Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Ground Improvement
Comit technique 211
Denies N.
ABSTRACT: The present General Report highlights the significant contributions of the papers of the Session of the XVIII ICSMGE
dedicated to Ground Improvement. All papers that have been reviewed are referred (in bold) in the General Report in order to provide
a balanced overview of the entire Technical Session.
This General Report discusses the latest developments and current researches in the field of Ground Improvement (GI) works. The
various GI techniques are classified considering the recent classification proposed by Chu et al. (2009). The papers are then tackled
according to the described GI technique and with regard to the topics that are assessed: execution process, mechanical characterization
of the treated material (in laboratory or in situ), case history, Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC) activities and design
aspects. Conceptual works and numerical modeling are supported by laboratory and field investigations - with in situ monitoring and
large scale tests. Finally, other references on the topics discussed are also given in the report.
RESUME : Le prsent rapport gnral met en vidence les contributions significatives des articles de la session amlioration des
sols de la 18me CIMSG. Tous les articles revus ont t rfrencs (en gras) dans le rapport gnral de manire fournir une vue
densemble quilibre du contenu de cette session.
Ce rapport discute des derniers dveloppements et des recherches actuelles dans le domaine des travaux damlioration des sols. Les
diffrentes techniques sont classes selon la rcente classification propose par Chu et al. (2009). Les articles sont ensuite abords en
tenant compte de la technique dexcution dcrite et du sujet choisi par les auteurs : procd dexcution, caractrisation mcanique
du matriau trait (en laboratoire ou in situ), cas pratique, activits de contrle et dassurance du point de vue de la qualit et aspects
lis au dimensionnement. Les approches de conception et la modlisation numrique sont supportes par des recherches en laboratoire
et par lexprience de chantier apporte par le monitoring in situ et par les essais en grandeur relle. Finalement, dautres rfrences
concernant le domaine de lamlioration des sols sont aussi indiques.
KEYWORDS: ground improvement/reinforcement, deep mixing, drainage, geosynthetics, grouting, inclusions, vacuum consolidation
1
INTRODUCTION
2417
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2418
allowing vertical and radial drainage for the last one. Defining
Cr and Cv as the radial and vertical coefficients of consolidation
and Kr and Kv as the coefficients of radial and vertical
permeability, they observed that the often-made assumption of
the equality between the ratios Cr/Cv and Kr/Kv is only valid at
high levels of stress conditions. Moreover, on the basis of
experimental results, the authors demonstrated that the global
degree of consolidation computed with respect of the Carillos
theory can lead to underestimated consolidation times.
The paper of Weihrauch et al. (2013) describes a
combination of GI methods for the improvement of roads in the
HafenCity area in Hamburg. Indeed, in the Hamburg Harbour
area, many roads are lifted with almost 3 m to ensure safety in
case of flooding. Special measures are necessary when the
subsoil contains compressible layers. At the Hongkongstrasse,
three different construction methods have been applied, namely:
- installation of PVD and preloading with sand (settlements of
more than 30 cm have been measured);
- filling with lightweight aggregate: expanded clay (almost no
settlement was observed);
- pile supported embankment including geogrid-reinforced
sand layer (measurements are discussed in another paper).
The different aspects of each method are described. The
conclusion is that when comparing different methods, not only
the absolute costs must be ascertained, but also the project
specific reconstruction, protection and follow-on measures, as
well as the time and flexibility for individual measures, and
their technical feasibility under local conditions.
3
3.1
Stone columns
3.3
a)
b)
Figure 2. Mechanical response of the system in case of (a) rigid and (b)
deformable embankment, from Galli and di Prisco (2013)
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
In the sand compaction pile (SCP) method, sand is fed into the
ground through a casing pipe and is compacted by vibration,
dynamic or static compaction to form columns. In practice,
SCPs are mainly used to prevent liquefaction and reduce
settlement with similar success in sandy and clayey soils. With
the help of laboratory and field tests, Burlacu et al. (2013)
investigate the potential of columns made of loess-sandbentonite mixture for the reinforcement of collapsible loess
deposits in Romania. Indeed, as explained in the paper of
Alupoae et al. (2013), these collapsible soils require GI works.
They are characterized by high water sensitivity: when its water
content increases, important deformations in the soil can be
observed. In such a way to illustrate this phenomenon, the
authors present a case study of differential settlement of
buildings founded on loess sensitive to wetting. In spite of the
good realization and control of the foundation, important
differential settlements were measured thereafter as a result of
the defective rainwater recovery system.
3.6
Microbial methods
2420
Marginally Applicable
Not Applicable
3 6
No Compaction
Molding technique
3.4
65
75
Tapping
Rodding
Static
Compaction
25kPa
10 15
Static
Compaction
50kPa
Dynamic
Compaction
0
10
20
30
40
30
40
50
60
70
80
120
90
...
100
Low
workability,
consistent
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
39.2m
Ac2- 2
Inside piles
Ac2- 3
Dvc
Dvs
Walls
1.9m
21.2m
As2
10.0m
Ac1- 2
6.7m 4.5m
1:1.8
9.8m
37.2m
Section view
5.2m
7.0m
12.0m
Outside piles
2422
4.3
EARTH REINFORCEMENT
CONCLUSIONS
Geosynthetics
Vegetation methods
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
2423
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
REFERENCES
2424
"Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iasi, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services, Department of Roads
and Foundations,43 Dimitrie Mangeron Bd, 700050, Iasi, Romania
ABSTRACT: The paper presents some aspects concerning time-dependent behaviour of the improved foundation soils. The
foundation soils can develop favourable or inappropriate resistance properties under the loads submitted by constructions. Engineers
and investors encounter more and more difficult foundation soils, in their desire to efficiently use the construction sites. In this case,
physical and mechanical properties of the soil have to be improved, in order to sustain the infrastructure and structure of a building.
The paper reviews some improvement methods, after presenting difficult foundation soils from Iai area. The paper presents a case
study regarding problems caused by difficult foundation soils that are present in the region, during the operating period of structures.
The presence of water in the foundation soil created a negative impact in its behaviour, which led to differential settlements and,
consequently, the buildings were switching from their initial vertical position. The study also analyzes time-dependent settlements of
a construction. Finally the paper presents some conclusions resulting from studies both bibliographic and practical.
RSUM : Le document prsente quelques aspects concernant le comportement en temps des sols amliors pour les fondations. Le
terrain de fondation peut avoir un comportement favorable ou par contre dfavorable sous laction des charges donner par les
constructions. Pour utiliser efficacement les terrains des constructions, les ingnieurs et les investisseurs rencontrent souvent des sols
de fondation de plus en plus difficile. Dans ce cas, les proprits physiques et mcaniques du sol doivent tre amliores, afin
dassurer des bonnes conditions dappuis pour l'infrastructure et la structure d'un btiment. Le document passe en revue les sols de
fondation difficiles de la zone de Iai et des mthodes de les amliores. Il est aussi prsent une tude de cas concernant les
problmes qui peuvent apparaitre au cours de la priode d'exploitation de structures, a cause des ces sols de fondation difficiles. La
prsence de l'eau dans le terrain de fondation a eu un impact ngatif sur son comportement, ce qui a produit des tassements
diffrentiels, ca veut dire que les btiments furent commuts de leur position initiale, verticale. Pour conclure, le document prsente
des conclusions issues de ltude bibliographique et pratique la fois.
KEYWORDS: leaning structure, expansive clay, loess, differential settlement.
1
INTRODUCTION
2.2
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
The case study refers to the problems that can occur with an
improved foundation soil. The method used for improvement is
soil replacing (soil cushion).
3
CASE STUDY
Within the areas with difficult foundation soils, Iai City is the
largest urban settlement located in the eastern part of Romania.
The city lies at the contact between Jijia Meadow and the
Moldavian Plateau. The landscape is varied, forming a region
consisting of eroded hills crossed by Bahlui plateau.
3.1
of the particles making up the clay fraction and the nature of the
absorbed ions;
- hydro-geological conditions groundwater is present both
through deep under pressure aquifers and also through free flow
ones. Deep layers have a high mineralization, being intercepted
only by drilling. They have an ascending nature, sometimes an
artesian one. Shallow drillings revealed the presence of captive
water with low mineralization, which can be used locally;
- layer thickness the thicker the layer is, the bigger its
swelling;
- moisturized area if the wet surface under an existing
building is insignificant, the deformations increase and the
probability of deterioration grows (Alupoae et al. 2011).
