100 Pa
L
mol K
P 9.3 atm 136 psi

Osmotic pressure produces the main driving force behind the superabsorbent swelling
materials. The presence of ions in the absorbed liquid reduces the amount of the liquid that
can be absorbed because the difference of the osmotic pressure is lower[12].
44
3.5. Properties describing fluid flow in porous materials

There are three intrinsic properties that describe the fluid flow in porous media: porosity,
capillary pressure and permeability. If the porous media has the capacity to swell, an
additional property called swelling kinetics must be considered, as well as that all properties
can change with the swelling extent of the material.
3.5.1. Porosity
3.5.1.1. Definition of porosity
Porosity in porous material describes the ratio of the void space over the total volume of the
material. The value of the fraction is between 0 and 1.
Vvoid
Vtotal
(3.18)
The value of porosity can be calculated in function of these material components: the caliper
(d), the basis weight (BWi) and the material density (i) [12].
Figure 3.10. Porous media structure
Vsolid
Vtotal Vsolid
Vtotal
BW B A
Vsolid
Vtotal
; Vtotal d B A
(3.19)
(3.20)
45
n 1
BW
d s
(3.21)
Porosity has an important effect in the maximum absorption capacity (Cm). Cm is reached
when the void pores are fully saturated [8]. Saturation is the ratio between the volume of fluid
and the total void volume of the material. When the total void volume of the material is full
of liquid the saturation values is 1. Then, the maximum absorption capacity is reached.
S
0%
S=0
Vliquid
(3.22)
Vvoid
50%
S = 0.5
100%
S=1
Figure 3.11. Saturation in porous media
The porosity of the material has a direct influence in the maximum absorption capacity as the
following graphic shows. [12]
Cm
liquid n
s 1 n
(3.23)
Figure 3.12. [9] Influence of porosity in the maximum absorption capacity

Notes: Graphic obtained by density liquid used 1000 kg/m3 density solid 500 kg/m3
46
The porosity in swelling porous materials is also defined as the void volume divided by the
core total volume. However, in this case the volume of the porous material is not constant.
For diaper materials under confining pressure, porosity tends to decrease as the porous media
absorbs liquid and swells. Therefore, the relation of swollen porous materials involves the
effects of swelling, core design variables and the expansion of the composite system.
Table 3.1. Porosity values of the materials used
Material
Aquistion Layer
Distribution Layer
Storage Layer @full load
Porosity
0.70-0.95
0.75-0.99
0.05-0.50
3.5.1.2. Experimental test method
Non-swelling porous materials

In non-swelling materials the porosity is calculated by the equation 3.24, where the basis
weight, the caliper and the density are calculated experimentally.
n 1
BW
d s
(3.24)
Where; n is the porosity, d is the caliper, BW is the basis weight and the material density.
Swelling porous materials

In swelling materials the porosity is not constant. Therefore it has to be calculated at different
x-loads.
The swelling material sample is placed in contact with the liquid with weight on the top to
apply a pressure in the sample. Liquid is then filled in the glass frit. The liquid is absorbed by
the swelling material until reaches the maximum absorption capacity of this material at the
applied pressure. When the equilibrium is reached, the caliper of the sample and the wet
weight is obtained. The method is repeated for different saline concentrations. The porosity is
obtained by the ratio between void volume and the total volume [18].
47
3.5.2. Capillary pressure

3.5.2.1. Definition of capillary pressure
In porous materials, the pores normally have an irregular geometry of different sizes and
shapes. This is very important to determine the effective radius of the pores in order to
determine the real free volume of the material. Remarkably that can be considered three type
of pores, through pores, blind pores and closed pores[12].
Closed Pores
Through Pore
Blind Pore
Figure 3.13. Pore volume distribution in a swelling material
The capillary pressure is defined as two times the surface tension times the cosine of the
contact angle divided by the radius of the curved interface, equation 3.25 by calculating the
capillary pressure experimentally, the effective radius r of any pore could be defined using
the same equation, equation 3.26.
Pc
2 cos
r
(3.25)
2 cos
Pc
(3.26)
Where; r is the effective radius of the pore, Pc is a pressure difference across the liquid air
meniscus, is the surface tension of the liquid, is the contact angle of the liquid.
48
The pore volume distribution of porous materials is measured by the Capillary Sorption
Isotherm (Cap-sorption) test. The Cap-sorption test measures the capillary sorption
(absorption and desorption) isotherms of absorbent materials as well as the maximum
capacity of the material. These properties describe how liquid moves in the material
structure. The same test is done for non-swelling and swelling materials.
The material sample for analyzing is in a porous glass frit, which is connected hydraulically
to a fluid reservoir on a balance. This balance is connects to a computer. The porous material
absorbs fluid, then the weight measured in the balance decreases and the glass frit goes down
from 80 cm to 70 cm. This sequence happens until a 0 cm. In this point all pores are filed
(saturation=1) and the x-load at this point corresponds to the maximum absorption capacity.
The desorption curve is obtained by moving the glass frit from 0 cm to the starting point[19].
80 cm
Porous glass frit
50 cm
Balance
0 cm
Computer
Figure 3.14. Cap Sorption equipmnet
49
3.5.3. Permeability
3.5.2.1. Definition of permeability
Permeability describes the ability of the liquid to flow through a layer. Permeability is
defined by Darcys law[20].
w
P
Figure 3.15. Fluid through porous material
P K A
L
(3.27)
Where; Q is the volumetric flow rate [m3/s] of a fluid with viscosity [Pas], which through
into a volume of porous material with length L [m] in the direction of the flow and section A
[m2]. P [Pa] is the pressure gradient, a property that, in general, includes capillary pressure,
gravity and external pressure, the driving forces present in the system. Permeability, K [m2],
is a function of the porosity, pore volume distribution, tortuosity and specific surface area.
Generally permeability depends on saturation. Therefore we introduce a relative permeability

function kr(S) and a full saturation permeability K0, according to the equation below.
K (S ) k 0 k r (S )
(3.28)
A typical model used to describe saturation dependency for permeability is a power model,
where the power parameter b is introduced according to the equation below.
50
K (S ) k 0 S b
(3.29)
While with laboratory methods it is possible to measure k0, for absorbent porous materials it
is very challenging to determine the power parameter b. This is normally in a range between
3-5.
Table 3.2 reports typical values of K0 for diaper materials.
Table 3.2. Permeability values of the materials used
Material
AL @full load
DL @full load
SL @full load
Permeability [units]
20-100
3-10
0.1-1
A typical dependency of Kr with S is shown in Figure below to adjust (take out non swell
and swell, only a plot for n=5)
Figure 3.16. Relative permeability function of satruation
What described above applies generally to porous materials. For swelling materials, when the
material absorbs liquid and starts to swell at the same time it is generally observed that the
permeability decreases, when increasing AGM load, i.e. the amount of liquid swollen into
AGM. For earlier AGM generations, without surface cross linking, this process was
eventually leading to gel blocking [20], i.e. permeability getting close to zero.
51
As shown in Table 3.2 generally the permeability of the swelling material (SL Layer) is
much lower than the non-swelling materials (AL and DL). Taking into account that the value
of permeability has a dependency on porosity, it is normal to have less permeability in these
kinds of materials. There are other effects that explain the low value of permeability in
swelling materials. Gel deformation under pressure describes the effect that swelling AGM is
reducing the capillaries or void spaces therefore drastically increasing the flow resistance for
liquid.
The method to calculate the permeability is based on gravimetric determination, the quantity
of solution through a test piece of porous material under a constant pressure. The flow
conductivity is determined by Darcys Law and steady-states methods. This test determines
the permeability in x,y- direction or z direction[21].
3.5.4. Swelling kinetics

