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Indo-Aryan migration
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Indo-Aryan migration was the migration of Indo-Aryans into Anatolia and northern India, after the split
of the Indo-Iranians into Indo-Aryan and Iranic peoples. It was part of the larger Indo-European migrations.
The study of the Indo-Aryan migration began with the study of the Rig Veda in the mid 19th century by Max
Muller. Contemporary claims of Indo-Aryan migrations are drawn from linguistic,[1] genetic,[2]
archaeological, literary and cultural sources.
The debate about the origin of Indo-Aryan peoples in northern India is highly controversial relating to the
indigenous origin of peoples and culture, thus inflaming political agitation and sentiments. Throughout the
evolution of the theory, many have rejected the claim of Indo-Aryan origin outside of India entirely, claiming
that the Indo-Aryan people and languages originated in India.
Contents
1 Development of the Aryan Migration Theory
2 Scenarios
2.1 Anatolia - Hittites and Mittani
2.2 North-India - Vedic culture
2.2.1 Migration into northern India
2.2.2 Spread of Vedic-Brahmanic culture
3 Linguistic evidence
3.1 Language
3.1.1 Diversity
3.1.2 Dialectical variation
3.1.3 Substrate influence
3.2 Textual references
3.2.1 Mitanni
3.2.2 Rigveda
3.2.2.1 Views on Rigvedic society (pastoral or urban?)
3.2.2.2 Views on Rigvedic reference to migration
3.2.2.3 Rigvedic Rivers and Reference of Samudra
3.2.3 Srauta Sutra of Baudhayana
3.2.4 Iranian Avesta
3.2.5 Later Vedic and Hindu texts
3.2.5.1 Vedic
3.2.5.2 Puranas
4 Archaeological evidence
4.1 Population movements
4.2 Associated cultures
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4.2.1 Andronovo
4.2.2 Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC)
4.2.3 Gandhara grave culture
4.3 Indus Valley Civilization
4.3.1 Continuity
4.3.2 Decline of Indus Valley Civilisation
5 Genetic evidence
5.1 Pre-Holocene origins
5.2 Aryan migrations
5.3 Ethno-linguistics
6 Controversy
6.1 Dravidian response
6.2 Hindu nationalism
6.3 Racism
7 Concurring views
7.1 "Indigenous Aryans"
7.1.1 Shaffer - Continuity
7.1.2 Lal - Fire altars
7.2 Out of India Theory
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Sources
11.1 Published sources
11.2 Web-sources
12 External links
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comparable to the Germanic migrations after the Fall of Rome, or the Kassite invasion of Babylonia. The
decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation at precisely the period in history for which the Indo-Aryan migration
had been assumed, provides independent support of the linguistic scenario. This argument is associated with
the mid-20th century archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler, who interpreted the presence of many unburied
corpses found in the top levels of Mohenjo-daro as the victims of conquest wars, and who famously stated
that the god "Indra stands accused" of the destruction of the Civilisation. Despite, no evidences were found,
and the skeletons were found to be hasty interments, not massacred victims.[5]
In the later 20th century, ideas were refined along with data accrual, and migration and acculturation were
seen as the methods whereby Indo-Aryans spread into northwest India around 1500 BC. These changes were
thought to be in line with changes in thinking about language transfer in general, such as the migration of the
Greeks into Greece (between 2100 and 1600 BC) and their adoption of a syllabic script, Linear B, from the
pre-existing Linear A, with the purpose of writing Mycenaean Greek, or the Indo-Europeanization of Western
Europe (in stages between 2200 and 1300 BC).
Scenarios
The Indo-Aryan migration was part of
the Indo-Iranian migrations from the
Andronovo culture into Anatolia, Iran
and South-Asia. Indo-Iranian peoples
are a grouping of ethnic groups
consisting of the Indo-Aryan, Iranian,
Dardic and Nuristani peoples; that is,
speakers of Indo-Iranian languages, a
major branch of the Indo-European
language family. The ProtoIndo-Iranians are commonly identified
with the descendants of the ProtoIndo-Europeans known as the Sintashta
culture and the subsequent Andronovo
culture within the broader Andronovo
horizon, and their homeland with an
area of the Eurasian steppe that borders
the Ural River on the west, the Tian
Shan on the east.
The Indo-Iranian migrations took place
in two waves.[7][8] The first wave
consisted of a migration into Anatolia,
founding the Hittite empire and Mittani
kingdom, and a migration southeastward, over the Hindu Kush into
northern India. The second wave
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Indo-Aryan migration
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Geography of the Rigveda, with river names; the extent of the Swat and
Cemetery H cultures are indicated.