3.2
On site situation
2426
27
Humidity [%]
25
23
Section I
21
Section II
Section III
19
17
15
1998
[%]
Humidity
2010
1998
[%]
I
II
20.70
33.42
22.99
32.85
26.90
+19.80
III
---
---
18.31
33.04
24.40
---
Average
humidity
2010
[%]
Increase
of
humidity
[%]
21.15
24.15
21.29
16.37
23.81
20.53
-3.70
II
17.11
23.69
20.63
18.40
24.45
21.77
+5.50
III
---
---
17.61
20.64
19.03
---
2002
2006
2010
Figure 4. Humidity variation on the site, in the earth pillow, for the three
sections of the building
20.70
33.42
22.45
[%]
18
+4.20
17.18
24.15
Average
humidity
1998
[%]
Section III
19
25.83
II
Humidity
1998
Section II
19.57
30.07
24.78
Section
Section I
20
Increase
of
humidity
[%]
16.98
29.16
21
Average
humidity
2010
[%]
[%]
2010
22
Humidity [%]
2006
Figure 4. Humidity variation on the site, in the filling layer, for the three
sections of the building
Humidity
1998
2002
Humidity
1998
Average
humidity
1998
[%]
Humidity
2010
Average
humidity
2010
[%]
Increase
of
humidity
[%]
26.85
18.90
29.36
22.30
-20.0
26.85
18.90
29.36
22.30
-20.0
[%]
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
CONCLUSIONS
2428
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Chongqing Jiaotong University, Chongqing, China
ABSTRACT: Centrifuge models and numerical analysis of geosynthetic-reinforced and unreinforced soil embankments are presented.
The results obtained from the centrifuge tests were compared with those from the numerical analysis. It is found that the filamentous
fiber (polypropylene) is effective in constraining lateral displacement and reducing vertical settlement for the case of geosyntheticreinforced soil embankments. Also, the distribution of stress in the geosynthetic-reinforced soil embankment is significantly
ameliorated compared with the unreinforced. The presence of geosynthetic filamentous fibers in reticular structure provides the
reinforced soil embankments strength to resist crack.
RSUM : Dans cet article, les rsultats de modles de centrifugeuse et les analyses numrique des remblais renforcs par gotextile
et non-renforcs sont prsents. Les rsultats obtenus laide de la centrifugeuse sont compars avec ceux des analyses numriques.
Les fibres filamenteux (polypropylne) sont efficaces pour restreindre les dplacements latrales et rduire les tassements verticaux
dans le cas du remblais renforc. De plus, la rpartition des contraintes dans le remblai renforc est amliore de faon significative
compar avec celle du remblai non-renforc. La prsence des fibres dans une structure rticulaire dans le remblai renforc donne une
rsistance contre la fissuration.
KEYWORDS: Embankment ; Geosynthetic-reinforcement ; Centrifuge test ; Numerical analysis
1
INTRODUCTION
CENTRIFUGE TESTS
2.1.1
Equipment
In the present study, centrifuge model tests were performed
using the TLJ60 centrifuge in Chongqing Jiaotong
University. The main parameters of the centrifuge are indicated
in Table 1.
Table 1. The main parameters of the centrifuge
Characteristic
Maximum volume weight
Maximum load
Value
60gt
600kg(100g)
300kg(200g)
Effective radius
2.0m
Maximum acceleration
200g
0.5%FS
600mm350mm
500mm
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
(a)
(b)
Figure 2. The marked model
2.2
2.1.3
Parameters of soil and fiber
1The physical parameters of the soil
Table 2 gives the parameters of the brown weathered shale that
obtained from compaction test and liquid and plastic limit
combined test.
Table 2. Brown weathered shale material properties
Liquid
Plastic
Optimm
Maximm
limit (%)
water
dry density limit (%)
3
content (%)
(g/cm )
8.9
2.15
26.928
20.193
Plasticity
index
6.735
Cohesion(kPa)
Friction
angle(degrees)
Unreinforced soil
49.167
34.077
19mm-0.1%Polypropylene-reinforced soil
94.005
35.717
19mm-0.2%Polypropylene-reinforced soil
138.294
36.362
19mm-0.3%Polypropylene-reinforced soil
228.356
35.951
2430
3.1
Assumptions of computing
Parameters
3.3
Displacement comparison
2431
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
(b)
Figure 7. measured and computed displacement of unreinforced model
(a)
(b)
Figure 8. Measured and computed displacement of reinforced model
2432
Compacted soil columns for foundations on collapsible soils. Laboratory and in-situ
experimental study
Colonnes de sols compacts utilises pour des fondations sur sols effondrables.
tude exprimentale mene en laboratoire et in-situ
Burlacu C., Olinic E., Manea S.
Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest, Department of Soil Mechanics and Foundations
U P.
SC Geosond SA Bucharest
ABSTRACT: Moisture-sensitive or collapsible soils are materials with high porosity that under the loads transmitted by the
foundations present additional settlements once the soil is saturated. This category includes loess deposits and other high silt content
soils with uneven porosity. A method often used for foundation on these soils is the realization of local loessoid material compacted
columns. According to the Romanian legislation, it is forbidden to use granular material in loessoid soils. A compromise may be
reached by using a mixture of granular material and local loessoid soil in columns. This paper presents the experimental laboratory
program aiming to achieve an optimal mixture of local material (loess) and monogranular sand in order to improve the values of the
mechanical soil parameters while keeping the permeability coefficient values as low as possible. This objective can be achieved by
adding bentonite. On the experimental polygons, 1:5 scale compacted soil columns were made using a dynamic penetrometer. The
aim of the dynamic penetration tests performed in the center and between the columns was to obtain results concerning the
improvement of the mechanical characteristics of the columns and the foundation soil.
RSUM : Les sols effondrables sont des matriaux avec une porosit leve, qui, suite la saturation, prsentent des tassements
supplmentaires sous leffet des charges transmises par les fondations. Cette catgorie inclue les dpts de loess et dautres sols ayant
un contenu lev de silt avec une porosit irrgulire. Une des mthodes de fondation souvent utilise sur ce type de sols est la
ralisation de colonnes de matriel loessique compact. Bien que la lgislation roumaine interdise lutilisation de matriaux sableux
dans des sols loessiques, ceux-ci peuvent toutefois tre utiliss pour la ralisation de colonnes dans un mlange avec du sol loessique.
Cet article prsente un programme exprimental de laboratoire qui vise raliser un mlange optimal de matriaux lssiques avec du
sable pour amliorer les valeurs des paramtres mcaniques du sol, en maintenant toutefois les valeurs du coefficient de permabilit
le plus bas possible. On peut atteindre cet objectif par laddition de bentonite. Dans le cadre dun programme exprimental, on a
realis des essais l'aide d'un pntromtre dynamique sur des colonnes de sol compact une chelle de 1:5. Le but des essais de
pntration dynamique a t dobtenir des rsultats concernant lamlioration des caractristiques mcaniques des colonnes et du
terrain de fondation.
KEYWORDS: collapsible soils, compacted soil columns, dynamic penetration test, soil mixtures.
1
INTRODUCTION
2433
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
LABORATORY TESTS
Figure 3. the results of the Proctor trial for all the mixtures obtained.
2434
IN SITU TESTS
4.1
Figure 6. Results of DPM tests carried out in the centre of the columns
and at a distance of 2Dc (14cm) towards the columns.
2435
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
4.4
Figure 9. DPM tests results for the column executed from a mixture of
loess and sand (N1): a) DPM in the centre of C1 and N1 columns; b)
DPM at 2Dc towards C1 and N1 columns
REFERENCES
CONCLUSIONS
2436
Selected problems connected with the use of the jet grouting technique
Certains problmes lis lapplication de la technologie dinjection de jet
Bzwka J., Juzwa A., Wanik L.
ABSTRACT: The paper presents selected problems connected with the use of the jet grouting technique. It is one of the most popular
methods for subsoil strengthening, enhancement for existing foundation, vertical and horizontal waterproof cut-off walls. Columns
made using this method feature a high bearing capacity (very high friction on the shaft). The newest achievements of the numerical
explanation of the interaction between jet grouting columns and subsoil are presented in the paper. The created models will be used to
verify engineering methods of jet grouting columns dimensioning. Computational analyses are conducted using software based on the
finite element method (Z_Soil).