3.5.4.1. Definition of the swelling kinetics parameters
In the dry state the swelling particles are powders. When the swelling material absorbs liquid,
the powders turns to be softer and more flexible gel particles. Both characteristics are
determined by the structure and swelling ratio of the used super absorbent.
The swelling effect occurs until the superabsorbent particles arrive to equilibrium between
driving and retractive forces[12].
Pext
Pelas
Pmix
Posm
Figure 3.17. Balance of driving force in an AGM particle
52
(3.30)
The driving forces are Pmix and Posm. The first parameter describes the interactions between
the polymer and the solvent and the necessity to be dissolve. On the other side, osmotic
pressure, describes a hydrostatic force produced by the differences of pressure between the
liquid in the particle and the liquid in contact with the particle. In the other part of the
balance the balance are the retroactive forces. The network elasticity (Pelast) describes the
elastic chains formed by crosslink and the external pressure (Pext) is mainly the baby pressure
on a diaper. The osmotic pressure is calculated by the ideal gas law.
n R T
V
(3.31)
Osmotic pressure depends on: V volume [m3], n the number of molecules [mole] in the
solution, the gas constant R (8.314 J/mol K) and the temperature T [K]. Thereby the particle
size, the temperature, and the NaCl concentrations have an important effect on the swelling
kinetic parameters [20].
A small particle size offers a better absorption speed in the initial phase of swelling. In
contrast bigger particles achieve higher loads, because it has more volume. In addition high
temperature offers faster absorption speed. However in our case (diapers), it is a variable
impossible to control in the real life. The superabsorbent used has the capacity to absorb
around 800-1200 g/g of water, but if the liquid absorbed is urine, the maximum x-load is 2550 g/g. This is because the urine contains NaCl. As a result of the presence of (cations in the
absorbed liquid reduce), the liquid load for the swelling material is reduced.
The method measures continually the AGM load over a specific time period. In this case only
one saline concentration of 0.9% NaCl in water is used. [22]
53
Chapter 4. MATHEMATICAL MODELING

OF FLUID FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA
4.1. Introduction
A mathematical model is created in order to deeply analyze a system which is desired to be
controlled and optimized. With a mathematical model built, it is possible to obtain some
hypotheses about how the system is working and estimate how some parameters could affect
the systems behavior. This avoids the necessity to invest a lot of money and time doing
these experiments in the laboratory.
A mathematical model usually describes a system by a set of variables and a set of equations
that establish relationships between these variables. The model is the set of functions that
describe these relationships. Mathematical models are classified as: linear vs. non-linear,
deterministic vs. probabilistic, static vs. dynamic and lumped vs. distributed parameters.
Models are carried out via a computer, calculating the values that describe an approximation
about how the system works as a function of the variables introduced and the model
hypotheses.
The model used in this project describes the fluid flow in porous media. It was designed to
study in more detail the liquid transport in hygiene products (e.g. diapers, wipes and pads)
and to optimize use data from the simulation to their materials and geometry[23].
In the case studied (the core of a diaper) the system simulated and analyzed is composed of
the acquisition layer, distribution layer and the storage layer. The first two layers are nonswelling porous materials, whereas the third one is a swelling material. Therefore, there are
separate mathematical models for both non-swelling and swelling materials.
54
Mathematical modeling of fluid flow in porous media
Fluid flow in non-swelling porous materials is described by the Richards equation, equation
4.8. It describes the flow of a two-phase system and is based on the mass and momentum
conservation equations.
The mathematical model that describes fluid flow in swelling porous materials is more
complex. It consists of balance equations of mobile and absorbed (immobile) liquid
combined with a series of constitutive relationships. The equation system obtained is strongly
non-linear and requires advanced numerical strategies for solving such as: spatial and
temporal discretization and mesh movement.
These models are based in FEFLOW DHI-Wasy software. This simulation program is used to
simulate the fluid flow in the diapers core. FEFLOW is a computer program for simulating
groundwater flow, mass transfer, and heat transfer in porous media. The program uses finite
element analysis to solve the groundwater flow equation of both saturated and unsaturated
conditions. It also solves for mass and heat transport, taking into account fluid density effects
and chemical kinetics for multi-component reaction systems [24].
4.2. Mathematical modeling of fluid flow in non-swelling

porous materials
4.2.1. Introduction
In non-swelling, porous materials, the simulation program, FEFLOW, solves the Richards
equation. This non-linear partial differential equation represents the liquid flow in
unsaturated materials.
The Richards equation describes the flow of a two-phase system (liquid and gas phases). The
constitutive relations are dependent in the liquid phase and are solved with one primary
variable (saturation, S, or pressure head, ). However, in the gas phase flow is assumed to be
infinitely mobile [12].
55
The Richards equation is obtained from the mass conservation equation (continuity equation)
and the momentum conservation equation (Darcy law).
4.2.2. Balance equations

4.2.2.1. Mass conservation equation
In the system studied, mass can only be produced or reduced by external sources, namely:
liquid inflow or outflow.
The mass conservation equation (equation 4.1) used is only representative of the liquid
phase, since the gas phase will not be modeled by the Richards equation.
m
( m) q m
t
(4.1)
where; m is the mass, t the time, the velocity and qm the density of external mass.
Density of external mass can also be expressed as:
qm q V
(4.2)
Combining equations 4.1 and 4.2 yields equations 4.3.
m n S V
(4.3)
where; density, n porosity, S saturation and V the volume.

Assuming incompressible fluids (() = const) and incompressible materials (n() = const).
Where is the function of the pressure head of liquid phase, the following expressions are
obtained.
n
S
(u ) q
t
(4.4)
56
Taking in consideration () = const, the equation 4.4 is simplified to the equation 4.5,
which describes the mass conservation in the system studied.
n
where; u
S
u q 0
t
(4.5)
1
(macroscopic) distance velocity m/s (vector), q volumetric source density
n
4.2.2.2. Momentum conservation equation
The momentum conservation of the system is described by the Darcy law.

u
(4.6)
where; u is the distance-velocity at a macroscopic level, K is the intrinsic permeability tensor,

is the piezometric pressure head, and the fluid viscosity.
In the case of two phases processes, the equation 4.6 should included the relative
permeability. The pore space is blocked when there are different fluids in the system and the
phase permeability decreases. This can be described by:
u i k ri ( S )
(4.7)
Where; kr (S) is the relative permeability and the susbcript i denotes the phase (i =
water,gas).
4.2.3. Derivation of the Richards equation

Richards relationship is obtained. This relationship is still based on the previous mass and
momentum conservation equations. This new equation depends on the variables saturation, S,
and pressure head, :
57
S
K
q 0
kr ( S ) n
(4.8)
Where the input required to solve this equations are: the porosity of the material, n; the liquid
viscosity, ; the relative permeability as a function of the saturation, kr(S);and the saturation
dependent capillary pressure of the material Pc(S) which implicitly expressed as:
( S ) Pc ( S ) z
Remarkably, one of the variables can be expressed as a function of the other depending on
the direction of the substitution (= f(S) or S=f()) [17].
4.2.4. Constitutive relationships

The Richards equation has two constitutive relationships the relative permeability-saturation
kr(S)and the capillary pressure-saturation Pc(S).
4.2.4.1. Relative permeability-saturation relationship

The relative permeability, kr, of the porous material describes how much space is vacant for
the water phase. It is a function of the saturation, S.
S Sr
b
k r ( S ) S e
Ss Sr
(4.9)
This polynomial model is used to describe the relationship between the relative permeability
and the saturation. Where b, known as the relative conductivity exponent, already introduced
in the section 3.3. Sr is the residual saturation.
4.2.4.2. Capillary pressure-saturation relationship

Capillary pressure is the difference in pressure across the interface between two immiscible
fluids. This difference in pressure is a function of the saturation as it is defined in section 3.1.
The relationship between these two parameters is fitted into a correlation function.
58
One of the most common correlations that relate capillary pressure to saturation is the Van
Genuchten correlation[17].
S VG ( Pc ) s r
ss sr
1 (a pc)
n m
(4.10)
where; Sr means the residual saturation, Ss is the maximum saturation of the system, and
a,m,n are a fitting parameters.
4.3. Numerical solution of fluid flow in non-swelling

porous materials
4.3.1. Introduction
In this section it shows several ways for discretization and numerical solution of the Richards
equation.
K
S
kr ( S ) n
q 0
(4.11)
4.3.2. Richards equation re-formulations

Firstly is done different re-formulations of the Richards equation, pressure head formulation
express the capillary pressure curve and the relative permeability as a function of the pressure
head and it is obtained the equation 4.13.
K
S
kr ( ) n
q 0
t
t
(4.12)
Depends of the material parameters the constitutive relationships of the equation 4.13 can be
highly non-linear. To avoid this numerical problems the constitutive relationship k r ( ) is
replaced by k r (S ) , this step is called mixed- head formulation and it used in the simulations.
59
K
S
kr ( ) n
q 0
t
t
(4.13)
4.3.3. Discretization of the model

