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PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

CHAPTER 21:
Alternating current
(5 Hours)

PHYSICS
CHAPTER 21
Learning Outcome:
24.1

Alternating current (1 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

a.
Define alternating current (AC).
b.
Sketch and analyse sinusoidal AC waveform.
c.
Write and use sinusoidal voltage and current equations.

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

21.1 Alternating current (AC)

is defined as an electric current whose magnitude and

direction change periodically.
Figures 21.1a, 21.1b and 21.1c show three forms of alternating
current.

I
I0
0

I0

1
T
2

3
T
2

2T

Figure 21.1a: sinusoidal AC

3

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21
I
I0
0

I0

1
T
2

3
T
2

2T

Figure 21.1b: saw-tooth AC

I
I0
0

I0

1
T
2

3
T
2

Figure 21.1c: square AC

2T

t
4

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CHAPTER 21

When an AC flows through a resistor, there will be a potential

difference (voltage) across it and this voltage is alternating as
shown in Figure 21.1d.

V
V0
0

V0

1
T
2

3
T
2

2T

Figure 21.1d: sinusoidal alternating voltage

where

V0 : peakmaximum voltage
I 0 : peak maximum current

T : period
5

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CHAPTER 21

21.1.1 Terminology in AC
Frequency (f)

is defined as a number of complete cycle in one second.

Its unit is hertz (Hz) OR s1.

Period (T)
is defined as a time taken for one complete cycle.

Its unit is second (s).

Formulae,

1
T
f

(21.1)

Peak current (I0)

is defined as a magnitude of the maximum current.

Its unit is ampere (A).

6

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CHAPTER 21

21.1.2 Equations of alternating current and voltage

Equation for alternating current (I),

I I 0 sin t

Equation for alternating voltage (V),

V V0 sin t
where

(21.2)
phase
(21.3)

: angular frequency OR angular ve locity

( 2f )
I 0 : peak current
V0 : peak voltage

t : time

PHYSICS
CHAPTER 21
Learning Outcome:
21.2

Root mean square (rms) (1 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Define root mean square (rms) current and voltage for

AC source.

Use the following formula,

I rms

I0

and

Vrms

V0

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

21.2 Root mean square (rms)

21.2.1 Mean or Average Current (Iav)

is defined as the average or mean value of current in a

half-cycle flows of current in a certain direction.
Formulae:

I av

2I 0

I0

(21.4)

Note:

Iav for one complete cycle is zero because the current

flows in one direction in one-half of the cycle and in the
opposite direction in the next half of the cycle.

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

21.2.2 Root mean square current (Irms)

In calculating average power dissipated by an AC, the mean

(average) current is not useful.

The instantaneous power, P delivered to a resistance R is

I : instantaneous AC
The average power, Pav over one cycle of AC is given by

P I 2R

where

Pav I R
2

where I
given by

is the average value of I2 over one cycle and is

I 2 I rms

Therefore

Pav I rms R
2

(21.5)
10

PHYSICS

Since

CHAPTER 21
I I 0 sin t thus the square value of current is given by

I 2 I 0 sin 2 t
2

and the graph of I2 against time, t is shown in Figure 21.2.

I2

I0

I0
2

1
T
T
2 Figure 21.2

3
T
2

2T

From Figure 21.2, the shaded region under the curve and
above the dashed line for I02/2 have the same are as the
shaded region above the curve and below the dashed line for
2
I02/2.
I
2
0
(21.6)
I

Thus
11

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CHAPTER 21

By equating the eqs. (21.5) and (21.6), the rms current is

I rms

I0

I rms

I rms

I0
2

I0

(21.7)

Root mean square current (Irms) is defined as the value of

the steady DC which produces the same power in a resistor
as the mean (average) power produced by the AC.
The root mean square (rms) current is the effective value of the
AC and can be illustrated as shown in Figure 21.3.