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Linguistic evidence
Contemporary claims of Indo-Aryan migrations are drawn from linguistic,[1] literary, cultural, archaeological
and genetic[2] sources.
Accumulated linguistic evidence points to the Indo-Aryan languages as intrusive into South Asia, some time
in the 2nd millennium BC. The language of the Rigveda, the earliest stratum of Vedic Sanskrit, is assigned to
about 15001200 BC.[20]
Language
Diversity
According to the linguistic center of gravity principle, the most likely point of origin of a language family is in
the area of its greatest diversity.[21] By this criterion, India, home to only a single branch of the
Indo-European language family (i. e., Indo-Aryan), is an exceedingly unlikely candidate for the
Indo-European homeland, compared to Central-Eastern Europe, for example, which is home to the Italic,
Venetic, Illyrian, Albanian, Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, Thracian and Greek branches of Indo-European.[22]
Both mainstream Urheimat solutions locate the Proto-Indo-European homeland in the vicinity of the Black
Sea.[23]
Dialectical variation
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The strong correspondence between the dialectical relationships of the Indo-European languages and their
actual geographical arrangement in their earliest attested forms makes an Indian origin for the family
unlikely.[26]
Substrate influence
Dravidian and other South Asian languages share with Indo-Aryan a number of syntactical and morphological
features that are alien to other Indo-European languages, including even its closest relative, Old Iranian.
Phonologically, there is the introduction of retroflexes, which alternate with dentals in Indo-Aryan;
morphologically there are the gerunds; and syntactically there is the use of a quotative marker ("iti").[note 4]
These are taken as evidence of substratum influence.
It has been argued that Dravidian influenced Indic through "shift", whereby native Dravidian speakers
learned and adopted Indic languages. The presence of Dravidian structural features in Old Indo-Aryan is thus
plausibly explained, that the majority of early Old Indo-Aryan speakers had a Dravidian mother tongue which
they gradually abandoned.[27] Even though the innovative traits in Indic could be explained by multiple
internal explanations, early Dravidian influence is the only explanation that can account for all of the
innovations at once it becomes a question of explanatory parsimony; moreover, early Dravidian influence
accounts for the several of the innovative traits in Indic better than any internal explanation that has been
proposed.[28]
A pre-Indo-European linguistic substratum in South Asia would be a good reason to exclude India as a
potential Indo-European homeland.[29] However, several linguists, all of whom accept the external origin of
the Aryan languages on other grounds, are still open to considering the evidence as internal developments
rather than the result of substrate influences,[30] or as adstratum effects.[31]
Textual references
Mitanni
The earliest written evidence for an Indo-Aryan language is found not in India, but in northern Syria in Hittite
records regarding one of their neighbors, the Hurrian-speaking Mitanni. In a treaty with the Hittites, the king
of Mitanni, after swearing by a series of Hurrian gods, swears by the gods Mitrail, Uruvanail, Indara, and
Naatianna, who correspond to the Vedic gods Mitra, Varua, Indra, and Nsatya (Avin). Contemporary
equestrian terminology, as recorded in a horse-training manual whose author is identified as "Kikkuli the
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Mitannian," contains Indo-Aryan loanwords. The personal names and gods of the Mitanni aristocracy also
bear significant traces of Indo-Aryan. Because of the association of Indo-Aryan with horsemanship and the
Mitanni aristocracy, it is presumed that, after superimposing themselves as rulers on a native Hurrianspeaking population about the 15th-16th centuries BC, Indo-Aryan charioteers were absorbed into the local
population and adopted the Hurrian language.[32]
Brentjes argues that there is not a single cultural element of central Asian, eastern European, or Caucasian
origin in the Mitannian area; he also associates with an Indo-Aryan presence the peacock motif found in the
Middle East from before 1600 BC and quite likely from before 2100 BC.[33]
Most scholars reject the possibility that the Indo-Aryans of Mitanni came from the Indian subcontinent as
well as the possibility that the Indo-Aryans of the Indian subcontinent came from the territory of Mitanni,
leaving migration from the north the only likely scenario.[note 5] The presence of some BMAC loan words in
Mitanni, Old Iranian and Vedic further strengthens this scenario.[35]
Rigveda
The Rigveda is by far the most archaic testimony of
Vedic Sanskrit. Bryant suggests that the Rigveda
represents a pastoral or nomadic, mobile culture,[12]
centered on the Indo-Iranian Soma cult and fire
worship. The purpose of hymns of the Rigveda is
ritualistic, not historiographical or ethnographical, and
any information about the way of life or the habitat of
their authors is incidental and philologically
extrapolated from the context.[note 6] Nevertheless,
Rigvedic data must be used, cautiously, as they are the
earliest available textual evidence from India.