The discretization in numerical models has a major impact on the accuracy and effectiveness
of the simulation. The necessity of a fine discretization varies with the physical process that
has to be modeled. A process that incorporates sharp contrasts of material parameters, sudden
changes of the flow direction, high gradients or sudden changes of the boundary condition
can commonly be regarded as tough problems that requires a fine discretization to maintain
the physical accuracy. The toughness of a problem can change in space and/or in time.
Space discretization was done with quads following recommendation from Rosati. For
instance see picture on section 6.2.3.
For time discretization FeFlow uses an adaptive time marching scheme (ATMS) in
combination with an implicit time discretization schemes. Two classes of ATMS methods are
provided in FeFlow; Predictor-Corrector (PC) and Target-Based (TB). ATMS helps to
minimize the computational effort, via using the maximum possible time step based on the
residual evaluation, hence guaranteeing the desired degree of accuracy as specified in the
user interface[17]. In this work PC is used.
4.3.4. Linearitzation of the non-linear equation systems

The solution of the Finite-Element-formulation requires the solution of non-linear equationsystems of the type
K
S
kr ( ) n
q 0
t
t
(4.14)
60
Where; x is the solution vector, A(x) a tensor function and b(x) a vector function of the
solution vector. To solved this type of equations is used the Picard-method. The method
consists of constructing a sequence of functions that will approach the desired solution upon
successive iteration.
FeFlow offers the PCG Solver (preconditioned conjugate gradient) and the SAMG solver
(algebraic multi-grid).
4.4. Mathematical modeling of fluid flow in swelling

porous materials.
4.4.1. Introduction
The mathematical formulation to obtain a model that describes the fluid flow in swelling
materials is much more complicated. The unsaturated fluid flow in the storage core is
considered in the model as a 3-phases system and the model takes the assumption that AGM
swells in normal direction to the surface.
The model obtained consists of a set of balance equations with constitutive relationships.
This set of equations is composed for three relations, where the first one represents the
Richards equation, the second describes the absorption into AGM and the third the solid
strain[23]. These equations are solved by the finite element method.
4.4.2. Assumptions
Assumptions are necessary in mathematical model to simplify the system to solve. One of the
most important assumptions realized in the model is that the fluid is divided between the
liquid in the void pores (m1) and the liquid absorbed in the AGM (m2). Liquid in the void
pores (m1) is governed by the same laws as in the non-swelling materials, mass conservation
and momentum conservation. Liquid absorbed in AGM (m2) is considered as a chemical
reaction, and became an immobilized liquid treated as solid, since we assume that once the
61
liquid is in the AGM it will never leave again and also this liquid not moves inside the
particle.
The AGM particles are considered like sinks: osmotic absorption is considered in the model
as a chemical reaction where the liquid transfer from the mobile liquid phase to a solid phase
inside the AGM without mobility[25]. Another assumption is that the AGM swells or expands
only in the direction perpendicular to the AGM surface.
4.4.3. Set of balance equations

The basis of AGM swelling material model derived from the capillary and osmotic flow and
the total volume equation. These processes can be exemplified in simples formulas through
equation 4.17 for the capillary flow, Darcys equation, equation 4.18 for the osmotic flow in
equation 4.19 for the total volume of the swelling material
[24]
. The simplified equations are
presented here to show in a simple way the complex processes happening while AGM
absorbs and swells. The actual equations solved by FeFlow will be presented later in
equations 4.20 4.22
q cap
k (S )
PC ( S ) g z
(4.15)
Where; Pc (S) is the capillary pressure, and g z is the hydrostatic pressure, k is the
permeability and the viscosity. S is the saturation S
q osmotc
liquid volume (in int ersticial )

Volume int ersticial
Load AGM _ Max Load AGM

S
Load AGM _ Max
Where; load AGM is described by Load AGM
(4.16)
Liquid Mass (int o AGM )

Dry AGM Mass
Vtot V AGM VLoadAGM VVoid
(4.17)
62
In FeFlow the equation used to described and simulate the fluid flow in the swelling porous
materials, which describe the processes of fluid absorption and swelling material deformation
is described by the following system of equations. These set of equations includes a
generalized Richards equation (equation 4.20), an equation for the solid-mass conservation
with kinetic reaction term (equation 4.21), and a relationship for the solid strain (equation
4.22).
s ( )
s
k r K ( e) R ( , C , u )
t
t
(4.18)
C
Rc ( , C , u )
t
(4.19)
(a u ) d (C )
(4.20)
Where; The reaction term R possesses a sink for mobile liquid due to AGM-driven
adsorption. R depens on the pressure head of liquid , the AGM sorbed liquid concentration
C and the solid displacement u. The equation implies a porosity factor with the dependency
of the liquid saturation s, with the pressure head . As well implies the derivative of the
pressure head of liquid with the time multiplied per the porosity, saturation and specific
liquid compressibility factors. The other parameter in the equation is the gradient of the
relative permeability kr, multiply per permeability K as a function of the gradient pressure
head plus the gravitational unit vector e. The equation explained describes the Richards
equation 4.20.
The equation 4.21. describes the chemical reaction. The reaction term Rc possesses a kintetic
production term of sorbed (immobile) liquid and is controlled by a reaction constant rate and
the AGM sorbed liquid concentration C. As the reaction term R, Rc is function of pressure
head of liquid , C and u.
Finally the equation 4.22 the third equation in the set balance describes the deformation or
kinematic reaction in the AGM. The solid strain is a function of the volume dilatation,
therefore function of the AGM sorbed liquid concentration C. In the other part of the
63
equation is present the gradient of the scalar displacement norm u and a displacementdirection vector a of unit size.
In the previous nonlinear equations, dependencies exist for the saturation s, relative
permeability kr, saturated conductivity K and porosity
s s ( )
k r k r ( s)
K K (C )
(C )
(4.21)
4.5. Numerical solution of fluid flow in swelling porous

materials
The previous equations system is closed by multiple constitutive relations, most of them
complex expression which makes the system highly non-linear [24]. This system of equations
can be solved by the liquid-phase pressure l, the absorbed liquid
_ s
So ,
and the solid
displacemet us.
The AGM-swelling absorption and deformation process are solved using a finite element
method. It is required a mesh-movement which incrementally updates two- or threedimensional model domains based directly on the current spatial distribution of the solid
displacement us.
At the same time several adaptive techniques are used to perform the computations and attain
accuracy. Picard-type iterations provide mass-conservative solutions. As well is treated the
saturation relationship s() which implies a strongly hysteric behavior.
4.5.1. Discretization
The finite element method is used to discretize the governing equation system described
previously. This numerical technique find approximate solutions of partial differential
equations as well as of integral equations.
64
The solution approach is based either on eliminating the differential equation completely
(steady state problems). Some of the most common standard techniques are Euler's method
and Runge-Kutta.
In our case we solve the set of balance equations in transient mode, being interested to follow
fluid saturation as function of time through he multiplayer structure of interest. This requires
a spatial and a temporal discretization of the equations to obtain complex matrix systems,
which can be solved by the Feflow solver. These numerical processes are performed in a
similar way to what described in paragraph 4.3. The specific change has to do with the mesh
update which is due to the AGM swelling. This requires a moving-mesh strategy which use a
solid displacement u(n+1), ai at the node i and time level (n+1) together with the stationary
displacement direction ai to move the finite element mesh in an incremental step[24].
65
Lab test methods
Chapter 5. LABORATORY TEST METHODS
5.1. Introduction
To validate the results of a mathematical model, it is necessary to obtain the results of the
system that model describes. In this project the model simulates a Speed of Acquisition
laboratory test method. Therefore to validate later the numerical simulation is essential to do
an accurate laboratory work with several test repetitions and analysis of the results obtained.
The purpose of this method is to measure the urine acquisition time of the diaper in finished
products under the conditions shown in the section 5.2. At the same time the liquid load in
the topsheet and in the acquisition, distribution and storage layer, as well the liquid length
distribution in the storage layer can be also calculated. The results obtained are normalized in
basis 100, for confidential reasons. The diapers used in these cases are hand made
prototypes[26], however is not presented the parameters and the procedure followed to make
these prototypes for confidential reasons.
Remarkably that the time invested in this test is around two days of lab experiments, and a
week to make the diapers prototypes to use.
5.2. Speed of acquisition test

The speed of acquisition is so important because is a key for the leakage performance in
diapers. As longer the time needed to absorb the liquid, as higher the chance that the liquid
leaks out[27].
Purpose of this method is to measure the urine acquisition time of the diaper in finished
products under the specific conditions of liquid composition (0.9% NaCl water solution),
66
Lab test methods
gush volumes, speed of urine application, pressure, waiting time between gushes[28]. Some of
those conditions are not reported for confidential reasons.
5.3. Results
In this section, the results obtained in the Speed of Acquisition test are presented. The results
obtained are divided into: speed of acquisition, liquid length distribution and liquid load in
the different layers. The results shown in these chapters are normalized in basis 100, for
confidential reasons.
In the laboratory is taken 12 experiments for the experiment where in all cases are measured
all these parameters. Remarkably that the error margin obtained is two times the standard
deviation obtained from the experiments. a measure of the variability or dispersion of a
population, a data set, or a probability distribution. A low standard deviation indicates that
the data points tend to be very close to the same value (the mean), while high standard
deviation indicates that the data are spread out over a large range of values. To obtain as an
error two times the standard deviation means that in these ranges is include the 95% of values
obtained[29].
5.3.1. Speed of Acquisition