I0
I rm s
0
Figure 21.3

I0

0.707 I 0
1
T
2

3
T
2

2T

t
12

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CHAPTER 21

21.2.3 Root mean square voltage (Vrms)

is defined as the value of the steady direct voltage which

when applied across a resistor, produces the same power
as the mean (average) power produced by the alternating
voltage across the same resistor.
Its formula is

Vrms

V0

(21.8)

The unit of the rms voltage (potential difference) is volt (V).

Note:
Equations (21.7) and (21.8) are valid only for a sinusoidal
alternating current and voltage.

13

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CHAPTER 21

Example 21.1 :
An AC source V=500 sin t is connected across a resistor of
250 . Calculate
a. the rms current in the resistor,
b. the peak current,
c. the mean power.
Solution : R 250
By comparing V 500 sin t to the V V sin t
0
Thus the peak voltage is V0 500 V
a. By applying the formulae of rms current, thus

I rms
I rms

I0

and

2
V0

V0
I0
R

R 2
500
250 2

14

PHYSICS
Solution :

CHAPTER 21
R 250

b. The peak current of AC is given by

I rms

I0

2
I0
1.41
2

c. The mean (average) power of the resistor is

Pav I rms R
2

1.41 250
2

15

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CHAPTER 21

Example 21.2 :
I (A)
0.02

20

40

60

80

t (ms )

and

0.02
Figure 21.4

Figure 21.4 shows a graph to represent alternating current passes

through a resistor of 10 k. Calculate
a. the rms current,
b. the frequency of the AC,
c. the mean power dissipated from the resistor.
16

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

R 10 10 3
From the graph, I 0 0.02 A; T 40 10 3 s
Solution :

a. By applying the formulae of rms current, thus

I rms

I0
2

I rms

0.02
2

b. The frequency of the AC is

1
f
40 10 3

1
f
T

c. The mean power dissipated from the resistor is given by

Pav I rms R
2

1.41 10

10 10

2 2

17

PHYSICS
CHAPTER 21
Learning Outcome:
21.3

Resistance, reactance and impedance

(2 hours)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

a)
Sketch and use phasor diagram and sinusoidal
waveform to show the phase relationship between
current and voltage for a circuit consisting of
i.
pure resistor
ii.
pure capacitor
iii.
pure inductor.
b)
Define and use capacitive reactance, inductive
reactance and impedance.
c)
Use phasor diagram to analyse voltage, current and
impedance of series circuit of :
i.
RC
ii.
RL
18
iii.
RCL.

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

21.3 Resistance, reactance and impedance

21.3.1 Phasor diagram
a.

b.
c.

d.

e.

Phasor is defined as a vector that rotate anticlockwise

about its axis with constant angular velocity.
A diagram containing phasor is called phasor diagram.
It is used to represent a sinusoidally varying quantity such
as alternating current (AC) and alternating voltage.
It also being used to determine the phase angle (is defined as
the phase difference between current and voltage in AC
circuit).
Consider a graph represents sinusoidal AC and sinusoidal
alternating voltage waveform as shown in Figure 21.5a.
Meanwhile Figure 21.5b shows the phasor diagram of V and I.

19

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

V0
I0

0
I0
V0

1
T
2

Figure 21.5b: phasor diagram

Note:

3
T
2

2T

Figure 21.5a

From the Figure 21.5a: I I 0 sin t and V V0 sin t

Thus the phase difference is t t 0
Therefore the current I is in phase with the voltage V and
constant with time.

positive value
negative value
radian

Leads
Lags behind
In antiphase

20

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

21.3.2 Impedance (Z)

The quantity that measures the opposition of a circuit to the

AC flows.
V0
It is defined by

Vrms
Z
I rms
OR

V0
Z
I0

(21.9)

I0
2
(21.10)

It is a scalar quantity and its unit is ohm ().

In a DC circuit, impedance likes the resistance.

21

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

21.3.3 Pure resistor in an AC circuit

The symbol of an AC source in the electrical circuit is shown in

Figure 21.6.