The computational model describes the interaction between a group of jet grouting columns and soil. The main element of this
analysis consists of selection and calibration of computational model of the "group of jet grouting columns subsoil" interaction.
The model space is divided into three zones: columns, soil and the contact layer formed between the columns and the soil massif.
The computational model allows for a plastic character of deformation under load and especially for a non-linearity of contact zone.
The description of shape of a shaft surface of jet grouting columns is very difficult, so the fractal theory is used to describe this shape.
Fractal and box dimensions are used to estimate the irregular surface. This model allows a precise selection of formation parameters,
like the injection rod pull out velocity and number of rotations, injection pressure and the water/cement ratio, which define the
geometry of jet grouting columns.
RSUM : Cet article prsente quelques problmes lis lutilisation de la technique damlioration des sols : le jet grouting. Cette
technique est une de mthodes les plus utilises pour renforcer le sous-sol, les fondations dj existantes et on sen sert aussi comme
les parois verticales et horisontales tanches (impermables leau). Les colonnes ralises par cette mthode se caractrisent par la
grande capacit portante (coefficient de frottement trs lev sur la surface latrale). Dans cet article, on prsente les dcouvertes les
plus rcentes lies aux modlisations numriques de linteraction entre les colonnes de jet et du sol. Les modles dvelopps seront
utiliss pour vrifier les mthodes dingnierie et pour dimensionner les colonnes de jet grouting. Les analyses numriques sont
effectues par les programmes bass sur la mthodes des lments finis (Z_Soil).
Le modle de calcul dcrit linteraction entre un groupe de colonnes de jet grouting et le sol. Lapport le plus important de cette
analyse rside dans le choix et le calage du modle de calcul pour linteraction groupe de colonnes de jet grouting sol". Lespace
du modle est divis en trois zones: colonnes, sol et couche de contact forme entre les colonnes et le massif du sol. Le modle de
calcul permet davoir des dformations plastiques et en particulier de dformation non-linaire de la zone de contact.
La description de la forme des surfaces latrales de ces colonnes est extrmement difficile, alors on a introduit la thorie de fractales
pour la dcrire. Les dimensions de type fractal et de bote, sont utilises pour estimer la surface latrale irrgulire des colonnes. Ce
modle permet de choisir dune manire prcise des paramtres de formation des colonnes tels que: vitesses - de rotation et
davancement en descente de la tige de forage, le nombre de rotation, la pression de coulis inject, rapport eau/ciment, qui dfinissent
la gomtrie des colonnes de jet grouting.
KEYWORDS: jet grouting technique, interaction between columns and subsoil, shape and dimensions of jet grouting column.
1
2437
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
b)
a)
2438
a)
a)
b)
b)
c)
d)
2439
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Figure 5. Structure
(photo: J. Bzwka).
of
excavated
jet
grouting
column
SUMMARY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Figure 8. Fractal dimension and box dimension for jet grouting column.
2440
REFERENCES
Sagaseta C.
Wehr W.
INTRODUCTION
HC
Embankment
Plane with S = 0
Geosynthetics
Pile cap
End Bearing
Columns
Type of columns
Soft Soil
2441
Soil with
intermediate
Stiffness
Floating Columns
Firm Soil
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
(b) (b)
(a)
(c)
(d)
Figure 2. Mechanism of load transfer in the CSE: (a) approaches of arching-effect shape; (b) resultsof laboratory test performed by Chen et al.
(2008); (c) load transfer mechanism proposed by Combarieu (1974, 1988); (d) influence of confined modulus on improvement factor (Kirsch 2004).
These kinds of columns, with predominantly round crosssections of 25 cm to 80 cm diameter, are denominated Rigid
Inclusion according to the French national research project
ASIRI (Amliorations de Sols par Inclusions Rigides). Rigid
inclusions may be arranged in a regular grid, although, due to
horizontal stresses sometimes have to be distributed in wall or
panel form in order to overcome slope and internal instability.
2.2
2442
Figure 4. (a) Estimation of evolution of negative skin friction with degree of consolidation (Alonso et al. 1984); (b) chart for geosynthetic design
based of allowable differential settlement (Lawson 2000); (c) influence of height and friction angle of embankment on Efficacy factor (Jenck 2005).
Consolidation process
2443
Large-height embankment
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 6. (a) Factor of soil arching reduction (Heitz et al. 2008); (b) stress conditions in the subgrade due to moving load on the pavement surface;
(c) pavement deformation due to hard-point effects associated with the presence of rigid inclusions.
Low-height embankment
CONCLUSIONS
2444
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT: Stone columns are a common improvement technique for foundations of embankments in soft soils. When the soft soil
does not provide enough lateral support, the columns are encased with a geosynthetic. This paper presents a closed-form solution to
study soft soil improvement, both reduction of settlement and consolidation time, by means of encased stone columns. An end-bearing
column and its surrounding soil, is modelled in axial symmetry under a rigid and constant load. Soil is assumed as elastic but plastic
strains are considered in the column. An elasto-plastic behaviour is also considered for the encasement by means of a limit tensile
strength. Parametric studies of the settlement reduction and stress concentration show the efficiency of encasing the columns, which is
mainly ruled by the encasement stiffness compared to that of the soil. The analytical results are in good agreement with numerical
analyses. Finally, the encasement length is analysed using the closed-form solution.
RSUM: Les colonnes ballastes sont une technique d'amlioration de sol pour les remblais en sols mous. Lorsque le sol mou ne
fournit pas assez de soutien latral, les colonnes sont entoures avec un gosynthtique. Cet article prsente une solution analytique
pour tudier l'amlioration des sols mous, la rduction des tassements ainsi que le temps de consolidation, au moyen des colonnes
entoures en gotextile. Une colonne ne reprenant les efforts que par la pointe et le sol environnant sont modliss en axisymtrie
sous une charge constant. Le comportement du sol est suppos lastique mais les dformations plastiques sont considres dans la
colonne. Un comportement lasto-plastique est galement pris pour le gosynthtique au moyen d'une rsistance la traction limite.
Des tudes paramtriques de la rduction du tassement et de concentration de contraintes montrent l'efficacit de l'enveloppe
gosynthtique des colonnes, ce qui est principalement rgie par la rigidit de lenveloppe gosynthtique par rapport celle du sol.
Les rsultats analytiques prsentent une bonne concordance avec les analyses numriques. Finalement, la longueur de lenveloppe
gotextile est analyse en utilisant la solution base sur une cellule lmentaire constitue dune colonne et dun volume lmentaire
de sol.
KEYWORDS: soft soils, ground improvement, encased stone columns, analytical solution, numerical analyses.
1
INTRODUCTION
Stone columns, either by the vibro-replacement or vibrodisplacement methods, are one of the most common
improvement techniques for foundation of embankments or
structures on soft soils. The inclusion of gravel, which has a
higher strength, stiffness and permeability than the natural soft
soil, improves the bearing capacity and the stability of
embankments and natural slopes, reduces total and differential
settlements, accelerates soil consolidation and reduces the
liquefaction potential. Alteration of the natural soft soil caused
by stone column installation (Guetif et al. 2008, Castro and
Karstunen 2010) is not usually considered in their design.
Stone columns may not be appropriate in very soft soils that
do not provide enough lateral confinement to the columns. It is
generally accepted that those are soils with undrained shear
strengths below 5-15 kPa (Wehr 2006). To increase the lateral
confinement of the columns, and consequently their vertical
capacity, encasing the columns with geotextiles has proved to
be a successful solution in recent years.
A high tensile stiffness of the encasement is recommended
as it will be shown in this paper; and therefore, other
geosynthetics, such as geogrids, are also used to encase the
column (Sharma et al. 2004, Gniel and Bouazza 2009).
However, geogrids do not act as a filter and do not avoid
contamination of the column with fines.
The development of encased stone columns as a ground
improvement technique has come with an increasing number of
studies in the last decade. However, most of the research is done
using numerical methods (e.g. Murugesan and Rajagopal 2006,
Malarvizhi and Ilamparuthi 2007, Smith and Filz 2007, Yoo
2010, Lo et al. 2010) and there are very few analytical solutions
available in the literature (Raithel and Kempfert 2000, Pulko et
al. 2011). That recently motivated the authors to develop a new
closed-form solution to study the deformation and consolidation
CLOSED-FORM SOLUTION
Model
2445
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Tg J g
pa
Axis
at any depth, z
zs
rs
rc
Column
rc
Encasement
rl
2.4
Figure 1. Analytical model.