The speed of acquisition is a parameter that describes how rapidly the volume of liquid goes
through the topsheet and is absorbed or distributed in the layers below. In other words, it is
the time that a certain amount of liquid volume requires to infiltrate the absorbent product in
defined conditions.
The acquisition time depends on some properties of the diaper core, such as: the saturation,
the permeability of the layers, the capillary pressure, and the porosity, additionally in the case
of the storage core, the swelling kinetics (see section 3.2.4). There are also other parameters
of the diaper core that can influence in the acquisition times such as the geometry of the
layers (e.g. caliper, length, etc).
67
Lab test methods
Other external conditions can also have an influence in the speed of acquisition, such as the
external pressure, the pee-point position and obviously the volume of the liquid. In this case,
75 mL of urine is used[28].
Table 5.1. Gush acquisition times
Parameters
Laboratory Data [norm]

100.0 6.3
n=12
142.5 14.0
n=12
255.2 12.2
n=12
396.0 17.6
n=12
st
1 Gush
2nd Gush
3rd Gush
4th Gush
As it can be seen in the table 5.1 the speed of acquisition time is increasing for each gush,
due to the diaper materials properties are changing with the liquid load and pores saturation.
This phenomena could be explained simply using the Darcy law equation 3.23.
Q
P K A
L
(5.1)
Where; Q is flow rate, viscosity, L liquid length, A cross-sectional area, P pressure

gradient and K is the permeability. The flow rate Q, describes the volume divided by time, t.
P K A t
V
L
(5.2)
Taking into account that the volume is the same for all the 4 gushes, the acquisition times are
related by the equation 5.3.
P1 K1 A1 t1 P2 K 2 A2 t 2
1 L1
2 L2
t 2 P1 K1 A1 2 L2
t1 P2 K 2 A2 1 L1
(5.3)
(5.4)
68
Lab test methods
Where; 1 means the first gush and 2 the second gush. Pemeability (K) and porosity (n)
decrases with AGM uptake. The pressure gradient is increasing only a little and the liquid
length is also increasing, as the liquid must through to layer to be absorbed. The area will
increase for the swelling effect and, finally, the viscosity which is a parameter of the liquid
remains constant. Net, formula 5.4 qualitatively explains the values in the figure 5.1.
However, the mathematical model is going deeply and uses the Richards equation (nonswelling materials) and finite elements (swelling material) to describe and obtain the results
of the acquisition times.
Figure 5.1. Gush acquisition times
5.3.2. Length distribution

Length liquid distribution describes the path of liquid from the pee-point until the point
where it arrives in the storage core. How the liquid flow in the porous materials is described
in section 3.
With the data obtained, the hypothesis can be developed that during the 1st and 2nd gush the
liquid length is almost the same because the AGM particles dont arrive at full load after the
1st gush. However, in the end of the 2nd gush, some particles (probably the AGM particles
closer to the pee point) arrive at full saturation, for this reason the liquid length in the 3rd
gush is increasing to be absorbed for a new particles situated further from the pee-point. The
same situation is observed in the 4th gush.
69
Lab test methods
It is also observed some fluid distribution between the end of the gush and the beginning of
the next, where there were not liquid inflow. This is because when the acquisition is over,
some distribution of the fluid continues, until the AGM absorbs it and capillary pressure
hysteresis stops the liquid flow.
Remarkably, in the first gushes, the maximum liquid length observed is proportionate to the
distribution layer, from the 3rd gush the liquid distribution observed is from the storage layer.
Table 5.2. Liquid length distribution
Parameters
st
1 Gush end (1)

2nd Gush begin (2)
2nd Gush end (3)
3rd Gush begin (4)
3rd Gush end (5)
4th Gush begin (6)
4th Gush end (7)
End (8)

100.0 3.4
n=12
100.4 2.6
n=12
101.0 2.2
n=12
101.4 2.4
n=12
115.9 4.0
n=12
116.7 3.7
n=12
131.4 2.5
n=12
133.2 2.7
n=12
Figure 5.2. Liquid length distribution
70
Lab test methods
5.3.3. Liquid load in the different layers

Another measurement in this test is the liquid load in the different layers. The diaper weight
is measured before to do the measurement, and measured again just after the experiment is
finished to obtain the wet weight and to calculate the liquid load in the diaper, equation 5.5.
liquid load wet diaper weight dry diaper weight
(5.5)
Once measured the liquid weight is extracted from the diaper the topsheet, the acquisition
layer and the distribution layer to measure their wet weight. After that the materials are dried
in a muffle at 60C overnight and are weight again to measure the liquid load in each layer,
equation 5.6.
liquid load layer wet layer weight dry layer weight
(5.6)
In the case of the Storage layer the procedure to determine experimentally the liquid load is
less accurate, due to in this case is not possible dry at 60 to extract the liquid. The
procedure consist in measure the weight of this layer after the test and this value be
subtracted with the weight of the storage core from the input parameter.
As it can be observed in the results obtained almost all of liquid is in the storage layer. In the
storage layer the liquid can be in the pores and absorbed in AGM, where the most part is
absorbed in the AGM. In the other layers the liquid is in the pores.
Table 5.3. Liquid load in the different layers
Parameters
Dry weight
Wet weight
Liquid load
Liquid load in TS
Liquid load in AL
Liquid load in DL
Liquid load in SL

10.6 0.34
n=12
110.6 0.71
n=12
100.0 0.77
n=12
0.046 0.004
n=8
0.23 0.04
n=8
4.32 0.48
n=8
95.79 7.25
n=8
71
Chapter 6. SIMULATION FLUID FLOW IN

ABSORBENT DIAPERS
6.1. Introduction
The mathematical model used in this project was designed to describe in more detail the
liquid transport in absorbent diapers. The numerical simulation is obtained by running the
model in FEFLOW DHI-Wasy software with the required input parameters. These parameters
are the analytical properties of the materials.
The numerical simulation is validated against the corresponding experimental data obtained
from the Speed of Acquisition test, described in the chapter 5. The output parameters which
are compared to validate the numerical simulation are: the speed of acquisition (one of the
key parameters to determine the performance of the diapers and related with leakage) [30], the
length distribution and the liquid load in the diaper core layers. Another key issue is the
validation criteria. In this case two different methods are used. The first is a correlation plot
between predicted and laboratory acquisition times where is determined the function y=ax+b,
the RMSE and the max. residual are determined
[31]
. The second method consists of
determining, the difference between predicted and laboratory outputs, with a maximum
difference of 10% to validate the numerical simulation. In the case that the validation is not
reached, a new exhaustive analysis of the input parameters and the model assumptions will
be done. These parameters will mainly include the material input parameters, since the model
has a strongly dependency on them, to find the reasons or gaps, that explain the results
obtained. Once determined, iterations on the numerical simulation are done in order to
validate it [32].
72
Simulation fluid flow in absorbent diapers
6.2. Input parameters

The mathematical model used requires some input parameters to be simulated. The input
parameters introduced in the model are divided into different groups: material parameters,
geometry parameters, and test protocol [32].
6.2.1. Material parameters