Figure 21.6
Pure resistor means that no capacitance and self-inductance
effect in the AC circuit.

Phase difference between voltage V and current I

Figure 21.7 shows an AC source connected to a pure resistor R.

VR
I
AC source
Figure 21.7

22

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CHAPTER 21

The alternating current passes through the resistor is given by

The alternating voltage across the resistor VR at any instant is

given by

I I 0 sin t

VR IR
I 0 sin t R and I 0 R V0
VR V0 sin t V

where V : supply voltage

Therefore the phase difference between V and I is

t t 0

In pure resistor, the current I always in phase with the

voltage V and constant with time.

Figure 21.8a shows the variation of V and I with time while

Figure 21.8b shows the phasor diagram for V and I in a pure
resistor.
23

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21
V0
I0

0
I0
V0

1
T
2

Figure 21.8b: phasor diagram

3
T
2

2T

Figure 21.8a

Impedance in a pure resistor

From the definition of the impedance, hence

Vrms V0
Z

R
I rms I 0

(21.11)

24

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

21.3.4 Pure capacitor in an AC circuit

Pure capacitor means that no resistance and self-inductance

effect in the AC circuit.

Phase difference between voltage V and current I

Figure 21.9 shows an AC source connected to a pure capacitor
C
C.

VC

I
AC source

V
Figure 21.9

The alternating voltage across the capacitor VC at any instant is

equal to the supply voltage V and is given by

VC V V0 sin t

25

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

The charge accumulates at the plates of the capacitor is

The charge and current are related by

Q CVC
Q CV0 sin t

dQ
I
dt
Hence the equation of AC in the capacitor is
d
I CV0 sin t
dt
d
CV0 sin t
dt
CV0 cos t and CV0 I 0
I I 0 cos t
OR

I I 0 sin t
2

26

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

Therefore the phase difference between V and I is

t t
2

rad
2

In the pure capacitor,

the voltage V lags behind the current I by
OR
the current I leads the voltage V by

/2 radians.

/2 radians.

Figure 21.10a shows the variation of V and I with time while

Figure 21.10b shows the phasor diagram for V and I in a pure
capacitor.

27

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

rad

V0
I0

V
0

I0
V0

1
T
2

3
T
2

2T

Figure 21.10b: phasor diagram

Figure 21.10a
Impedance in a pure capacitor
From the definition of the impedance, hence

V0
and I 0 CV0
Z
I0
V0

CV0

28

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21
1
Z
XC
C
1
XC
2fC

and

2f
(21.12)

where XC is known as capacitive (capacitative) reactance.

f : frequency of AC source
C : capacitanc e of the capacitor

Capacitive reactance is the opposition of a capacitor to the

alternating current flows and is defined by

Vrms V0
XC

I rms I 0

(21.13)

Capacitive reactance is a scalar quantity and its unit is ohm

( ) .
29

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

From the eq. (21.13), the relationship between capacitive

reactance XC and frequency f can be shown by using a graph
in Figure 21.11.

XC

1
X C
f

0
Figure 21.11

21.3.5 Pure inductor in an AC circuit

Pure inductor means that no resistance and capacitance

effect in the AC circuit.

Phase difference between voltage V and current I

Figure 21.12 shows an AC source connected to a pure inductor
L.
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CHAPTER 21
L
VL

I
AC source

Figure 21.12
The alternating current passes through the inductor is given by

I I 0 sin t

When the AC passes through the inductor, the back emf caused
by the self induction is produced and is given by

dI
B L
dt
d
L I 0 sin t
dt
B LI 0 cos t

(21.14)

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CHAPTER 21

At any instant, the supply voltage V equals to the back emf B in

the inductor but the back emf always oppose the supply voltage
V represents by the negative sign in the eq. (21.15).Thus

V B
LI 0 cos t and LI 0 V0
V V0 cos t
OR

V V0 sin t
2

Therefore the phase difference between V and I is

t t rad
2
2

In the pure inductor,

the voltage V leads the current I by /2 radians.
OR
the current I lags behind the voltage V by /2 radians.
32