Views on Rigvedic society (pastoral or urban?)
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(...) if the Vedic literature reflects primarily the village life and not the urban life, it does not at all surprise
us.". Gregory Possehl (as cited in Bryant 2001:195) argued that the "extraordinary empty spaces between the
Harappan settlement clusters" indicates that pastoralists may have "formed the bulk of the population during
Harappan times".
Views on Rigvedic reference to migration
Talageri speculates that some of the tribes that fought against king Sudas and his army on the banks of the
Parusni River during the Dasarajna battle have migrated to western countries in later times,[37] as they are
connected with what he assumes are Iranian peoples (e.g. the Pakthas, Bhalanas).[38]
Just like the Avesta does not mention an external homeland of the Zoroastrians, the Rigveda does not
explicitly refer to an external homeland[39] or to a migration.[40][note 8] Later texts than the Rigveda (such as
the Brahmanas, the Mahabharata, Ramayana and the Puranas) are more centered in the Haryana and Ganges
region. This shift from the Punjab to the Gangetic plain continues the Rigvedic tendency of eastward
expansion.
Rigvedic Rivers and Reference of Samudra
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the middle Ganges valley and the places equivalent such as the Kasi, the Videhas and the Kuru
Pancalas, and so on. In fact, when one looks for them, there are evidence for migration.[web 8]
Kalpasutra notes that Pururavas had two sons by Urvasi, named Ayus and Amavasu, Ayus went east and
Amavasu went west.[web 8]
Iranian Avesta
The religious practices depicted in the Rgveda and those depicted in the Avesta, the central religious text of
Zoroastrianismthe ancient Iranian faith founded by the prophet Zarathustrahave in common the deity
Mitra, priests called hot in the Rgveda and zaotar in the Avesta, and the use of a hallucinogenic compound
that the Rgveda calls soma and the Avesta haoma. However, the Indo-Aryan deva 'god' is cognate with the
Iranian dava 'demon'. Similarly, the Indo-Aryan asura 'name of a particular group of gods' (later on, 'demon')
is cognate with the Iranian ahura 'lord, god,' which 19th and early 20th century authors such as Burrow
explained as a reflection of religious rivalry between Indo-Aryans and Iranians.[46]
Most linguists such as Burrow argue that the strong similarity between the Avestan language of the
Gthsthe oldest part of the Avestaand the Vedic Sanskrit of the Rgveda pushes the dating of Zarathustra
or at least the Gathas closer to the conventional Rgveda dating of 15001200 BC, i.e. 1100 BC, possibly
earlier. Boyce concurs with a lower date of 1100 BC and tentatively proposes an upper date of 1500 BC.
Gnoli dates the Gathas to around 1000 BC, as does Mallory (1989), with the caveat of a 400 year leeway on
either side, i.e. between 1400 and 600 BC. Therefore the date of the Avesta could also indicate the date of
the Rigveda.[47]
There is mention in the Avesta of Airyanm Vajah, one of the '16 the lands of the Aryans' as well as
Zarathustra himself. Gnoli's interpretation of geographic references in the Avesta situates the Airyanem
Vaejah in the Hindu Kush. For similar reasons, Boyce excludes places north of the Syr Darya and western
Iranian places. With some reservations, Skjaervo concurs that the evidence of the Avestan texts makes it
impossible to avoid the conclusion that they were composed somewhere in northeastern Iran. Witzel points to
the central Afghan highlands. Humbach derives Vajah from cognates of the Vedic root "vij," suggesting the
region of fast-flowing rivers. Gnoli considers Choresmia (Xvairizem), the lower Oxus region, south of the
Aral Sea to be an outlying area in the Avestan world. However, according to Mallory & Mair (2000), the
probable homeland of Avestan is, in fact, the area south of the Aral Sea.[48]
Later Vedic and Hindu texts
Texts like the Puranas and Mahabharata belong to a much later period than the Rigveda, making their
evidence less than sufficient to be used for or against the Indo-Aryan migration theory.