2.2
Consolidation
Encasement
sr
Tg
rs
rc
rc
J g sr
rc2
rs
(3)
Soil
rc
(2)
Horizontal slice
zc
sr
rc
Tg
Formulation
Drained solution
3.1
rc
Tg
rc
rs
(1)
2446
Numerical model
of the unit cell, the soil was modelled as elastic and the
encasement and the column as elastic-perfectly plastic.
Stress concentration
The ratio between the vertical stress on the column and on the
soil is usually called the stress concentration factor
(SCF=zc/zc) and gives an idea of the part of the applied load
that the soil transfers to the column. Figure 3 shows its variation
with time. The vertical stresses on the soil and on the column
may vary with the radius, and therefore, their averaged values
are used to calculate the SCF.
A higher encasement stiffness provides a better lateral
confinement to the column, and hence, the column supports a
higher load. A good agreement is found between the analytical
and the numerical results. However, as it happens for the stone
column solution (Castro and Sagaseta 2009), the agreement for
low degrees of consolidation (<30%) is not very good due to
inherent assumptions of Barrons solution.
SCF, zc/zs
c=40
Column
yielding
K0s=0.6
pa/(z')=10
FE
0
0.0001
c=40
0.6
=0.53
0.5
0.4
FE
Closed-form solution
Jg/(rcEs)=0
Jg/(rcEs)=0.75
Jg/(rcEs)=2
0.3
=0.233-0.235
0.5
1.0
1.5
Closed-form solution
Closed-form solution
Jg/(rcEs)=0
Jg/(rcEs)=2
0.001
0.01
0.1
0.6
Ec/Es=40
c=s=0.3
0.4
c=40
's='c
pa/(L's)=1 K0s=0.6
c=10
0.2
Jg/(rcEs)=5
Jg/(rcEs)=2
Jg/(rcEs)=0.75
Jg/(rcEs)=0
0.8
0.05
Time factor, Tr
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
Settlement reduction
'c='s=10 kN/m
Ec/Es=40
Es=1 MPa
100
Settlement, sz [mm]
3.3
=0.62
c=10
FE
c=10
=0.70
1.0
c=s=0.3
rc=0.5 m
's='c
c=s=0.3 K =0.6
0s
ar=0.11
Ec/Es=40
Es=1 MPa
ar=0.25
Ec/Es=40
0.7
0.2
10
3.2
0.8
200
c=40
300
L=10 m
K0s=0.6
c=10
FE
400
500
0.0001
Closed-form solution
Jg/(rcEs)=0
Jg/(rcEs)=0.75
Jg/(rcEs)=2
0.001
0.01
0.1
Time factor, Tr
3.4
Encasement length
2447
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
the initial lateral stresses are lower. Then, the analysis focuses
on the length of the column that should be encased. Here, a
preliminary study of the encasement length is presented using
the authors' closed-form solution.
The closed-form solution provides the vertical strain of the
column at different depths. Figure 7 shows that those strains are
higher at shallow depths and linearly decrease with depth, as
initial horizontal stresses increase. If the column is encased,
those strains are lower but follow a similar pattern. Therefore,
encasing the columns is more effective in their upper part but
that varies linearly with depth and there is not a critical length
of the encasement that should specifically be used.
0
Ec/Es=40
's='c
c=s=0.3 K =0.6
0s
ar=0.11
c=40
c=10
Jg/(rcEs)=0
Jg/(rcEs)=2
Elastic column
(high depths)
0
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Balaam N.P. and Booker J.R. 1981. Analysis of Rigid Rafts supported
by Granular Piles. International Journal for Numerical and
Analytical Methods in Geomechanics 5: 379-403.
Barron R.A. 1948. Consolidation of fine-grained soils by drain wells.
Transactions ASCE 113: 718742.
Brinkgreve R.B.J. 2007. Plaxis finite element code for soil and rock
analysis, 2D, version 8. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Castro J. and Karstunen M. 2010. Numerical simulations of stone
column installation. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 47(10): 11271138.
Castro J. and Sagaseta C. 2008. Influence of stone column deformation
on surrounding soil consolidation. In M. Karstunen and M. Leoni
(ed.), Proc. of the 2nd International Workshop on Geotechnics of
Soft Soils, Glasgow, pp. 333-338. Leiden: Balkema.
Castro J. and Sagaseta C. 2009. Consolidation around stone columns.
Influence of column deformation. International Journal for
Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics 33: 851-877.
Castro J. and Sagaseta C. 2011. Deformation and consolidation around
encased stone columns. Geotextiles and Geomembranes 29, 268276.
Gniel J. and Bouazza A. 2009. Improvement of soft soils using geogrid
encased stone columns. Geotextiles and Geomembranes 27: 167
175.
Guetif, Z., Bouassida, M. and Debats, J.M. 2007. Improved soft clay
characteristics due to stone column installation. Computers and
Geotechnics 34(2): 104-111.
Kempfert H.-G. 2003. Ground improvement methods with special
emphasis on column-type techniques. In: Proceedings of the
International Workshop on Geotechnics of Soft Soils-Theory and
Practice, SCMEP, Noordwijkerhout, Netherlands, pp. 101-112.
Khabbazian M., Kaliakin V.N. and Meehan C.L. 2010. Numerical study
of the effect of geosynthetic encasement on the behaviour of
granular columns. Geosynthetics International 17: 132143.
Lo S.R., Zhang R. and Mak J. 2010. Geosynthetic-encased stone
columns in soft clay: A numerical study. Geotextiles and
Geomembranes 28: 292302.
Malarvizhi S.N. and Ilamparuthi K. 2007. Comparative study on the
behaviour of encased stone column and conventional stone column.
Soils and Foundations 47: 873885.
Murugesan S. and Rajagopal K. 2006. Geosynthetic-encased stone
columns: Numerical evaluation. Geotextiles and Geomembranes
24: 349358.
Murugesan S. and Rajagopal K. 2010. Studies on the Behavior of Single
and Group of Geosynthetic Encased Stone Columns. Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering 136: 129-139.
Pulko B. and Majes B. 2005. Simple and accurate prediction of
settlements of stone column reinforced soil. In: Proceedings of the
16th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Engineering, Osaka, Japan, vol. 3, pp. 1401-1404.
Raithel M. and Kempfert H.G. 2000. Calculation models for dam
foundations with geotextile coated sand columns. In: Proceedings
of the International Conference on Geotechnical & Geological
Engineering, GeoEngg2000, Melbourne.
Sharma S.R., Phanikumar B.R. and Nagendra, G. 2004. Compressive
load response of granular piles reinforced with geogrids. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal 41: 187192.
Smith M. and Filz G. 2007. Axisymmetric numerical modeling of a unit
cell in geosynthetic-reinforced, column-supported embankments.
Geosynthetics International 14: 1322.
Wehr J. 2006. The undrained cohesion of the soil as criterion for the
column installation with a depth vibrator. In: Proceedings of the
International Symposium on vibratory pile driving and deep soil
vibratory compaction, TRANSVIB 2006, Paris.
2448
Carter J. P.
ABSTRACT: Atheory describing the consolidation of a uniform clayey deposit with and without prefabricated vertical drain (PVD)
improvement under the combination of a vacuum pressure and a surcharge load has been developed and expressed as closed-form
equations. For the case of a soil layer without PVD improvement, both one-way and two-way drainage boundary conditions are
considered. Laboratory consolidation tests using combinations of vacuum pressure and surcharge load were conductedunder
oedometer conditions with vertical or radial drainage. The measured excess pore water pressures are compared with values predicted
by the theory presented in the paper. It has been demonstrated that the theory is valid and can be used for designing preloading
projects that involve the combination of a vacuum pressure and a surcharge load.
RSUM : Une thorie dcrivant la consolidation dun dpt argileux uniforme avec et sans amlioration par drains verticaux
prfabriqus (DVP) sous laction combine du vide et dun pr-chargement a t dveloppe avec un systme ferm dquations. Pour
le cas dune couche de sol sans amlioration par DVP, des conditions aux limites drainantes par un ct et par deux cts sont
considres. Des essais de consolidation au laboratoire sous des conditions oedomtriques ont t raliss sous vide et pr-chargement
avec des drains verticaux ou radiaux. La surpression interstitielle mesure est compare avec les valeurs prvues par la thorie
prsente dans le prsent article. Il a t dmontr que la thorie est valable et peut tre utilise pour dfinir des projets de prchargement qui impliquent lutilisation combine du vide et dun pr-chargement.