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

Figure 21.13a shows the variation of V and I with time while

Figure 21.13b shows the phasor diagram for V and I in a pure
inductor.

rad
V0
I0

V
0

I0
V0
Figure 21.13b: phasor diagram

1
T
2

3
T
2

2T

Figure 21.13a

33

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

Impedance in a pure inductor

From the definition of the impedance, hence

V0
Z
I0

and

V0 LI 0

LI 0

I0
Z L X L

and

X L 2fL

2f
(21.15)

where XL is known as inductive reactance.

f : frequency of AC source

L : self - inductanceof the inductor

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PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

Inductive reactance is the opposition of a inductor to the

alternating current flows and is defined by

Vrms V0
XL

I rms I 0

(21.16)

Inductive reactance is a scalar quantity and its unit is ohm ().

From the eq. (21.16), the relationship between inductive
reactance XL and the frequency f can be shown by using a
graph in Figure 21.14.

XL

X L f

0
Figure 21.14

35

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

Example 21.3 :
A capacitor has a rms current of 21 mA at a frequency of 60 Hz
when the rms voltage across it is 14 V.
a. What is the capacitance of the capacitor?
b. If the frequency is increased, will the current in the capacitor
increase, decrease or stay the same? Explain.
c. Calculate the rms current in the capacitor at a frequency of
410 Hz.
Solution : I rms 21 10 3 A; f 60 Hz; Vrms 14 V
a. The capacitive reactance of the capacitor is given by

Vrms I rms X C

14 21 10 3 X C

Therefore the capacitance of the capacitor is

1
XC
2fC

1
667
2 60 C
36

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CHAPTER 21

Solution :

I rms 21 10 3 A; f 60 Hz; Vrms 14 V

b. The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the

frequency, so the capacitive reactance will decrease if the
frequency increases. Since the current in the capacitor is
inversely proportional to the capacitive reactance, therefore
the current will increase when the capacitive reactance
decreases.
c. Given

f 410 Hz

The capacitive reactance is

1
XC
2fC

1
XC
2 410 3.98 10 6

Hence the new rms current in the capacitor is given by

Vrms I rms X C

14 I rms 97.5

37

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

Example 21.4 :
A rms voltage of 12.2 V with a frequency of 1.00 kHz is applied to a
0.290 mH inductor.
a. What is the rms current in the circuit?
b. Determine the peak current for a frequency of 2.50 kHz.
3
3
Solution : V

12
.
2
V;
f

1
.
00

10
Hz;
L

0
.
290

10
H
rms
a. The inductive reactance of the inductor is given by

X L 2fL
2 1.00 103 0.290 10 3

Thus the rms current in the circuit is

Vrms I rms X L
12.2 I rms 1.82

38

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

3
3

12
.
2
V;
f

1
.
00

10
Hz;
L

0
.
290

10
H
rms
b. Given f 2.50 10 3 Hz

Solution : V

The inductive reactance of the inductor is given by

X L 2fL
2 2.50 103 0.290 10 3

Thus the peak current in the circuit is

V I X and V0 Vrms
0

Vrms 2 I 0 X L
12.2 2 I 0 4.56

39

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

21.3.6 RC, RL and RCL series circuit

RC series circuit
Consider an AC source of rms voltage V is connected in series
to a resistor R and a capacitor C as shown in Figure 21.15a.

VR

VC

I
AC source

Figure 21.15a

The rms current I passes through the resistor and the

capacitor is equal because of the series connection between
both components.
40

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CHAPTER 21

The rms voltages across the resistor VR and the capacitor

VC are given by
VR IR and V IX
C

The phasor diagram of the RC series circuit is shown in Figure

21.15b.
VR
I where : phase angle

VC

is an angle between the rms

current I and rms supply (or
total) voltage V of AC circuit.