Vedic
Later Vedic texts show a shift of location from the Panjab to the East: according to the Yajur Veda,
Yajnavalkya (a Vedic ritualist and philosopher) lived in the eastern region of Mithila.[49] Aitareya Brahmana
33.6.1. records that Vishvamitra's sons migrated to the north, and in Shatapatha Brahmana 1:2:4:10 the
Asuras were driven to the north.[50] In much later texts, Manu was said to be a king from Dravida.[51] In the
legend of the flood he stranded with his ship in Northwestern India or the Himalayas.[52] The Vedic lands
(e.g. Aryavarta, Brahmavarta) are located in Northern India or at the Sarasvati and Drsadvati River.[53]
However, in a post-Vedic text the Mahabharata Udyoga Parva (108), the East is described as the homeland of
the Vedic culture, where "the divine Creator of the universe first sang the Vedas."[54] The legends of
Ikshvaku, Sumati and other Hindu legends may have their origin in South-East Asia.[55]
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Puranas
The Puranas record that Yayati left Prayag (confluence of the Ganges & Yamuna) and conquered the region
of Sapta Sindhu.[56] His five sons Yadu, Druhyu, Puru, Anu and Turvashu correspond to the main tribes of
the Rigveda.
The Puranas also record that the Druhyus were driven out of the land of the seven rivers by Mandhatr and
that their next king Gandhara settled in a north-western region which became known as Gandhara. The sons
of the later Druhyu king Pracetas are supposed by some to have 'migrated' to the region north of Afghanistan
though the Puranic texts only speak of an "adjacent" settlement.[57][58]
Archaeological evidence
Attempts have been made to supplement the linguistic
evidence with archaeological data.[59] Erdosy notes that
... combining the discoveries of archaeology and
linguistics has been complicated by mutual ignorance
of the aims, complexity and limitations of the
respective disciplines.[60]
The two disciplines focus on two different problems:
linguistics tries to explain the linguistic map of south Asia,
while archaeology tries to understand the transition between
the Indus Valley Civilisation and the Gangetic
The extent of the BMAC (after EIEC).
Civilisations.[61] Archaeological artifacts may not prove or
disprove migrations an sich,[note 9] and it may not be possible
to identify language within material culture,[62] but archaeological remains can reflect cultural and societal
change,[62] which may correspond to changes in the population:
Evidence in material culture for systems collapse, abandonement of old beliefs and large-scale, if
localised, population shifts in response to ecological catastrophe in the 2nd millennium B.C. must
all now be related to the spread of Indo-Aryan languages.[62]
According to Erdosy, the postulated movements within Central Asia can be placed within a processional
framework, replacing simplistic concepts of "diffusion", "migrations" and "invasions".[63]
Population movements
Erdosy, testing hypotheses derived from linguistic evidence against hypotheses derived from arcaeological
data,[60] states that there is no evidence of "invasions by a barbaric race enjoying technological and military
superiority",[64] but
...some support was found in the archaeological record for small-scale migrations from Central to
South Asia in the late 3rd/early 2nd millennia BC."[59]
Shaffer & Lichtenstein contend that in the second millennium BCE considerable "location processes" took
place. In the eastern Punjab 79,9% and in Gujarat 96% of sites changed settlement status. According to
Shaffer & Lichtenstein,
It is evident that a major geographic population shift accompanied this 2nd millennium BCE
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localisation process. This shift by Harappan and, perhaps, other Indus Valley cultural mosaic
groups, is the only archaeologically documented west-to-east movement of human populations in
South Asia before the first half of the first millennium B.C.[65]
Associated cultures
The Andronovo, BMAC and Yaz cultures have been associated with Indo-Iranian migrations, with separation
of Indo-Aryans proper from Proto-Indo-Iranians dated to roughly 20001800 BC. The Gandhara Grave,
Cemetery H, Copper Hoard and Painted Grey Ware cultures are candidates for subsequent cultures
associated with Indo-Aryan movements, their arrival in the Indian subcontinent being dated to the Late
Harappan period.
It is believed that Indo-Aryans reached Assyria in the west and the Punjab in the east before 1500 BC: the
Hurrite speaking Mitanni rulers, influenced by Indo-Aryan, appear from 1500 in northern Mesopotamia, and
the Gandhara grave culture emerges from 1600. This suggests that Indo-Aryan tribes would have had to be
present in the area of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (southern Turkmenistan/northern
Afghanistan) from 1700 BC at the latest (incidentally corresponding with the decline of that culture).