KEYWORDS:consolidation, vacuum pressure, embankment, laboratory test, soft clay
1
INTRODUCTION
2449
CONSOLIDATION THEORY
2u u
z 2 t
(1)
u (0, t ) pvac
(2)
cv
u H , t
0 for t 0 (one-way drainage)
z
(3)
(3a)
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
u ( z, t ) pvacY ( z ) pvac v1 ( z, t ) ps v2 ( z, t )
(4)
u pvac ( pvac ps )
n 1
sinan z e a c t (5)
2n 1
2
n v
U 1
n 1
c t
2 n 1
1
4H
e
2
2n 1
v
(6)
2.1.2Two-way drainage
In this case the excess pore water pressure distribution in the
soil is given by:
pvac ps
sin n z
z 2
u ( z , t ) pvac 1
e c t
p
H
n 1
s
n sin n ( H z )
2
n v
(7)
where n n H . The average degree of consolidation is
given by:
(t ) 1
U
n 1
c t
2 n 1
1
H
e
2
2n 1
vs
2
(8)
u 1 u
u
ch 2
t
r r r
2
(9)
2450
u re , z , t
0
r
(10)
u r ,0, t
u ' r ,0, t
0,
0
z
z
(11)
u r , l , t
u ' r , l , t
0,
0
z
z
(12)
(13)
2 r r 2 rw2
re ln r 2
kh
w
exp 8Th
v' r , z , t
2
k s re k s 2
2
n 12lz z
k
w
fo
r ( rw r rs )(16)
re2 ln s
2
2
r 2 ln r r rs kh 2 2
e
r r
2
rs
ks s w 8Th
1
for
vr, z, t 2
2 exp
re
kh n2 12lz z 2
kw
( rs r re )(17)
where: n = re/rw, s = rs/rw,kh and ks = the hydraulic
conductivities in the horizontal direction of the undisturbed
zone and the smear zone respectively, kw = the hydraulic
conductivity of the drain (PVD), l = the drainage length of a
PVD, and Th = cvt/(4re2). Parameter represents the effects of
PVD spacing, smear zone and well resistance. Adopting an
average well resistance and with some approximation, the
expression for is as follows (Hansbo 1981):
ln(n / s ) (k h / k s ) ln(s )
3 2l 2 k h
4 3rw2 k w
(18)
U h 1 exp 8Th /
(19)
3.1Test details
Figures 2(a) and (b) show the set-up of the tests, with vertical
(V-test) and radial (R-test) drainage conditions,respectively.
During testing, the settlement, the excess pore water pressure at
the bottom of the sample (V-test) or the middle height of the
consolidation ring (R-test), and the horizontal earth pressure at
the middle height of the consolidation ring can be measured.
For the R-test, the centre drainage porous stone tube has an
outer diameter of 8 mm, which is inserted into a predrilled hole
at the center of a sample with a filter paper placed between the
soil sample and the tube. The soil samples were re-consolidated
from Ariakeclay slurries under a surcharge pressure of 20 kPa.
Two series of tests, V-tests and R-tests, were conducted.
Here only one test from each serieshas been chosen to compare
with the values predicted by the theory presented above. In the
case of the V-test, the test with one-way drainage conditions has
been selected, because for two-way drainage conditions no pore
water pressures were measured with the device used. The two
series of tests were conducted at different times and different
soil samples were used. Some of available soil properties as
well as the test conditions are listed in Table 1. In this table, the
vertical effective stress, 'v0, indicates that the soil sample was
first consolidated under 'v0 (simulating the initial effective
stress of the soil sample at a specified depth in the deposit) and
then the consolidation test was conducted by applying
additional incremental consolidation pressures (vacuum
pressure and surcharge load).
2451
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Soil
Plasticity
limit,
Wp
(%)
Liquid
limit,
WL(%)
Coefficient
of
consolidation
cv or ch (m2/min)
Cc
e 0
'v0
(kPa)
pvac
(kPa)
ps
(kPa)
V-test
Ariake clay-1
60.3
120.5
2.310-5#
0.75
2.5
40*
80
80
R-test
Ariake clay-2
56.8
120.3
5.010-6
0
80
80
*: Initial vertical effective stress in the sample; #: The value was obtained by fitting the measured consolidation rate; : After pre-consolidation under
20 kPa pressure.
in Fig. 3. Except for the fact that the measured initial value of
ubof about 72 kPa is slightly lower than the 80 kPa applied
surcharge load, the prediction almost matches the measured data.
The slightly lower initial ub value may indicate that the
specimen was not 100% saturated.
Although two-way drainage test was not conducted, using
the same soil parameters as for one-way drainage test, and
assuming the thickness of the soil sample is 20 mm, the
predicted excess pore water pressure (u) distribution within the
sample at different elapsed times are given in Fig. 4 to
demonstrate the capacity of the proposed theory.
Depth, D (mm)
0
pvac = 80 kPa
ps = 80 kPa
10
15
20
-80
1 min
-40
0
40
Excess pore pressure, u (kPa)
80
3.2.2 R-test
The geometric parameters required to calculate the predictions
for this case are: re = 30 mm; rw = 4 mm; and l = 20 mm. The
assumed radius of the smear zone, rs = 7 mm; the hydraulic
conductivity ratio, kh/ks = 5; kh = 10-9 m/s; and kw = 10-4 m/s. In
the case of radial drainage, with Eqs. (16) and (17) the initial
condition of a uniform excess pore water pressure (u0)
distribution in a unit cell is not satisfied (which is a particular
limitation of this theory). These equations only ensure that the
average initial value of u0 is the same as the applied value. The
predicted initial value at the periphery of the sample (unit cell)
is higher than the applied value. The predicted values are
compared with the measured data from the time at which the
predicted value at the periphery was equal to the applied initial
value. In the physical test at the corresponding time, the pore
2452
Soletanche-Bachy-CIMESA, Mexico
Racinais J.
Menard, France
Glandy M.
Soletanche-Bachy-Pieux, France
ABSTRACT: In soils with poor mechanical properties and in areas where the generation of excavation debris is an issue, given the
restrictions regarding its disposal, the solutions of massive soil improvement with displacement rigid inclusions solve both needs. In
this paper we describe the basis of the constructive procedure of displacement rigid inclusions. We explain the concept of
improvement with this kind of inclusions; we itemize the bases of their design, and describe their construction sequence, highlighting
the controls during the execution to ensure quality.
RSUM: Dans les sols ayant des proprits mcaniques faibles comme dans les zones o llimination des matriaux produits des
travaux reprsente un problme, les Inclusions Rigides avec refoulement de sol donnent des solutions ces deux situations. Larticle
explique le concept des solutions damlioration des sols en utilisant la technique des Inclusions Rigides, donne les bases du
dimensionnement, et dcrit la squence de construction des inclusions Rigides en insistant sur les contrles utiliss pour assurer la
qualit finale.
INTRODUCTION
increases, as well as the perimeter friction of the inclusionground. The construction process of the displacement rigid
inclusion guarantees quality control in the execution, so the
concrete is placed continually and safe from contamination.
2
BASES OF DESIGN
Slabs,
Superficial footings (isolated or continuous),
Embankments, landfills,
Work or storage yards.
2453
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
3
Transfer layer
Compressible soils
Rigid inclusions
Hard layer
Rigid inclusions
d
Trasfer layer
CONSTRUCTIVE SEQUENCE
Compressible soils
Rigid inclusions
Hard layer
Figure 4a. Diagram of the typical point of the hollow auger for
displacement rigid inclusions.
Failure surface
Figure 4b. Point of the hollow auger for displacement rigid inclusions
developed for Soletanche-Bachy, RefSol system.