Figure 21.15b: phasor diagram

Based on the phasor diagram, the rms supply voltage V (or total
voltage) of the circuit is given by

V VR VC
2

IR IX C
2

V I R2 X C

(21.17)
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CHAPTER 21

Rearrange the eq. (21.18), thus the impedance of RC series

circuit is V
2
V
2
R X C and Z

I
2
2
Z R XC

(21.18)

From the phasor diagram in Figure 21.15b , the current I leads

the supply voltage V by radians where

VC
tan
VR

IX C
tan
IR
XC
tan
R

(21.19)

A phasor diagram in terms of R, XC and Z is illustrated in Figure

R
21.15c.

XC

Figure 21.15c

42

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CHAPTER 21

RL series circuit

Consider an AC source of rms voltage V is connected in series

to a resistor R and an inductor L as shown in Figure 21.16a.

VR

VL

I
AC source

Figure 21.16a
The rms voltages across the resistor VR and the inductor VL
are given by
VR IR
and

VL IX L

43

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

The phasor diagram of the RL series circuit is shown in Figure

8.16b.

VL

VR

Figure 21.15b: phasor diagram

Based on the phasor diagram, the rms supply voltage V (or total
voltage) of the circuit is given by

V VR VL
2

IR IX L
2

V I R XL
2

(21.20)
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CHAPTER 21

Rearrange the eq. (21.20), thus the impedance of RL series

circuit is V
2
V
2
R X L and Z

I
2
Z R2 X L

(21.22)

From the phasor diagram in Figure 21.16b , the supply voltage

V leads the current I the by radians where

VL
tan
VR

IX L
tan
IR
XL
tan
R

(21.23)

The phasor diagram in terms of R, XL and Z is illustrated in

Figure 21.16c.

XL
Figure 21.16c

45

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CHAPTER 21

RCL series circuit

Consider an AC source of rms voltage V is connected in series

to a resistor R, a capacitor C and an inductor L as shown in
Figure 21.17a. R
C
L

VR

VL

VC

I
AC source

Figure 21.17a
The rms voltages across the resistor VR, the capacitor VC
and the inductor VL are given by

VR IR

and

VC IX C
VL IX L

46

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CHAPTER 21

The phasor diagram of the RL series circuit is shown in Figure

VL
21.17b.

VL VC

VC

VR

Figure 21.17b: phasor diagram

Based on the phasor diagram, the rms supply voltage V (or total
voltage) of the circuit is given by

V VR VL VC
2

IR 2 IX L IX C 2

V I R X L X C
2

(8.24)
47

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CHAPTER 21

Rearrange the eq. (21.24), thus the impedance of RL series

circuit is

V
2
2
R X L X C
I

Z R X L X C
2

and

V
Z
I
(21.25)

From the phasor diagram in Figure 8.17b , the supply voltage

V leads the current I the by radians where

VL VC
tan
VR

IX L IX C

IR
X L XC
tan
R

(21.26)
48

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CHAPTER 21

The phasor diagram in terms of R, XC, XL and Z is illustrated in

Figure 21.17c.

XL

X L X C
XC

Figure 21.17c

49

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CHAPTER 21

21.3.7 Resonance in AC circuit

is defined as the phenomenon that occurs when the

frequency of the applied voltage is equal to the frequency
of the RCL series circuit.

Figure 21.18 shows the variation of XC, XL, R and Z with

frequency f of the RCL series circuit.

X C , X L , R, Z

Z
XL f

R
Figure 21.18

fr

1
XC
f

50

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CHAPTER 21

From Figure 21.18, the value of impedance is minimum Zmin

when
(8.27)
X L XC
where its value is given by

Z R2 X L X C

Z min R 2 0
Z min R

This phenomenon occurs at the frequency fr known as

resonant frequency.

At resonance in the RCL series circuit, the impedance is

minimum Zmin thus the rms current flows in the circuit is
maximum Imax and is given by

I max

V
V

Z min R

(8.28)
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PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

Figure 21.19 shows the rms current I in RCL series circuit

varies with frequency.