Materials properties are basically the properties described in the section 3.4, i.e. porosity,
capillary pressure and permeability, and swelling kinetics for the swelling materials. Input
material parameters show the properties that describe the materials used
[33]
. This
mathematical model is very sensible with this type of input parameters. This data is obtained
by the test methods described in the section 3.4 and are given by the analytical group. Each
layer has its own input parameters, depending on if the material swells or not, the techniques
used and the parameters that describe the material will be different. All presented values has
been normalized in non-dimension units for confidential reasons. As well plots are shown as
trend curves for confidential reasons.
6.2.2.1 Non-swelling materials
Non-swelling porous materials in diaper cores involve the acquisition
[34]
and distribution
layer. These materials are described by three intrinsic properties: porosity, capillary pressure
and permeability. The characterization methods used are the IPRP (in-plane radial
permeability) for the permeability at full saturation and the cap sorption to obtain the
capillary pressure. In the case of the porosity, this value is calculated from the caliper and
basis weight measurement. The graphics showed below for permeability and capillary
pressure in function of saturation are obtained from experimental points measured in the
laboratory. For confidential reasons some of the axis values are deleted.
73
Porosity
Porosity in non-swelling materials is calculated by the caliper (d), the basis weight (BW) and
the material density () of the material.
n 1
BW
d s
(6.1)
Permeability
Permeability can be measured using the IPRP method. The following figure describes the
permeability as a function of the saturation obtained from the equation 6.2. Obviously, in the
case of permeability, the acquisition layer is the most permeable because its function requires
high permeability of the material. The permeability ranges, in normalized units, are 20-100 in
the case of the acquisition layer and 3-10 in the case of the distribution layer.
The model requires the full saturation conductivity (kmax) in the plane x,y and in the direction
z, as well the value of the relative conductivity exponent (b) for both cases. The full
saturation conductivity is the same for all directions because it is assumed that the material is
uniform in all directions (isotropic) [12].
K ( S ) k max S b
(6.2)
Figure 6.1. Relation permeability-saturation in non-swelling materials
74
Capillary pressure
Capillary pressure is obtained by the Cap sorption experiment where some points at different
heights are calculated. With these points, the parameters are estimated by fitting using the
Van Genuchten Model, equation 6.3. Sr is the residual saturation, Ss is the maximum
saturation and a, m, n are fitting parameters [17].
S S min
1
S max S min 1 A p n
c
(6.3)
In this case, the distribution layer has more capillary pressure than the acquisition layer. One
of the reasons is because in the distribution layer the pores are smaller, resulting in lower
permeability. As well, the distribution layer contains cellulose leading to higher capillary
pressures, while acquisition layer is generally made of synthetic fibers. This physical
parameter explains the phenomena where all the liquid in the acquisition layers pores is
moved to the distribution layers pores, due to the second having higher capillary pressure.
This transport of liquid is done until the system reaches the equilibrium (i.e. no pressure
difference between the two materials).
Blue lines describe the capillary sorption and desorption of acquisition layer and the red lines
describe the sorption (below) and desorption (above) of distribution layers. The graph shows
that
the
distribution
layers
have higher
capillary
pressure.
75
Input parameters for the mathematical model
Figure 6.2. Capillary pressure in function of saturation in non-swelling materials
Non-swelling materials are defined in the model by 14 parameters: the porosity, the xy and z
full conductivity, the relative conductivity exponent and the 5 parameters from Van
Genuchten Model for the sorption and desorption curve [25].
6.2.2.2 Swelling materials
The swelling porous material in absorbent diapers is the AGM, which resides in the storage
core. Swelling materials are described by four intrinsic properties: the three that describe
porous materials and the swelling kinetics. Furthermore, the relations that describe the
intrinsic parameters are more complex because, in this case, the particle is expanded while it
is absorbing the liquid.
The four intrinsic properties calculated are fitted to obtain the correlation that describes the
input variables. Porosity is obtained by a porosity test method described in the section 3.4.1
at different x-loads. Permeability is obtained in the IPRP as in non-swelling materials but in
this case at different x-loads. Capillary pressure is calculated from the cap sorption isotherm
method at different x-loads. Swelling kinetics is also measured in the laboratory.
Porosity
In swelling materials, the porosity is not constant, as in the non-swelling materials. The
porosity is the fraction between the void spaces and total volume. When the swelling
particles absorb liquid, the void volume increases more than the void spaces. For this reason,
the porosity of this material decreases from 0.50-0.90 until 0.05-0.50 at full load. There are
two types of liquid in the particles, the liquid in the void space (m1) and the liquid absorbed
for the particle considered like a solid (m2). The following function fits the curve that
76
describes the porosity as a function of the liquid load (m2) in three parameters: max, scale and
exp [25].
(m s 2 )
2 max
1 m s 2 scale 1
exp
(6.4)
Figure 6.3. Porosity vs. uptake in swelling materials
Permeability
77
In non-swelling materials, the permeability increases with the saturation. However, in the
swelling materials, the permeability decreases with the liquid uptake. One of the reasons is
because the porosity decreases with the uptake, therefore permeability also decreases.
The correlation that defines permeability as a function of the liquid uptake has five
parameters: the full saturation permeability Kmax and the parameters a, b, c and f [25].
K K max 1 a e b AGM normload sin(2 c AGM normload f
(6.5)
Figure 6.4. Permeability vs. uptake in swelling materials
Capillary pressure
As the other parameters the capillary pressure are more complex in swelling materials than
non-swelling materials, due to AGM swelling.
In this case, the capillary pressure is generally increasing with the x-load. When the particle
swells the material turns more hydrophilic, decreasing the contact angle ( ). Thereby, cos
will increase. At the same time porosity decreases due to AGM deformation under pressure is
swollen conditions leading to smaller pore radius. In fact all these factors are directly related
with the capillary pressure (equation 6.6). Therefore, the capillary pressure will increase
while the particle is absorbing the liquid and swells.
Pc
2 cos
r
(6.6)
78
S S min
1
S max S min 1 A p n
c
(6.7)
0%
20%
30%
50%
100%
Figure 6.5. Capillary pressure vs. saturation. Absorption curve at different x-loads
Swelling kinetics
The swelling effect occurs until the superabsorbent particles arrive to equilibrium between
driving and retractive forces.
(6.8)
Taking into account that in the beginning the osmotic pressure is high, the superabsorbent
particles absorb a high quantity of liquid and swell fast. For this reason, in the following
figure, the uptake [g/g] is increasing faster during the first period until it arrives to an x-load
close to the equilibrium. Then it increases very slowly until reach the maximum uptake.
79
Figure 6.6. uptake in function of time in swelling materials in function of time
Input parameters for the mathematical model
As it can be observed in the paragraphs of this section, the intrinsic properties that describe
the swelling materials are function of the x-load. Therefore, the function that relates these
properties is more complex and the number of parameters to introduce in the model for the
swelling material will be larger. There are 30 parameters that describe the swelling
materialthree parameters describes the porosity, seven parameters the permeability, the
sorption and desorption curve and the capillary retention are described by 13 parameters in
total, the swelling kinetics and the effective interface by 5, and finally the effective AGM
density and the AGM concentration are also introduced [25].
6.2.2. Geometry parameters

6.2.2.1 Geometry inputs
Another important input parameter for the model is the geometry of the core. The core is
composed of 5 layers glued to each other: topsheet (TS), acquisition layer (AL), distribution
layer (DL), storage layer (SL) and the backsheet (BS). The storage layer is composed of 2
nonwoven layers enclosing the super-absorbent material and fluff between them. However,
in the model the assumption is made to use only three layers: the acquisition layer (AL), the
distribution layer (DL) and the storage layer (SL)
[26]
. There are two main reasons to make
this assumption. One is the influence of the topsheet and the top non-woven is low and the
80
backsheet and the bottom non-woven have no influence in the parameters analyzed. The
other is the difficulty to obtain experimentally the input parameters to introduce in the model
for very thin materials. Therefore, the core is reduced from figure 6.8, real core, to figure 6.9,
diaper core, in the model.
Figure 6.7. Layers composed the diaper core
Figure 6.8. Layers composed the diaper core in the model
The properties required from the model for all of layers are: the length, the caliper, the area,
the layer width and the position of the layer versus bottom layer.
6.2.2.2 Layer profile
The distribution of AGM in the storage layer is not constant. Taking into account the liquid
inflow of in a determined section, the AGM amount is distributed and optimized to obtain the
maximum performance of the material for economic and design reasons.
As it can be observed in the following figure the maximum amount of AGM is concentrated
in the section where the liquid comes into the storage layer, in general the storage layer
contains additional components such as cellulose fibers, polymers, etc.
81
Figure 6.9. AGM distribution in the storage layer
6.2.3. Mesh discretization

For numerical reasons, each layer in the diaper core is divided into small rectangles, creating
a mesh. The more divisions and small partitions included in the layers, the more precise the
final results, and, at the same time, the more time it will take the program to simulate the
model.
Figure 6.10. Mesh discretization in the diaper core
6.2.4. Test protocol