Compressible
soils
Hard layer
Rigid inclusions
2454
(A)
(B)
(C)
Then the auger is lifted a few centimeters from the soil at the
bottom of the perforation, which causes the lid at the lower end
of the auger to open. The concrete, subject to pressure, pours
into the bottom of the hole, filling it. While still pouring
concrete and controlling the pressure, at this point the operator
lifts the auger continuously by means of a rotor torque and a
vertical pulling force see Figure 5B. This process continues
until the auger is fully above ground see Figure 5C. The
concrete is poured continuously from the bottom of the
perforation until it reaches the level defined as the head of
inclusion, which can be between the working platform level and
a few dozen centimeters below it.
Throughout the process of building an inclusion (Figures 5A,
5B and 5C) real time and continuous monitoring of the
parameters that intervene in its execution are done with
electronic devices located in the cab of the crane. They detect
the signals sent by various sensors installed at strategic points of
the construction equipment. Through this monitoring, the
operator has control of the different construction parameters and
can ensure the quality of the construction of the inclusion at all
times and along its entire height. Among the parameters
controlled are: the drilling depth, the pressure and the volume of
the concrete, the upward and downward speeds, rotation and the
auger's torque.
The equipment is also able to store the record of the controls
for each inclusion, to be processed later on a personal computer.
Continuous records are obtained along the depth(see Figure 6).
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
2455
th
Proceedings of the 18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
ABSTRACT: The chemical stabilization of soils is a ground improvement technique consisting on the mechanical mixing of the in
situ natural soil with binders. The chemical stabilization of soils can be applied with either slurries (wet method) or powder (dry
method) binders. When the stabilizing binders are mixed with the soil, physico-chemical interactions take place and are responsible
for the stabilization effect, which has a major influence on the mechanical behaviour of the improved material. This stabilizing effect
is dependent on a range of parameters which should be analysed through a long and extensive laboratory and field trial test program,
as stated in the european standard (EN 14679:2005). In order to minimize the number of tests during the optimization process, this
paper presents a simple method to predict the unconfined compressive strength, which is independent of the binder content and state
(powder or slurry). The method is successfully applied to a wide range of soils, showing its versatility (Correia, 2011). Applying the
generalised relationship of the method, it is possible to predict the unconfined compressive strength for any binder content and state
from one single unconfined compression test.
RSUM : La stabilisation chimique de sols est une technique de l'amlioration des sols qui consiste en le mlange mcanique dans
situ du sol naturel avec liants. La stabilisation chimique de sols peut tre applique avec coulis (mthode mouille) ou poudre
(mthode sec) liants. Quand les liants stabilisateurs sont mlangs avec le sol, ils produisent interactions physique-chimique lesquels
sont responsables pour l'effet de la stabilisation, qui a une influence majeure sur le comportement mcanique du matriel amliore.
Cet effet stabilisateur est dpendant dune gamme de paramtres qui devraient tre analyss travers dun long et tendu programme
dessais en laboratoire et sur terrain, comme nonc dans la norme europenne (EN 14679:2005). Pour minimiser le nombre dessais
pendant le processus de l'optimisation, cet article prsent une mthode simple de prdire la rsistance la compression simple, qui est
indpendant du contenu de liant et tat (poudre ou coulis). Le mthode est applique avec succs une grande gamme de sols,
montrant sa versatilit (Correia, 2011). Appliquant la version gnralise du mthode, c'est possible prdire la rsistance la
compression simple pour tout contenu de liant et tat bas d'une seule essais la compression simple.
KEYWORDS: chemical stabilization, unconfined compression test, soft soils, strength prediction.
1
INTRODUCTION.
2457
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
th
Proceedings of the 18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
EXPERIMENTAL TESTS
Materials
2.2
SLAG
37.02
38.74
11.59
0.85
6.75
363.0
qu max (kPa)
1800
IL = 1.35
1500
IL = 1.96
1200
IL = 2.49
900
600
300
0
10
15
aw (%)
20
25
30
2458
Proceedings of the 18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
8000
Ariake clay
7000 Tokyo clay
Chiba clay
3000
6000
2500
5000
2000
qIL (kPa)
1500
(R = 0.97)
4000
3000
2000
1000
1000
500
0
10
15
aw (%)
20
25
30
8000
Kangawa clay
7000 Hiroshima clay
Aichi clay
Osaka clay
6000
2459
qIL (kPa)
10
15
aw (%)
20
25
30 35
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
10
15
aw (%)
20
25
30 35
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
th
Proceedings of the 18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
3,0
2,5
Kangawa clay
Aichi clay
Osaka clay
Hiroshima clay
2,0
1,5
(R = 0.94)
1,0
0,5
0,0
10
aw (%)
20
30
40
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
2460
Technologies
Programme
(BriteEuRam
III),
European
Commission, p. 94.
Hernandez-Martinez F.G. 2006. Ground improvement of organic soils
using wet deep soil mixing. PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge,
United Kingdom.
Horpibulsuk S. 2001. Analysis and assessment of engineering behavior
of cement stabilized clays. PhD Dissertation, Saga University, Saga,
Japan.
Horpibulsuk S., Runglawan R. and Suddeepong A. 2011. Assessment of
strength development in blended cement admixed Bangkok clay.
Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 25, No. 4, p. 1521-1531.
Horpibulsuk S., Miura N. and Bergado D.T. 2004. Undrained shear
behavior of cement admixed clay at high water content. Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 130,
No. 10, p. 10961105.
Horpibulsuk S., Miura N. and Nagaraj T.S. 2003. Assessment of
strength development in cement-admixed high water content clays
with Abrams' law as a basis. Gotechnique, Vol. 53, No. 4, p. 439
444.
Kamruzzaman A.H.M. 2002. Physico-chemical and engineering
behavior of cement treated Singapore marine clay. PhD Thesis,
Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore.
Kawasaki T., Niina A., Saitoh S. and Honjyo Y. 1981. Deep mixing
method using cement hardening agent. Proceedings of the 10th
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Vol 3, p. 721-724.
Kitazume M. and Terashi M. 2002. The deep mixing method principle,
design and construction. Edited by Coastal Development Institute
of Technology, Japan. Balkema.
Locat J., Trembley H. and Leroueil S. 1996. Mechanical and hydraulic
behaviour of a soft inorganic clay treated with lime. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 33, p. 654 669.
Lorenzo G.A., and Bergado D.T. 2004. Fundamental parameters of
cement-admixed clay- New approach. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 130, No. 10, p. 10421050.
Lorenzo G.A., and Bergado D.T. 2006. Fundamental characteristics of
cement-admixed clay in deep mixing. Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 18, No. 2, p. 161-174.
Miura N., Horpibulsuk S. and Nagaraj T.S. 2001. Engineering behavior
of Cement stabilized clays at high water content. Soils and
Foundations, Vol. 41, No. 5, p. 33-45.
Uddin K., Balasubramaniam A.S. and Bergado D.T. 1997. Engineering
behavior of cement-treated Bangkok soft clay. Geotechnical
Engineering Journal, Southeast Asian Geotechnical Society, Vol.
28, No. 1, p. 89-119.
Venda Oliveira P.J., Lemos L.J.L., and Coelho P.A.L.P. 2010. Behavior
of an atypical embankment on soft soil: field observations and
numerical
simulation.
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Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 136, No. 1, p. 35-47.
Costa dAguiar S.
Mosser J.-F.
RSUM : Cet article prsente les rsultats dun travail de modlisation numrique visant simuler un essai de chargement axial sur
une colonne de sol-ciment, ralise par soil-mixing en voie humide. Quatre modles ont t btis dans le cadre de ce travail : trois
modles en lments finis, et un modle semi-analytique simplifi. Les rsultats des quatre modles sont confronts ceux obtenus
par un essai de chargement monotone en vraie grandeur, ralis sur une colonne de soil mixing de 400 mm de diamtre et 5 m de
hauteur, mise en uvre dans un sol limoneux sablo-graveleux. Ces rsultats permettent notamment de reproduire le mode de rupture
observ lors de lexcavation de la colonne, et mettent en vidence la ncessit de modliser correctement le comportement non
linaire du matriau sol-ciment qui influe significativement sur le comportement global, la diffrence des pieux rigides .
ABSTRACT: This article shows the results of a numerical modelling study aiming at simulating an axial load test on a soil-cement
column, carried out using the wet soil-mixing method. Four models were built as part of this study: three finite element models and
one simplified semi-analytical model. The results from the four models were compared with those from a full-size monotonic load
test, performed on a 400 mm diameter and 5m high soil-mixing column, installed in silty to sandy-gravelly soils. These results
allow to reproduce the failure mode observed during the column excavation, by emphasizing the need of an accurate modelling of the
non-linear soil-cement material which has a significant influence on the general behaviour, unlike with rigid piles.