Andronovo
The conventional identification of the Andronovo culture as
Indo-Iranian is disputed by those who point to the absence south of
the Oxus River of the characteristic timber graves of the
steppe.[66]
Based on its use by Indo-Aryans in Mitanni and Vedic India, its
prior absence in the Near East and Harappan India, and its 19-20th
century BC attestation at the Andronovo site of Sintashta,
Kuzmina (1994) argues that the chariot corroborates the
identification of Andronovo as Indo-Iranian. Klejn (1974) and
Brentjes (1981) find the Andronovo culture much too late for an
Indo-Iranian identification since chariot-wielding Aryans appear in
Mitanni by the 15th to 16th century BC. However, Anthony &
Vinogradov (1995) dated a chariot burial at Krivoye Lake to about
2000 BC and a BMAC burial that also contains a foal has recently
been found, indicating further links with the steppes.[14]
Mallory (as cited in Bryant 2001:216) admits the extraordinary difficulty of making a case for expansions
from Andronovo to northern India, and that attempts to link the Indo-Aryans to such sites as the Beshkent
and Vakhsh cultures "only gets the Indo-Iranian to Central Asia, but not as far as the seats of the Medes,
Persians or Indo-Aryans". However he has also developed the "kulturkugel" model that has the Indo-Iranians
taking over BMAC cultural traits but preserving their language and religion while moving into Iran and India.
Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC)
Some scholars have suggested that the characteristically BMAC artifacts found at burials in Mehrgarh and
Baluchistan are explained by a movement of peoples from Central Asia to the south.[67]
Jarrige and Hassan (as cited in Bryant 2001:215216) argue instead that the BMAC artifacts are explained
"within the framework of fruitful intercourse" by "a wide distribution of common beliefs and ritual practices"
and "the economic dynamism of the area extending from South-Central Asia to the Indus Valley."
Either way, the exclusively Central Asian BMAC material inventory of the Mehrgarh and Baluchistan burials
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is, in the words of Bryant (2001:215), "evidence of an archaeological intrusion into the subcontinent from
Central Asia during the commonly accepted time frame for the arrival of the Indo-Aryans". However,
archaeologists like B.B. Lal have seriously questioned the BMAC and Indo-Iranian "connections", and
thoroughly disputed all the proclaimed relations.[web 9]
Gandhara grave culture
About 1800 BC, there is a major cultural change in the
Swat Valley with the emergence of the Gandhara
grave culture. With its introduction of new ceramics,
new burial rites, and the horse, the Gandhara grave
culture is a major candidate for early Indo-Aryan
presence. The two new burial ritesflexed
inhumation in a pit and cremation burial in an
urnwere, according to early Vedic literature, both
practiced in early Indo-Aryan society. Horse-trappings
indicate the importance of the horse to the economy
of the Gandharan grave culture. Two horse burials
indicate the importance of the horse in other respects.
Horse burial is a custom that Gandharan grave culture
has in common with Andronovo, though not within the
distinctive timber-frame graves of the steppe.[68]
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post-Harappan communities.[73][note 15] Hemphill notes that "patterns of phonetic affinity" between Bactria
and the Indus Valley Civilisation are best explained by "a pattern of long-standing, but low-level bidirectional
mutual exchange."[note 16]
Genetic evidence
The Austro-Asiatic tribals are hypothesized to have been the earliest inhabitants of India, while incoming
Indo-European tribes may have displaced Dravidian-speaking tribals southward. However, the study's authors
posit that a major influx into India occurred from the Northeast as well. It has also been noted that there is an
underlying unity of present-day female lineages in India, and that historical gene flow has led to the
obliteration of congruence between genetic and cultural affinities.
Pre-Holocene origins
Some reports emphasize the finding that tribal and caste populations in South Asia derive largely from a
common maternal heritage of Pleistocene southern and western Asians, with only limited gene flow from
external regions since the start of the Holocene.[74][75][note 17][note 18] A 2011 genetic study "confirmed the
existence of a general principal component cline stretching from Europe to south India." They also concluded
that the Indian populations are characterized by two major ancestry components, one of which is spread at
comparable frequency and haplotype diversity in populations of South and West Asia and the Caucasus. The
second component is more restricted to South Asia and accounts for more than 50% of the ancestry in Indian
populations. Haplotype diversity associated with these South Asian ancestry components is significantly
higher than that of the components dominating the West Eurasian ancestry palette. Modeling of the observed
haplotype diversities suggests that both Indian ancestry components are older than the purported Indo-Aryan
invasion 3,500 YBP[web 11]
Aryan migrations
This finding alone does not rule out the possibility of an elitist and/or male-predominant Aryan invasion of
the Indian subcontinent as in fact the patterns of historical conquest and migration are ultimately reflected in
terms of sex-biased admixture, with the mitochondrial heritage being more stable and of more local origin and
the Y-chromosomal heritage reflecting an external influence upon the population genetic structure, as can be
seen in not only such regions as South Asia,[web 12] but also in such regions as Northeastern Africa (Semitic Y
chromosomes vs. Niger-Kordofanian mtDNA)[web 13] and Latin America (Iberian Y chromosomes vs.