Test protocol is the input parameters that describe the Laboratory test used. Due to this, the
mathematical model is used for other Laboratory test methods as well. In this section, input
parameters such as the number of gushes, the amount of the gushes, the time when the gush
starts, and some parameters of the equipment design are introduced. These allow assigning
initial conditions and boundary conditions to solve the set of balance equations [27].
6.3. Simulation of fluid flow in diaper cores
82
Once the input parameters are determined and the mathematical existing models for nonswelling and swelling materials based on FEFLOW is described, is the time to run a numerical
simulation to obtain predicted results to be compared with the values obtained
experimentally. This validates the input parameters and the mathematical model used at the
specific conditions proposed.
In this case, the fluid flow in a superabsorbent diaper core is simulated. The core consists of
three layers. The acquisition and distribution layers, composed by non-swelling materials,
can be mathematically modeled based on the Richards equation. The third layer contains
AGM, and therefore requires a more complex mathematical model with a set of balanced
equations based on the finite element method for the flow, absorption and deformation
processes to be resolved [23].
FEFLOW, the computer program for simulating fluid flow, mass transfer and heat transfer in
porous media, gives a high quantity of results in each time to analyze deeply how the fluid
flows in the superabsorbent diaper cores [22].
6.3.1. Simulation results describing fluid flow in diaper cores

In this section, with the saturation profiles at different times obtained from FEFLOW, the fluid
flow in absorbent diaper cores is explained.
The absorbent diaper core is composed of different layers designed and distributed to absorb
high amounts of liquid in a short time to prevent leakage and maintain dry skin without
irritations. The top layer, called topsheet is the layer which is in contact with the babys skin.
The liquid in this layer has to flow rapidly through this layer. For this reason, there is a
surfactant in the topsheet. The second layer is the acquisition layer. The permeability in this
layer is very high because it has the function to acquire the liquid rapidly to have fast
acquisition times. The following layer is the distribution layer, which has lower permeability
but higher capillary pressure. Due to the capillary effects, all liquid flows from the
83
acquisition to distribution layer, and is then distributed along this layer. At the same time the
liquid flows to the storage layer with higher capillary pressure.
The function of the storage layer is to take up as much urine as possible and lock it away.
This property, called storage capacity, transports the urine within the swollen gel bed and
works reasonably fast. The storage layer is composed of two nonwovens. The nonwoven on
the top is hydrophilic and the nonwoven on the bottom is hydrophobic. The bottom layer, the
backsheet, is a polyethylene film, which works like a barrier to prevent the liquid from
leaking through the bottom of the diaper.
In the virtual acquisition diaper model, the assumption is made that the diaper core is
composed only of three layers: acquisition layer, distribution layer and storage layer without
non-wovens.
The following figures describe how the liquid is distributed in the diaper. The parameter
analyzed is the saturation. At time 0 seconds is the first gush inflow of determined volume of
liquid in a determined section of the diaper core. As it can be seen in the first schema in
figures 6.11, the liquid first flows vertical across the section, but it is distributed horizontally
also. In the second schema figure 6.11, it can be observed that the liquid is more distributed
in the axis x in the distribution layer than in the acquisition layer Before to start the second
gush third schema figure 6.11 is observed that the liquid saturation in the pores decreases,
however the liquid is in the diaper cores, this phenomena is produced because most of part of
the liquid in the pores m1 is absorbed and retained for the AGM particle and is considered
like a chemical reaction in this liquid turns like a solid, m2.
84
Begin
End 1st Gush
Begin 2nd Gush
Figure 6.11. Saturation profile in the diaper core simulated (I)
At time starts the second gush with the same liquid volume, but in this case the speed of
acquisition is lower. There are several reasons that explains why the speed of acquisition is
increasing in each gush. The main reason resides in how much the storage layer properties
change with liquid uptake, as is described in the previous section the porosity and
permeability of the swelling material decrease with the liquid uptake therefore the acquisition
time will be increased. Another observation is the liquid length distribution this is increasing
in each gush because when the AGM particles closed to the inflow section are going to the
maximum uptake the liquid is for capillary effects transported to the dry AGM particles.
At the end, how the liquid flows in absorbent diapers, and the explanation why the
acquisition time increases, why the liquid length distribution increase and how much liquid is
in each layer, is found in the input parameters described in the previous section and the
equations used in the mathematical model.
85
End 2nd Gush
Begin 3rd Gush
End 3rd Gush
Begin 4th Gush
End 4th Gush
End
Figure 6.12. Saturation profile in the diaper core simulated (II)
6.3.2. Simulation results

FEFLOW generates various files which provide the output parameters at each time. One of
these files contains the output of acquisition times.
Table 6.1. Predicted acquisition times
Parameters
1st Gush
2nd Gush
3rd Gush
4th Gush
FEFLOW
(non-dimension time units)
129.6
155.5
201.9
264.6
86
Another file contains the amount of liquid per layer for every time stage that has been
recorded in the specific time stages. These conditions are obtained 10 minutes after the last
gush is ended.
Table 6.2. Predicted liquid load in the diaper core layers
Parameters
Liquid load
Liquid load in AL
Liquid load in DL
Liquid load in SL
FEFLOW
(non-dimension weight units)
99.3
0.17
1.33
97.82
The liquid length distributions are obtained analyzing the previous figures in FEFLOW.
Table 6.3. Predicted liquid length distributions
Parameters
1st Gush end
2nd Gush begin
2nd Gush end
3rd Gush begin
3rd Gush end
4th Gush begin
4th Gush end
End
FEFLOW
(non-dimension lenght units)
86.0
88.1
92.3
94.4
98.6
104.9
121.7
123.8
6.4. Validation of the virtual acquisition test against

experimental data
The numerical simulation obtained (section 6.3) is verified against the corresponding
experimental data obtained from the Speed of Acquisition test method (chapter 5).
Taking into account that a simulation of a mathematical model is a prediction of reality
making some assumptions, the validation criteria is not to obtain exactly the same output
values.
Two different analyses are done to validate the numerical simulation. The first consists of a
correlation plot between the predicted and the laboratory acquisition times. In the second
87
analysis all results obtained are compared and the restriction parameter is a maximum
difference of 10% between predicted and laboratory results.
There are two key objectives in a numerical simulation validation. The first is to validate the
input parameters described in the section 6.2. If the numerical simulation can be validated, it
is in part because the parameters introduced are correct. Furthermore, the parameters are one
of the key issues and they have to be revised several times to be sure that the analysis done
and results obtained are correct. The other key objective is to validate the model at variable
conditions. This means that the model could be used for hypothetical input parameters to
design future performance in the core materials and geometry.
6.4.1. Correlation plot between predicted and experimental acquisition

times
The correlation plot between predicted acquisition times and experimental acquisition times
shows a linear correlation between predicted and experimental results. The RMSE (root
mean square error) and Max. residual are also used as two criteria for determining how well
the model and real data are in agreement.
The linear correlation function y=ax+b between predicted and experimental results is defined
in the following expression: Lab Acq. time a Pr edicted Acq. time b . Where the parameter
has to be around 1 (a1) and the parameter b around 0 (b0) [31].
The statistical parameter RMSE (root mean square error) is used to quantify the amount by
which an estimator differs from the true value of the quantity being estimated. This
parameter indicates the average of the square of the "error." The error is the amount by which
the estimator differs from the quantity to be estimated. In this parameter the restriction is to
be lower than 17 norm (RMSE< 17.1). While the third parameter to analyze is the maximum
residual, which can not be higher than 34.4 norm (Max. Residual < 34.4). This correlation
study to validate the numerical simulation outputs against the results obtained in the
experimental was done with Jump, and the results and plots obtained are these:
88
Table 6.4. Comparison between predicted and lab acquisition times
Parameters
1st Gush
2nd Gush
3rd Gush
4th Gush
Lab Data
FEFLOW
[norm]
[norm]
100.0 6.3
129.6
142.5 14.0
155.5
255.2 12.2
201.9
396.0 17.6
264.6
SABAP Lab Acq. time 2.2338 Pr edicted Acq. time 196.24

Root Mean Square Error 7.80
400
400
350
350
300
300
Lab Acq.
Time, Actual
Lab Acq. Time,
Max. Re sidual 7.99
250
200
150
200
150
100
100
50
125
250
50
50
150
175
200
225
250
275
Predicted Acq. Time,
100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Lab Acq. Time, Predicted
P=0.0012 RSq=1.00 RMSE=7.804
Figure 6.14. Actual by predicted plot
Figure 6.13. Regression plot
As it is shown in the previous relations and plots obtained, the numerical simulation can
reproduce experimental data with RMSE and max. residual below the target. However it
must be understood as next step the a and b values of the correlation, which differ
significantly from the target values. Therefore the next step is to look into the input
parameters again to detect some gaps or inconsistent values to obtain a new numerical
simulation more accurate with the reality.
89
6.4.2. Sensitivity analysis maximum difference 10%