KEYWORDS: Numerical modelling, soil reinforcement, Soil-mixing, load test.
1
INTRODUCTION
Sable
graveleux
0,5
3,5
2,5
10
20
Cohsion c (kPa)
Angle de frottement ()
27
37
Nature
Profondeur du toit (m)
2461
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
100
200
300
400
Tassement s (mm)
0
10
0,5 m
Remblai
20
30
2,0 m
1,0 m
1,5 m
Limons
sableux
40
50
Transition
Transition
(2)
Sable
trait (3)
0,5 - 2,5
2,5 3,5
3,5 - 5,0
3,7
7,6
11,9
1280 Rc
1280 Rc
1280 Rc
Angle de frottement ()
42
42
42
Cohsion (kPa)
700
1700
2800
Nature
Profondeur (m)
Rsistance Rc (MPa)
Sable
graveleux
= 400 mm
3.1
Zone de limon
trait fissure et
fracture vers 1 m
de profondeur
2462
3.2
3.4
6 sin
3 sin
et d
18c cos
3 sin
Les autres paramtres sont choisis soit par calage, soit dune
manire forfaitaire sur la base dlments bibliographiques. En
particulier, le paramtre pb qui dlimite la surface dcrouissage,
doit en toute rigueur tre cal sur le rsultat dun essai de
consolidation isotrope. Dans le prsent exercice, ce modle
(DPC) a t considr pour caractriser le comportement des
sables graveleux. Pour les autres matriaux (colonne et limons
sableux), il a t retenu une loi linaire lastique parfaitement
plastique avec critre de rupture de Mohr Coulomb (MC). Pour
la dfinition de la loi DPC dans les sables graveleux, les
paramtres suivants ont t considrs : R = 0.10, = 0,01 et pb
fonction de la dformation volumique plastique selon la loi
dcrouissage des sables dOttawa (Helwany 2000). Enfin, des
lments dinterface ont t introduits avec une loi MC.
Modle 3 (logiciel PLAXIS)
3.3
(1)
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
5
10
tan
15
20
25
Essai
30
0,5m
1,0m
1,5m
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
4
4.1
Principe du modle
Rsultats
4.3
Contrainte en pointe
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
5
10
15
Asymptote = Rc
Rc
0,5 Rc
E50
2 E50 Rc
4.2
Mise en uvre
2464
Essai
25
30
E = f() et qs = f(v)
35
E = f() et qs = f(pl*)
40
E = E50 et qs = f(v)
45
E = E50 et qs = f(pl*)
50
CONCLUSION
20
Tassement (mm)
REMERCIEMENTS
REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHIQUES
Design of Deep Soil Mix Structures: considerations on the UCS characteristic value
Dimensionnement des structures en soil mix : considrations sur la valeur caractristique UCS
Denies N., Van Lysebetten G., Huybrechts N.
De Cock F.
B.
Lameire
Lameire
B.
Maertens J.
Vervoort A.
KU Leuven, Belgium
ABSTRACT: Since several decades, the deep soil mix (DSM) technique has been used for ground improvement works. But in recent
years, this technique has been increasingly used for structural applications. Standardized guidelines for the execution and the design
of this kind of applications are not currently available. For the purpose of developing such guidelines, mechanical characteristics of
DSM material were investigated. Within the framework of a Flemish regional research program (IWT 080736), DSM material from
38 Belgian construction sites, with various soil conditions and for different execution processes, has been tested. Internationally
QA/QC activities are commonly related to tests on core samples for the determination of the Unconfined Compressive Strength
(UCS) and the modulus of elasticity (E) of the material. Both values allow an approach of the design which takes into account the
bending characteristics (EI), the deformation (E), the arching effect (UCS) and the structural resistance (UCS) of the element. For the
semi-probabilistic design approach presented in Eurocode 7, a characteristic value of the UCS has to be defined as part of the
design of DSM structures. The present paper discusses the definition of this value.
RSUM : Depuis plusieurs dcennies, la technique du soil mix est utilise comme procd damlioration du sol. Mais ces dernires
annes, elle est de plus en plus utilise pour des applications structurelles. Aucune directive nest actuellement disponible pour
lexcution et le dimensionnement de telles applications. De manire dvelopper de telles directives, les caractristiques mcaniques
du matriau soil mix ont t investigues. Dans le cadre dun programme de recherche financ par lIWT, lagence gouvernementale
flamande pour linnovation, des chantillons de soil mix de 38 sites de construction ont t tests pour diffrents types de sol et
diffrents systmes. La qualit du matriau soil mix est gnralement contrle laide dessais, raliss sur des chantillons carotts
in situ, par lesquels sont dtermins la rsistance la compression simple (UCS) et le module dlasticit (E) du matriau. Ces deux
grandeurs permettent une approche du dimensionnement tenant compte de la rigidit flexionnelle (EI), des dformations (E), de leffet
de vote (UCS) et de la rsistance structurelle (UCS) de llment. Au vue de lapproche semi-probabiliste de lEurocode 7, il est
important de dfinir la valeur caractristique de la rsistance du soil mix (UCS) prendre en compte dans le dimensionnement. Le
prsent article discute de la dfinition de cette valeur caractristique.
KEYWORDS: Deep soil mix wall, structural design, ucs characteristic value
1
INTRODUCTION
The Deep Soil Mix (DSM) process was introduced in the 70s
in Japan and in the Scandinavian countries. Since several
decennia, DSM has been known as a ground improvement (GI)
technique. According to the classification of GI methods
adopted by the ISSMGE TC 211, DSM can be classified as
ground improvement with grouting type admixtures. Numerous
reviews and recent progresses of the DSM technique are
referred in Denies and Van Lysebetten (2012). The results of
national and European research programs have also been
published in multiple interesting reports (such as Eurosoilstab
2002), while the European standard for the execution of deep
mixing Execution of special geotechnical works Deep
Mixing (EN 14679) was published in 2005. Most of these
research projects focused on the global stabilization of soft
cohesive soils such as clay, silt, peat and gyttja (result of the
digestion of the peat by bacteria). More recently, DSM is
increasingly being used for structural applications such as soil
mix walls (SMW) for the retaining of soil and water in the case
of excavations.
In the DSM process, the ground is mechanically mixed in
place, while a binder, based on cement, is injected. For SMW
applications, the DSM cylindrical columns or the rectangular
2465
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
product, but guidance rules for the design of SMW are still
lacking in particular for the determination of a characteristic
value representative of the strength of the soil mix material.
Neither in the Eurocode 7 nor in the European standards for
grouting (EN 12715), jet-grouting (EN 12716) or deep-mixing
(EN 14679), specifications are given for the internal strength of
the material.
In practice, Quality Assurance (QA) and Quality Control
(QC) activities are commonly related to tests on core samples
for the determination of the Unconfined Compressive Strength
(UCS) and the modulus of elasticity (E) of the material. Both
values allowing an approach of the design taking into account
the bending characteristics (EI), the deformation (E), the
arching effect (UCS) and the structural resistance (UCS) of the
element. For engineering purposes and as part of the semiprobabilistic design approach presented in Eurocode 7, it is thus
essential to define the UCS characteristic value that can be
taken into account in the design of DSM structures. The
following paragraphs discuss the definition of this value.
2 DETERMINATION OF THE UCS CHARACTERISTIC
VALUE OF DSM MATERIAL
On the basis of an X% lower limit value
2.2
UCS (MPa)
f c ,k quf
5
0
a.
5 10
50
90
Cumulative percentage
99
5
4
3
2
1
0
b.
5
10
Cumulative percentage
50
(1)
15
10
20
UCS (MPa)
2.1
(2)
2466
f c ,k
(3)
With 3D analysis
Cumulated safety factor
Permanent actions (G=1.35)
Equivalent global safety factor
Variable actions (Q=1.50)
Equivalent global safety factor
Without 3D analysis
Cumulated safety factor
Permanent actions (G=1.35)
Equivalent global safety factor
Variable actions (Q=1.50)
Equivalent global safety factor
For
=0.6
=0.75
2.94
2.35
3.97
3.18
4.41
3.53
4.20
3.36
5.67
4.54
6.30
5.04
Figure 3. Ratio of the characteristic values (fc,k (CC) and fc,k (DIN4093))
as a function of the number of tested samples.
f m ,mittel
5
(4)
for samples with UCS values expected larger than 5 MPa and
tested according to the DIN 1048 standard for concrete material,
or with the help of:
f c ,d
q u
3
(5)
for samples with UCS values expected smaller than 5 MPa and
tested according to the DIN 18 136 for soil material. q'u is the
UCS value computed according to the DIN 18136.