Amerindian mtDNA).[web 14] Furthermore, the majority of researchers have found significant evidence in
support of Indo-European migration and even "elite dominance" of the northern half of the Indian
subcontinent, usually pointing to three separate lines of evidence:[web 15]
the previously widespread distribution of Dravidian speakers, now confined to the south of India;
the fact that upper caste Brahmins share a close genetic affinity with West Eurasians, whereas low
caste Indians tend to have more in common with aboriginals or East Asians;
and the comparatively recent introgression of West Eurasian DNA into the aboriginal population of the
post-Neolithic Indo-Gangetic plain.[web 15][web 16][web 17]
Other studies also claim that there is genetic evidence in support of the traditional hypothesis of Indo-Aryan
migration. Basu et al. argue that the Indian subcontinent was subjected to a series of massive Indo-European
migrations about 1500 BC.[web 18] In the case of paternal-line Y-chromosome DNA, the Indo-Aryan
migration is associated with the R1a haplogroup, especially the R1a1a subgroup, which clusters in Eastern
Europe and the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, and nicely dovetails with the observed similarities
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between Lithuanian and Sanskrit, and more broadly, satem languages as a whole. The strongest such claims,
though, are based upon studies of autosomal DNA, not only Y DNA. Several such studies have isolated two
major components of ancestry amongst Indians, one being more common in the south, and amongst lower
castes, and the other more common amongst upper caste Indians, Indians speaking Indo-European languages,
and also Indians living in the northwest. This second component is shared with populations from the Middle
East, Europe and Central Asia, and is thought to represent at least one ancient influx of people from the
northwest.[web 18] According to one researcher, there is "a major genetic contribution from Eurasia to North
Indian upper castes" and a "greater genetic inflow among North Indian caste populations than is observed
among South Indian caste and tribal populations." [web 19]
A more recent study has provided support for an influx of Indo-European migrants into the Indian
subcontinent, but not necessarily an "invasion of any kind", further corroborating the findings of previous
investigators, such as Bamshad et al. (2001), Wells et al. (2002) and Basu et al. (2003).
Ethno-linguistics
The terms North Indian and South Indian are ethno-linguistic categories, with North Indian corresponding to
Indo-European-speaking peoples and South Indian corresponding to Dravidian-speaking; however, because
of admixture, these two groups often overlap.[web 20][web 21] Certain sample populations of upper caste
North Indians show affinity to Central Asian caucasians, whereas southern Indian Brahmins' relationship is
further.[web 19][web 22]
Language change resulting from the migration of numerically small superstrate groups would be difficult to
trace genetically. Historically attested events, such as invasions by Huns, Greeks, Kushans, Mughals and
modern Europeans, may have had negligible genetic impact, and if they did it can be hard to trace it. For
example, despite centuries of Greek rule in Northwest India, no trace of either the I-M170 or the E-M35 Y
DNA paternal haplogroups associated with Greek and Macedonian males lines have been found.[74] On the
other hand, evidence of E-M35 and J-M12, another supposed Greek or Balkan marker, has been found in
three Pakistani populations the Burusho, Kalash and Pathan who claim descent from Greek soldiers.[76]
Controversy
The debate about the origin of Indo-Aryan peoples is highly controversial, relating to the indigenous origin of
peoples and culture, thus inflaming political agitation and sentiments.
Dravidian response
The Dravidian Movement bases much of its identity on the idea of the indigenous origin of Dravidians as
opposed to transgressing Indo-Aryans.[77] This in turn lead to further responses from Indian nationalists:
From a nationalist point of view, it is clear that the concept of an Aryan-Dravidian divide is
pernicious to the unity of the Hindu state, and an important aim for Hindutva and neo-Hindu
scholarship is therefor to introduce a counter-narrative to the one presented by Western
academic scholarship.[78][note 19]
Hindu nationalism
Nationalistic movements in India oppose the idea that Hinduism has partly endogenous origins.[1][79]
[80][note 20]
For the founders of the contemporary Hindutva movement, the Aryan migration theory presented
[81]
a problem.