The other validation analysis consists of comparing the predicted results obtained from the
numerical simulation with the experimental data obtained in the Laboratory. The restriction
to validate the predicted results is to obtain ratios between both results lower than 10%.
In this validation analysis, all output parameters obtained in the laboratory are studied. This
includes liquid distribution length and liquid load in the different layers. The numerical
simulation obtained more output parameters, but these are not obtained in the Speed of
acquisition test.
Liquid length distribution
Another key parameter to compare between the predicted and experimental outputs is the
liquid length distribution in the storage core.
In the predicted results in all cases are between 7-15% lower than results obtained in the
laboratory. In the end of 1st gush and just before to start the second gush the difference
between both results is higher, one of the reasons can be because the maximum liquid length
observed in the laboratory in the firsts gushes is proportionate for the distribution layer, since
the liquid length distribution is longer in this layer than in the storage layer in the first part of
the test.
From this data some hypothesis can be obtained, once could be that in the input parameters
of the distribution layer the caliper and permeability are low for this the liquid is less
distributed in the diaper. Another issue to mention is the assumptions taken for the model in
this case in the model is not considered a nonwoven layer between the distribution and the
AGM, the layer can be an effect in the liquid distribution.
90
Table 6.5. Comparison between predicted and lab liquid length distribution
Parameters
1st Gush end (1)
2nd Gush begin (2)
2nd Gush end (3)
3rd Gush begin (4)
3rd Gush end (5)
4th Gush begin (6)
4th Gush end (7)
End (8)
Experimental Data
[norm]
100.0 3.4
100.4 2.6
101.0 2.2
101.4 2.4
115.9 4.0
116.7 3.7
131.4 2.5
133.2 2.7
FEFLOW
[norm]
% Dif.
86.0
88.1
92.3
94.4
98.6
104.9
121.7
123.8
-14%
-12%
-9%
-7%
-15%
-10%
-7%
-7%
Figure 6.15. Comparison between predicted and lab liquid length distribution
Liquid load in diaper core layers
Another output to be compared is the liquid load in the different layers. In this case is
compared the liquid load in the three layers which composed the diaper core in the
simulation, the acquisition, distribution and storage layer.
The predicted liquid load in the acquisition layer is 23% lower than the value measured in the
Laboratory. In the case of the distribution layer the predicted value is much lower, overall
91
three times lower than the experimental value. One of the reasons could be the distribution
layer caliper measured in the analytical test is too low. Another factor could be once more the
assumptions take for the model. The liquid load in the storage layer is obtained the same
results for predicted and experimental measurements.
Table 6.6. Comparison between predicted and lab liquid load in diaper core layers
Parameters
Dry weight
Wet weight
Liquid load
Liquid load in TS
Liquid load in AL
Liquid load in DL
Liquid load in SL
Experimental Data
[norm]
100.0 0.34
100.4 0.71
100.0 0.77
0.046 0.004
0.23 0.04
4.32 0.48
96.79 7.25
FEFLOW
[norm]
99.3
0.17
1.33
97.82
% Dif.
0%
-26%
-70%
0%
92
Chapter 7. CONCLUSIONS & NEXT STEPS
7.1. Conclusions
The objective of this project was to validate a mathematical model which describes fluid flow
in absorbent diaper cores. The predicted outputs obtained from the numerical simulation are
compared with the results obtained from the Speed of acquisition test.
The Speed of acquisition test is an accurate experimental method to measure the urine
acquisition time of the diaper. The results obtained in the laboratory are checked with other
results and with the statistical parameters obtained to be sure that these values are corrected
and can be used as a reference to validate the simulation model. Remarkably that the values
obtained of speed of acquisitions times are very precise calculated directly by the computer,
while the liquid length distribution and liquid load is measured manually, however is taken
12 repetitions and the standard deviation are low in all cases.
The predicted outputs are obtained via the simulation of the mathematical model based on
FeFlow. The predicted results are function of the input parameters introduced in the model
and the assumptions used for the model. One of the steps to improve the accuracy between
predicted and experimental results is to go in detail to the input material properties obtained
from analytical.
The key part of this project was the validation of the predicted results obtained by the
numerical simulation against experimental results from speed of acquisition test method.
Two different analyses are done, a correlation plot between the predicted and experimental
acquisition times, and a comparison plot with maximum difference of 10% for liquid length
distributions and liquid load in the different layers. Statistical parameters, RMSE and max.
93
residual, are used to analyze the correlation plot, the values obtained are inside the specified
target values, however the correlation function between experimental and predicted
acquisition time has to be improved in the next numerical simulations. In the liquid length
distribution the predicted values are between 8-13% lower than the values obtained in the
laboratory. Finally the liquid load in the different diaper core layer, the liquid load in the
diaper core can be considered the same for both cases, for numerical reasons in the numerical
simulation is 1% lower. The predicted liquid load in the acquisition layer is 26% lower and in
the distribution layer is three times lower.
Once analyzed the comparison between predicted and experimental results obtained in this
project, one has to analyze and detect areas to improve in the input parameters or in the
model assumptions to obtain a more accuracy numerical simulation related with the
experimental results. Therefore in the following chapter are presented the next steps to follow
to improve the numerical simulation to obtain even more accuracy predicted results with the
laboratory test method.
7.2. Next steps

The next steps consist in to obtaining a more accurate relation between predicted and
experimental results in the next validation. Therefore in the next numerical simulation the
results obtained have to be closer to the reality.
The first step, already done in the thesis work, consists in analyzing the issues between the
predicted results obtained and the experimental data obtained from the Speed of Acquisition
test. Therefore is developed and studied a list of possible causes of the issues, which could be
input material properties, another input properties or model assumptions.
One input parameter to be checked is the AGM amount in the storage and the AGM
amount distribution along the layer. Taking into account that the predicted gush times
are faster than the experimental, one of the possible reasons could be that the AGM
amount introduced in for the simulation was higher than in the reality, as well the
94
amount of AGM distribution in the storage layer could affect in the gush times and in
the liquid length distribution.
One of the layer to focus some attention is the distribution layer, as it can be seen in
the table 6.5 the predicted liquid load in the distribution layer is 3 times lower than
the value calculated in the laboratory. Therefore the caliper and capillary pressure
properties will be checked and possibly re-measured.
For the material input properties it is essential to provide from as much resources as
possible to compare and be sure of all materials and relations.
Another important point is to try to analyze some model assumptions, e.g. the effect
of the topsheet and nonwoven core cover in the experimental results.
Another key point in the next steps is to simulate the model at different external conditions,
for two reasons, one is to obtain a large range of validations and predicted and experimental
results. This will be interesting to analyze the different conditions effects in the input
parameters and in the speed of acquisition, liquid length distribution and liquid load in the
absorbent diaper cores.
95
Chapter 8. BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1]
www.pg.com
[2]
www.money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune
[3]
A.G. Lafley 2008 Annual report
[4]
www.pampers.com
[5]
K. Dziezok SuperFit Acquisition-system (P&G Internal)
[6]
www.disposablediaper.net
[7]
www.diaperjungle.com
[8]
M.Schmidt. My core design wiki (P&G Internal)
[9]
M.Thomann Quantitative root cause analysis of diaper urine leakage (P&G Internal)
[10]
B.Seitz. Chassis Training (P&G Internal)
[11]
M. Schmidt. A. Meyer. AGM Training (P&G Internal)
[12]
R.Rosati Capillary Liquid Training (P&G Internal)
[13]
P.K. Chattorjee and B.S.Gupta Textile science and Technology.
[14]
P&G confidential material I
[15]
www.ramehart.com/goniometers/contactangle
[16]
www.ksvinc.com/contact_angle.htm
[17]
A. Renz Investigation on Flow Processes in Absorbent Products using FeFlow Finite

Element Software(P&G Internal)
[18]
J.Boesel, Development Test Method: Porosity for swelling materials (P&G Internal)
[19]
J. Boesel Standard operation procedure for Capsorption Devices (P&G Internal)
[20]
K. Muller Permeability and porosity of superabsorbent polymer beds (P&G Internal)
[21]
L. Girolamo. In Plane Radial Permeability (IPRP) (P&G Internal)
[22]
H. Brundiers Dynamic Absorption Test (P&G Internal)
96
[23]
H.J. Diersch. Modeling unsaturated flow in absorbent swelling porous media (Vol. I)
(P&G Internal)
[24]
H.J. Diersch. Modeling unsaturated flow in absorbent swelling porous media (Vol. II)
(P&G Internal)
[25]
R.Rosati. FeFlow Training Physics and parameters
[26]
D. Li Core prototype hand making instructions.
[27]
A.Panosetti Speed of Acquisition test (P&G Internal)
[28]
F. Wisseman Speed of acquisition measurments
[29]
A.Mateo Tcniques estadsitiques i control de qualitat
[30]
P&G confidential material II
[31]
R. Rosati, H.Brundiers. Virtual Core Design (VCD) Validation: Improvements on