I max

fr

Figure 21.19

At frequencies above or below the resonant frequency fr,

the rms current I is less than the rms maximum current Imax
as shown in Figure 21.19.
52

PHYSICS

Note:

CHAPTER 21

The resonant frequency, fr of the RCL series circuit is given by

X L XC
1
L
C
1
2
and 2f r

LC
1
2
2f r
LC
1
fr
2 LC

(21.29)

where : resonant angular frequency

The series resonance circuit is used for tuning a radio
receiver.

At resonance, the current I and voltage V are in phase.

53

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

Example 21.5 :
A 2 F capacitor and a 1000 resistor are placed in series with an
alternating voltage source of 12 V and frequency of 50 Hz.
Calculate
a. the current flowing,
b. the voltage across the capacitor,
c. the phase angle of the circuit.
Solution : C 2 10 6 F; R 1000 ; V 12 V; f 50 Hz
a. The capacitive reactance of the inductor is given by

1
XC
2 50 2 10 6

1
XC
2fC

and the impedance of the circuit is

Z R XC
2

1000 1592
2

54

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CHAPTER 21

Solution : C

2 10 6 F; R 1000 ; V 12 V; f 50 Hz

a. Therefore the current flowing in the circuit is

V IZ
12 I 1880

b. The voltage across the capacitor is given by

VC IX C
6.38 10 3 1592

c. The phase angle between the current and supply voltage is

XC
tan
R

XC
tan

R
1 1592
tan

1000
OR

55

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

Example 21.6 :

153 V

115 V

314 V

Figure 21.20
Based on the RCL series circuit in Figure 21.20 , the rms voltages
across R, L and C are shown.
a. With the aid of the phasor diagram, determine the applied voltage
and the phase angle of the circuit.
Calculate:
b. the current flows in the circuit if the resistance of the resistor R is
26 ,
c. the inductance and capacitance if the frequency of the AC source
is 50 Hz,
d. the resonant frequency.
56

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

Solution : V

153 V; VC 115 V; VL 314 V

a. The phasor diagram of the circuit is

VL

VL VC

From the phasor diagram,

VC

VR

the applied voltage V is

2
2
V VR VL VC
2
2
I
153 314 115

and the phase angle is

VL VC
tan
VR

VL VC

tan
VR
1 314 115
tan

153
1

OR

57

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

Solution : V
b. Given

153 V; VC 115 V; VL 314 V

R 26

Since R, C and L are connected in series, hence the current

passes through each devices is the same. Therefore

VR IR
153 I 26

c. Given

f 50 Hz

The inductive reactance is

VL IX L

314 5.88X L

thus the inductance of the inductor is

X L 2fL
53.4 2 50L

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PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

Solution : V

153 V; VC 115 V; VL 314 V

c. Meanwhile, the capacitive reactance is

115 5.88X C
X C 19.6

VC IX C

thus the capacitance of the capacitor is

1
XC
2fC

1
19.6
2 50C

d. The resonant frequency is given by

fr

1
2 LC
1

0.1701.62 104
59

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

Exercise 21.1 :
An AC current of angular frequency of 1.0 104 rad s1 flows
through a 10 k resistor and a 0.10 F capacitor which are
connected in series. Calculate the rms voltage across the
capacitor if the rms voltage across the resistor is 20 V.
ANS. : 2.0 V
2. A 200 resistor, a 0.75 H inductor and a capacitor of
capacitance C are connected in series to an alternating
source 250 V, 600 Hz. Calculate
a. the inductive reactance and capacitive reactance when
resonance is occurred.
1.

b. the capacitance C.
c. the impedance of the circuit at resonance.
d. the current flows through the circuit at resonance. Sketch
the phasor diagram of the circuit.
ANS. : 2.83 k, 2.83 k; 93.8 nF; 200 ; 1.25 A
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CHAPTER 21

Exercise 21.1 :
3.