The Hindutva-notion that the Hindu-culture originated in India was threatened by the notion
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that the Aryans originated outside India.[81] Later Indian writers regarded the Aryan migration theory to be a
product of colonialism, aimed to denigrate Hindus.[82] According to them, Hindus had existed in India from
times immemorial, as expressed by Golwalkar:[82]
Undoubtedly ... we Hindus have been in undisputed and undisturbed possession of this land for
over 8 or even 10 thousand years before the land was invaded by any foreign race. (Golwakar
[1939] 1944)[82][note 21][note 23]
Racism
The debate inflames issues around racism and the idea of race, as the origin of the theory was intertwined
with the desire of many in the Western world to find the origin of a pure Aryan race, the division of castes by
racial basis, and the idea of an Indo-Aryan and Dravidian relating to language families rather than
race.[95][96]
Concurring views
According to Bryant, archaeologists in India remain quite skeptical:
The vast majority of professional archaeologists I interviewed in India insisted that there was no
convincing archaeological evidence whatsoever to support any claims of external Indo-Aryan
origins. This is part of a wider trend: archaeologists working outside of South Asia are voicing
similar views.[97]
Within India, alternative visions on the origins of the Aryan language and culture have been developed,
which emphasize indigenous origins.[1] They are rejected by mainstream scholars, since they neglect
linguistic research,[1] and are contradicted by a broad range of research on Indo-European migration.[98]
"Indigenous Aryans"
The notion of Indigenous Aryans posits that speakers of Indo-Aryan languages are "indigenous" to the Indian
subcontinent. Scholars like Jim G. Shaffer and B.B. Lal note the absence of archaeological remains of an
Aryan "conquest", and the high degree of physical continuity between Harappan and Post-Harappan
society.[web 24] They support the controversial[web 24] theory that the Aryan civilization was not introduced
by Aryan migrations, but originated in pre-Vedic India.[web 24]
Shaffer - Continuity
Jim Shaffer has noted several problems with the arguments that the ancient Harappans were Aryans.[99]
According to Shaffer, archaeological evidence consistent with a mass population movement, or an invasion of
South Asia in the pre- or proto- historic periods, has not been found. Instead, Shaffer proposes a series of
cultural changes reflecting indigenous cultural developments from prehistoric to historic periods.[100][note 24]
Shaffer contends:
There were no invasions from central or western South Asia. Rather there were several internal
cultural adjustments reflecting altered ecological, social and economic conditions affecting
northwestern and north-central South Asia.[102][note 9]
Lal - Fire altars
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Lal notes that at Kalibangan (at the Ghaggar river) the remains of what some writers claim to be fire altars
have been unearthed that are claimed to have been used for Vedic sacrifices, although the presence of animal
bones does not seem consistent with Vedic rites. In addition the remains of a bathing place (suggestive of
ceremonial bathing) have been found near the altars in Kalibangan.[110] S.R. Rao found similar "fire altars" in
Lothal which he thinks could have served no other purpose than Vedic ritual.[111] The sites in Kalibangan are
dated back to pre-Harappan times i.e. 3500 BC, well before any likely date for the Indo-Aryan migrations, so
this may suggest that Vedic rites are indigenous to India and not brought in from outside.[112]
See also
The Arctic Home in the
Andronovo culture
Vedas by B G Tilak
Indo-Aryan languages
Kurgan
Indo-Aryans
Tamil nationalism
Genetics and
Aryan
Rigveda
archaeogenetics of South
Arya
Indo-Iranians
Asia
Ariana
Indo-Iranian languages
Aryavarta
BMAC
Notes
1. ^ However, this culture may also represent
ab
[15]
[note 22]
[86]
[89][90]
[91]
the Shramana
or renouncer
Era. [93][94]
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Kennedy in [69]
[70]
migration.[40]
9. ^
ab
external influences.
[note 25]
Archaeological
India.
Several historically
[note 28]
> As
[109]
sums
[72]
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173-192
origins. [84][note 3]
/ol_051219.htm).
21. ^ See also "Savarkar, Essentials of Hindutva
(http://www.savarkar.org/content/pdfs/en
Indo-European languages."[113]
References
1. ^ a b c d e Bryant 2001.
2. ^
ab
Wells 2002.
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7. ^ Burrow 1973.
8. ^ Parpola 1999.
ab
Bryant (2001:91)
ab
15. ^
abcd
16. ^
ab
Samuel 2010.