First Gush Prediction (P&G Internal)
[32]
R. Rosati, B. Aritzai How to use Feflow to simulate fluid flow in absorbent products
[33]
J.Boesel Characterization of porous media (P&G Internal)
[34]
R.Virgilio Optimizing fluid low in the Non-woven Acquisition layer (P&G Internal)
97
APPENDIX
98
A. LIST OF FIGURES
2.1.
Typical disposable diaper design
2.2.
Layers composed the diaper core
2.4.
Diaper chassis schema
2.4.
AGM molecule
2.5.
AGM swelling behavior
2.6.
Balance of forces in an AGM particle
2.7.
Gel blocking in an AGM bulk
2.8.
Disposable diaper manufacturing process
3.1.
Molecular interactions between to fluid phases (liquid and a gas)
3.2.
Liquid transport between pores of different diameters
3.3.
Liquid transport in interconnected multipore systems
3.4.
Liquid transport between different materials
3.5.
Contact angle of a liquid sample
3.6.
Non-wetting; mercury on glass surface 120
3.7.
Wetting; water on glass surface 14
3.8.
Wetting and drying curve of capillary pressure
3.9.
Balance of driving force in an AGM particle
3.10. Porous media structure

3.11. Saturation in porous media
3.12. Influence of porosity in the maximum absorption capacity
3.13. Pore volume distribution in a swelling material
3.14. Cap sorption equipment
3.15. Fluid through porous material
3.16. Relative permeability function of saturation
3.17
Balance of driving force in an AGM particle
5.1.
Gush acquisition times
5.2.
6.1.
Relation permeability-saturation in non-swelling materials
6.2.
Capillary pressure in function of saturation in non-swelling materials

99
6.3.
Porosity vs. uptake in swelling materials
6.4.
Permeability vs. uptake in swelling materials
6.5.
Absorption curve at different x-loads
6.6.
x-load in swelling materials in function of time
6.7.
Layers composed the diaper core
6.8.
Layers composed the diaper core in the model
6.9.
AGM distribution in the storage layer
6.10. Mesh discretization in the diaper core

6.11. Saturation profile in the diaper core simulated (I)
6.12. Saturation profile in the diaper core simulated (II)
6.13. Regression plot
6.14. Actual by predicted plot
6.15. Comparison between predicted and lab liquid length distribution
100
LIST OF TABLES
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
Children wearing diapers by child age

Average disposable diapers composition and weight
Disposable diaper composition after it used
Summary washing performance
Summary pre-washing performance
Summary drying performance
Inventory analysis sensitivity scenario (Manufacture and use excluding disposal)
Impact for disposable diapers and sensitivity scenarios (Whole Life- Includes disposal)
Electricity and water consumption
3.1.
Porosity values of the materials used
3.2.
Permeability values of the materials used
5.1.
Gush acquisition times
5.2.
5.3.
Liquid load in the different layers
6.1.
Predicted acquisition times
6.2.
Predicted liquid load in the diaper cores layers
6.3.
Predicted liquid length distributions
6.4.
6.5.
Comparison between predicted and lab acquisition times

Comparison between predicted and lab liquid length distribution
6.6
Comparison between predicted and lab liquid load in diaper core layers
101
NOMENCLATURE
Roman letters
A
L2
AreaLV L2
AreaSL L2
AreaSV L2
b
1
BW
ML-2
C
ML-3
Cm
MM-1
d
L
F
MT-2
g
LT-2
h
L
K
LT-1
k0
ML-2
kr
1
L
L
m
M
n
1
n
nmols
Pc
ML-1T-2
Pelast
ML-1T-2
ML-1T-2
Pext
Ph
ML-1T-2
Pmix
ML-1T-2
Pnon-wet ML-1T-2
Posm
ML-1T-2
Pwet
ML-1T-2
Q
L3T-1
qm
ML-3
R
MLn-1T-1
r
L
S
1
T
T
t
T
u
L
V
L3
L3
Vliquid
Vtotal
L3
Vvoid
L3
Wseparate MT-2
Section
Liquid-vapor interface area
Solid-liquid interface area
Solid-vapor interface area
Exponencial factor
Basis weight
Intrinsic concentration
Maximum absorption capacity
Caliper
Interfacial energy
gravity
Height of the liquid column
Permeability
Full saturation permeability
Relative permeability
Length in the direction of the flow
mass
porosity
Number of mols
Capillary pressure
Pressure produced for the reatractive forces
External pressure
Hidrostatic pressure
Pressure produce for the interactions between the phases
Pressure in the non-wetting zone
Osmotic pressure
Pressure in the wetting zone
Volumetric Darcy flux
Density of external mass
Constant ideal gases (8.31J/mol/K)
Radius of the pores
Saturation
Temperature
Time
Solid displacement vector
Volume of the substance
Volume of liquid in the porous material
Total volume of the porous material
Void space in the porous material
Work to separate a liquid and another substance
102
Greek letters
LV
SL
SV
ML-2T-2
ML-2T-2
ML-2T-2
ML-2T-2
ML-1T-1
ML-3
ML-2T-2
T-1
1
L
Interfacial tension
Liquid-vapor interfacial tension
Solid-liquid interfacial tension
Solid-vapor interfacial tension
Dynamic Viscosity
Densitiy
Surface tension
AGM reaction parameter
Contact angle
Pressure head of liquid phase
Abbreviations
AGM
AL
BE
BLCs
BS
DL
FE
GBUs
NW
PFC
P&G
R&D
SAP
SL
TS
US
Absorbent gelling material

Acquisition layer
Back ears
Barrier Leg Cuffs
Backsheet
Distribution layer
Front ears
Global Business Units
Nonwoven
Projecte final de carrera
Procter & Gamble
Research and development
Superabsorbent particles
Storage layer
Topsheet
United States
103

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Numerical simulation of fluid flow in

absorbent diapers, using FeFlow

Robert Brunet Sol

Procter&Gamble proprietary information and are to be treated as confidential.

P&G Confidential- Restricted use

2.3.2.1 Diaper Core...... 15

2.4.1 Structural characteristics......

2.6.2.1 Number of changes... 25

P&G Confidential- Restricted use

2.6.3.2 Inventory data for reusable diapers..

2.6.4 Life cycle impact assessment

2.6.4.1 Disposable diapers 28

2.7 How can start a new diaper factory?...

FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW IN POROUS

3.2.3.2 Contact angle ... 40

3.3 Hysteresis effects....

3.5.1.1 Defnition of porosity........ 45

MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF FLUID FLOW IN

4.2.4 Constitutive relationships. 58

LAB TEST METHODS

6.2.2 Geometry parameters...

6.2.3 Mesh discretization......

CONCLUSIONS & NEXT STEPS

P&G Confidential- Restricted use

P&G Confidential- Restricted use

The simulation results must be satisfactorily physically accurate and

1.2. Literature overview

P&G Confidential- Restricted use

2.1. The Procter & Gamble Company

P&G Confidential- Restricted use

2.2. Baby care (Pampers)

2.3. The disposable diaper

2.3.1 Diaper history

P&G Confidential- Restricted use

P&G Confidential- Restricted use

2.3.2 Diaper composition

Figure 2.1. Typical disposable diaper design[4]

P&G Confidential- Restricted use

2.3.2.1 Diaper Core

P&G Confidential- Restricted use

Barrier Leg Cuffs (BLCs)

Front ears (FE) & Back ears (BE)

P&G Confidential- Restricted use

The diaper chassis study is divided into three specific areas:

2.4. Synthetic superabsorbents

P&G Confidential- Restricted use

2.4.1. Structural characteristics

Figure 2.4. AGM molecule [7]

2.4.2. Swelling behavior

Figure 2.5. AGM swelling behavior

P&G Confidential- Restricted use

Figure 2.6. Balance of forces in an AGM particle

Pmix Posm Pelast Pext

2.4.3. Gel blocking

Controlled Swelling/ High permeability

Figure 2.7. Gel blocking in an AGM bulk [7]

P&G Confidential- Restricted use

2.5. Disposable diaper manufacturing process

2.5.1. Disposable diaper materials

2.5.2. Nonwoven fabric manufacturing

Figure 2.8. Disposable diaper manufacturing process

2.6. Disposable diaper sustainability