A capacitor of capacitance C, a coil of inductance L, a resistor

of resistance R and a lamp of negligible resistance are placed
in series with alternating voltage V. Its frequency f is varied
from a low to a high value while the magnitude of V is kept
constant.
a. Describe and explain how the brightness of the lamp varies.
b. If V=0.01 V, C =0.4 F, L =0.4 H, R = 10 and the
circuit at resonance, calculate
i. the resonant frequency,
ii. the maximum rms current,
iii. the voltage across the capacitor.
(Advanced Level Physics,7th edition, Nelkon & Parker, Q2, p.423)

ANS. : 400 Hz; 0.001 A; 1 V

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PHYSICS
CHAPTER 21
Learning Outcome:
21.4

Power and power factor (1 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Apply
a)
average power,

Pav IV cos
b)

instantaneous power,

dW
P
dt
c)

power factor,

Pr Pav
cos

Pa IV
in AC circuit consisting of R, RC, RL and RCL in series.
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CHAPTER 21

21.4 Power and power factor

21.4.1 Power of a pure resistor
In a pure resistor, the voltage V and current I are in phase,
thus the instantaneous power P is given by

P IV
I 0 sin t V0 sin t
I 0V0 sin 2 t and I 0V0 P0
P P0 sin 2 t

(8.30)

where P0 : peak(maxim um) power

Figure 21.21 shows a graph of instantaneous power P being

absorbed by the resistor against time t.
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CHAPTER 21

P
P0

Power being absorbed

P P0 sin 2 t

P0
2

Pav
0

1
T
2

3
T
2

2T

Figure 21.21
The average (or mean) power Pav being absorbed by the
resistor is given by

Pav P0 sin 2 t
1
1
Pav P0 I 0V0
2
2

(21.31)
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CHAPTER 21

21.4.2 Power of a pure capacitor

In a pure capacitor, the current I leads the voltage V by /2
radians, thus the instantaneous power P is given by

P IV
I 0 cos t V0 sin t
I 0V0 sin t cos t

1
P P0 sin 2t
2

and

1
sin t cos t sin 2t
2
(21.32)

Figure 21.22 shows a graph of instantaneous power P of the

pure capacitor against time t.

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PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

P
P0
2
0

P0

Power being absorbed

1
P P0 sin 2t
2
1
T
2

3
T
2

2T

Pav

Power being returned to supply

Figure 21.22
The average (or mean) power Pav of the pure capacitor is given
by
1

Pav

P0 sin 2t

Pav 0
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CHAPTER 21

21.4.3 Power of a pure inductor

In a pure inductor, the voltage V leads the current I by /2
radians, thus the instantaneous power P is given by

P IV
I 0 sin t V0 cos t
I 0V0 sin t cos t and
1
P P0 sin 2t
2

1
sin t cos t sin 2t
2

Figure 21.23 shows a graph of instantaneous power P of the

pure inductor against time t.

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CHAPTER 21

P
P0
2

Power being absorbed

1
P P0 sin 2t
2
1
T
2

P0

2T

Pav

Power being returned to supply

Figure 21.23
The average (or mean) power Pav of the pure inductor is given
by
1

Pav

Note:

3
T
2

P0 sin 2t

Pav 0

The term resistance is not used in pure capacitor and inductor because no
heat is dissipated from both devices.
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CHAPTER 21

21.4.4 Power and power factor of R, RC, RL and

RCL series circuits
In an AC circuit in which there is a resistor R, an inductor L and
a capacitor C, the average power Pav is equal to that dissipated
from the resistor i.e.

Pav IVR I 2 R

(21.33)

rms values
From the phasor diagram of the RCL series circuit as shown in
VL
Figure 21.24,

VL VC

Figure 21.24

VC

VR

I
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CHAPTER 21

VR
We get cos
V

VR V cos

then the eq. (21.33 ) can be written as

Pav IV cos and V

IZ

Pav I 2 Z cos Pr

(21.34)

where cos is called the power factor of the AC circuit, Pr is

the average real power and I2Z is called the apparent power.