Mallory (1989)
2001:8182
31. ^ Hock 1975/1984/1996 and Tikkanen 1987, as
cited in Bryant (2001:7882)
32. ^ Mallory & Mair (2000)
Mallory (1989)
StBoT 41 (1995)
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71. ^
ab
doi:10.2307/3520116 (http://dx.doi.org
72. ^
ab
73. ^
ab
(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0970-0293),
74. ^
ab
/3520116).
96. ^ Leopold, Joan (1974), "British Applications of
doi:10.1093/ehr/LXXXIX.CCCLII.578
(http://dx.doi.org
(http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/v15/n1
/10.1093%2Fehr%2FLXXXIX.CCCLII.578).
doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201726 (http://dx.doi.org
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17047675)
0-415-30592-6
80. ^ Gupta 2007, p. 108-109.
81. ^
ab
82. ^
abc
1984:57-58
111. ^ (S.R. Rao. The Aryans in Indus
Civilization.1993:175)
112. ^ "Advent of the Aryans in India", p. 24, by Ram
Sharan Sharma, year = 1999
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External links
Overview
Hindu students council, North carolina state university, Aryan Invasion/Migration Theory
(http://clubs.ncsu.edu/hsc/hsc/Events/Entries/2007/2/21_Aryan_Invasion_Theory__Myth_or_reality_files/Aryan%20Migration%20Theory-Manav.pdf)
Archaeology Online, The Aryan Invasion: theories, counter-theories and historical significance
(http://www.archaeologyonline.net/artifacts/aryan-invasion-theories.html)
Thapar, Romila: The Aryan question revisited (1999) (http://members.tripod.com/ascjnu/aryan.html)
Francesco Brighenti, Selected Internet Resources on the Aryan Migration Theory (AMT) Debate
(http://www.eastwestcultural.org/public/amt/amt-internet.php)
Linguistics
(http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/AryanHome.pdf)Michael Witzel: The Home of the Aryans
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Agarwal, Vishal: Is There Vedic Evidence for the Indo-Aryan Immigration to India?
(http://www.omilosmeleton.gr/english/documents/VedicEvidenceforAMT.pdf) (pdf)
Archaeology
Cache of Seal Impressions Discovered in Western India (http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/research
/possehl/ahar-banas.shtml)
Central Asia 2000-1000BC (Metmuseum.org) (http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/03/nc/ht03nc.htm)
Lal, B.B.: The Homeland of Indo-European Languages and Culture: Some Thoughts
(http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/ifihhome/articles/bbl001.html&
date=2009-10-26+00:21:54) By Archaeologist B.B. Lal
Danino, Michel: The Indus-Sarasvati Civilization and its Bearing on the Aryan Question
(http://micheldanino.voiceofdharma.com/indus.html) Article by Michel Danino
Agrawal, D.P.: The Indus Civilization = Aryans equation: Is it really a Problem?
(http://www.indianscience.org/essays/26-%20E--ARYANS%20FOR%20INFINITY.pdf) By D.P.
Agrawal (pdf)
Genetics
Genetic Evidence on the origins of Indian Caste Population, Genome Research, 2001
(http://www.genome.org/cgi/content/full/11/6/994)
A prehistory of Indian Y chromosomes: Evaluating demic diffusion scenarios, PNAS paper, 2006
(http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/0507714103v1)
Polarity and Temporality of High-Resolution Y-Chromosome Distributions in India Identify Both
Indigenous and Exogenous Expansions and Reveal Minor Genetic Influence of Central Asian
Pastoralists, AJHG paper, 2006 (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v78n2/42812
/brief/42812.abstract.html)
Peopling of South Asia: investigating the caste-tribe continuum in India
(http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/114030416/ABSTRACT)
Critics
Elst, Koenraad: Update on the Aryan Invasion Theory - K. Elst's Online book
(http://www.bharatvani.org/books/ait/), Articles (http://koenraadelst.voiceofdharma.com/articles
/aid.html), Book reviews (http://koenraadelst.voiceofdharma.com/reviews.html)
Kazanas, Nicholas homepage (http://www.omilosmeleton.gr/english/en_index.html) Articles by
Nicholas Kazanas
The Myth of the Aryan Invasion (http://www.hindubooks.org/david_frawley/myth_aryan_invasion/) by
David Frawley mirror (http://www.indiaforum.org/india/hinduism/aryan/page3.html)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indo-Aryan_migration&oldid=614601922"
Categories: Nomadic groups in Eurasia Bronze Age History of South Asia Indo-European
Cultural history of Pakistan Human migrations Cultural history of India
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