Power factor is defined as

Pr
Pr
cos 2
I Z Pa

(21.35)

where Pa : apparent power I Z IV

Note:
From the Figure 21.24, the power factor also can be calculated by using the
equation below:
VR IR
R
(21.36)
cos

cos
2

IZ

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CHAPTER 21

Example 21.7 :
A 100 F capacitor, a 4.0 H inductor and a 35 resistor are
connected in series with an alternating source given by the
equation below:

V 520 sin 100t

Calculate:
a. the frequency of the source,
b. the capacitive reactance and inductive reactance,
c. the impedance of the circuit,
d. the peak current in the circuit,
e. the phase angle,
f. the power factor of the circuit.

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CHAPTER 21

R 35 ; C 100 10 6 F; L 4.0 H
By comparing V 520 sin 100t to the V V0 sin t
Thus V 520 V; 100 rad s 1
0
Solution :

a. The frequency of AC source is given by

2f

100 2f

b. The capacitive reactance is

1
XC
2fC

1
XC
2 15.9 100 10 6

and the inductive reactance is

X L 2fL
2 15.94.0

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PHYSICS
Solution :

CHAPTER 21
R 35 ; C 100 10 6 F; L 4.0 H

c. The impedance of the circuit is

Z R X L X C
2

352 400 100 2

d. The peak current in the circuit is

V0 I 0 Z
520 I 0 302

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CHAPTER 21

Solution :

R 35 ; C 100 10 6 F; L 4.0 H

e. The phase angle between the current and the supply voltage is

X L XC
tan
R

X L XC
tan

1 400 100
tan

35

OR
f. The power factor of the circuit is given by

power factor cos

cos 83.3

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CHAPTER 21

Example 21.8 :
A 22.5 mH inductor, a 105 resistor and a 32.3 F capacitor are
connected in series to the alternating source 240 V, 50 Hz.
a. Sketch the phasor diagram for the circuit.
b. Calculate the power factor of the circuit.
c. Determine the average power consumed by the circuit.
Solution : R 105 ; C 32.3 106 F; L 22.5 103 H

V 240 V; f 50 Hz

a. The capacitive reactance is

1
XC
6

2 50 32.3 10

1
XC
2fC

and the inductive reactance is

X L 2fL
2 50 22.5 103

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PHYSICS
Solution :

CHAPTER 21
R 105 ; C 32.3 106 F; L 22.5 103 H
V 240 V; f 50 Hz

a. Thus the phasor diagram for the circuit is

XL

X C X L

XC
b. From the phasor diagram in (a),
the impedance of the circuit is

Z R X C X L

105 98.6 7.07

2

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CHAPTER 21

Solution :

R 105 ; C 32.3 106 F; L 22.5 103 H

V 240 V; f 50 Hz

b. and the power factor of the circuit is

R
cos
Z

105
cos
139

c. The average power consumed by the circuit is given by

V
I
Z

Pav IV2 cos and

V

cos
Z 2

240
0.755

139

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CHAPTER 21

Exercise 21.2 :
1.

An RLC circuit has a resistance of 105 , an inductance of

85.0 mH and a capacitance of 13.2 F.
a. What is the power factor of the circuit if it is connected to a
125 Hz AC generator?
b. Will the power factor increase, decrease or stay the same
if the resistance is increased? Explain.
(Physics, 3rd edition, James S. Walker, Q47, p.834)

ANS. : 0.962; U think

2. A 1.15 k resistor and a 505 mH inductor are connected in
series to a 14.2 V,1250 Hz AC generator.
a. What is the rms current in the circuit?
b. What is the capacitances value must be inserted in series
with the resistor and inductor to reduce the rms current to
half of the value in part (a)?
(Physics, 3rd edition, James S. Walker, Q69, p.835)

ANS. : 3.44 mA, 10.5 nF

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PHYSICS

CHAPTER 21

Next Chapter
CHAPTER 25 :
Quantization of light

79