Considering the safety factor of 5 and the reduction factor of
0.7 related to the 3D character of the loading, the previous
version of the DIN 4093 resulted in a global safety factor of
7.14.
For this second approach based on an average value with
safety factor, Denies et al. (2012) have remarked that first, the
definition of the most suitable mean (arithmetic mean, median,
2467
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
CONCLUSIONS
2468
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
GEING Krebs und Kiefer International and others ltd. Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
ABSTRACT: Adora residential building is a 6-storey structure, built nearby Ohrid Lake (Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia). The
foundation depth of the building is approximately 1,5 m (foundation construction foundation slab). The foundation soil consists of
soil materials which have a poor strength properties and low bearing capacity. The ground water table (GWT) on the location is on 1,0
m bellow the ground surface. On such geotechnical conditions a big settlements are expected. Therefore, a project on soil
improvement was prepared. Several preliminary solutions were considered, but most appropriated was the one which involves
geosyntetic reinforcement as subsoil improvement measure. In order to evaluate the settlements, performance of the building, axial
forces developed in the geogrids and stress-strain condition in the subsoil during static and dynamic loads, detailed analyses were
conducted. The software models developed in Plaxis 2D clearly showed the effectiveness on the applied measures for soil
improvement.
RSUM : le btiment de rsidence Adora est-une construction de 6 tages, bti cot du lac dOhrid (Ohrid, Rpublique de
Macdoine). La profondeur des fondations du btiment est denviron 1,5 m (construction de fondation dalle de fondation). Le sol de
fondation est compos de sols de mauvaise qualit et faible capacit portante. La nappe phratique (NP) du site est situe 1,0 m en
dessous de la surface de sol. Avec ces conditions gotechniques des tassements du sol sont attendus. Un projet damlioration des sols
a donc t prpar. Plusieurs solutions prliminaires ont t considres, mais la plus approprie est celle qui implique le
renforcement par gosynthtiques, comme mesure damlioration du sous-sol. Des analyses dtailles ont t menes afin dvaluer
les tassements du sol, la construction du btiment, les forces axiales dveloppes dans le gogrille et la relation contraintedformation dans le sous-sol sous chargements statique et dynamique. Les modles logiciels dvelopps dans Plaxis 2D montrent
clairement lefficacit des mesures appliques pour lamlioration des sols.
KEYWORDS:soil imporovement, geogrid, geotextile
1
INTRODUCTION
2469
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
CL/SFc
SFc
g (kN/m3)
22.0
18.4
18.5
c(kN/m2)
0.0
15.0
10.0
35.0
10.0
20.0
80000.0
5000.0
10000.0
13
Soil
f (0)
Mv (kPa)
SPT
THE SOLUTION
PP multicolored/PET
Method of production
Mechanically bonded
300 gr/m2
Weight
Strain
strength
at
ultimate
tensile
1300 N (-300 N)
5.1
Fondation slab 0.9 m
CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
3 mm
85 x 10-3 m/s
(-15 x 10-3 m/s)
Geotextile
2470
5.2
Geogrid 20/20
PET
Coating
Polymer
Weight
~ 350 gr/m2
Longitudinal 80 kN/m
Transversal 30 kN/m
Geogrid 80/30
Longitudinal 22 kN/m
Longitudinal 40 kN/m
Strain
strength
at
nominal
tensile
Mesh size
Geotextile
Geogrid 40/40
PP
Coating
Polymer
Weight
~ 330 gr/m2
Longitudinal 40 kN/m
Transversal 40 kN/m
Longitudinal 16 kN/m
Transversal 16 kN/m
at
Mesh size
nominal
tensile
Longitudinal 32 kN/m
PP
Transversal 32 kN/m
Coating
Polymer
Longitudinal < 7%
Weight
~ 190 gr/m2
Transversal < 7%
40 x 40 mm
Longitudinal 20 kN/m
Transversal 20 kN/m
Longitudinal 8 kN/m
Transversal 8 kN/m
Longitudinal 18 kN/m
Transversal 18 kN/m
Strain
strength
2471
at
Mesh size
nominal
tensile
Longitudinal < 7%
Transversal < 7%
40 x 40 mm
In the last 2,5 years this is the second bigger project of soil
In 7.
theusing
last stresses
2,5
years
this in
is the second
biggerThe
project
improvement
geosyntetics
Ohrid area.
first,of soil
Figure
Shear
distribution
6 GEOTECHNICAL ANALYSES
improvement
using
the Ohrid
area.Hotel
The first,
very similar,
case was
soilgeosyntetics
improvementin under
the new
6 GEOTECHNICAL ANALYSES
very
similar,
case
was
soil
improvement
under
the
new
Park
2,5
years
ago.
The
two
buildings
are
approximately
2.0
km Hotel
In order to adopt the measures for improvement of the subsoil,
yearsof
ago.a The
two datafrom
buildings are
approximately
On 2,5
a basis
obtain
monitoring
of the2.0 km
In analyses
order to were
adopt conducted.
the measures
for improvement
of the
subsoil,apart. Park
detailed
These
analyses involve
flow
On a basis
obtain
datafromthat
monitoring
settlements
it of
cana be
concluded
the totalof the
7 apart.
CONCLUSION
detailed analyses
conducted. These
analysesdue
involve
net analyses,
analyses were
of soil-structure
interaction
to flowbuildings
Figure
Axis dynamic
forcesanalyses
in geogrid
80/30
(first layer
of geogrids)
buildings
settlements are
it can
be theconcluded
that the total
of bothbuildings
below
initially estimated
net 5.and
analyses,
interaction
geostatic
load of
as soil-structure
well
as analyses
of thedue tosettlements
settlements
of
bothbuildings
are
below
the
initially
estimated
settlements.
In
the
last
2,5
years
this
is
the
second
bigger
project
of soil
geostatic
and dynamic
load as
as model
analyses
liquefaction
potential
of the subsoil.
Thewell
ground
wasof the
settlements.
For
example, for
monitoring
of theinsettlements
the The
Hotelfirst,
improvement
using
geosyntetics
the Ohrid of
area.
liquefaction
potential
of
the
subsoil.
The
ground
model
was
developed
according
to
the
adopted
soil
properties
shown
in
the
6 GEOTECHNICAL ANALYSES
For example,
for monitoring
of Those
the settlements
of the
Hotel
8 survey
points
were
positioned.
points
similar,
case was
soil
improvement
under
the initially
new
Hotel
developed
according
to the adopted
properties
shown in theParkvery
Table 1,and
also the
exact geometry
of the soil
structure
was applied
Park
survey
were
positioned.
Those
points2.0initially
measured
after
placing
them
(during
the
fundaments
Park
2,5 8years
ago.points
The
two
buildings
are approximately
km
Table to
1,and
also
themeasures
exact geometry
of theout
structure
to the
Most
ofthe
the
analyses
were
carried
inofPlaxis
2Dappliedwere
In model.
order
adopt
for improvement
thewas
subsoil,
wereOnmeasured
after
them (during
the fundaments
later
in the
of constructing
the
structure
and
apart.
a basis
of time
a placing
obtain
datafrom
monitoring
of the
to the
model. Most
ofconducted.
the analyses
wereanalyses
carried out
in Plaxis
software
suitusingfinite
element
method.
detailed
analyses
were
These
involve
flow2Dconstructing),
constructing),
laterwhole
initthecan
time
constructing
the structure
finishing
of the
construction.
The that
first
initialtotaland
settlements
beof concluded
the
suitusingfinite
method. interaction due to afterbuildings
netsoftware
analyses,
analyses ofelement
soil-structure
after finishing
the whole
construction.
The estimated
first
of
the ofelevation
the fixed
points
was initial
settlements
of bothbuildings
areof below
the initially
geostatic and dynamic load as well as analyses of the measurement
measurement
of the
fixed points was
on 11.07.2011,
and elevation
the last oneofon the
23.03.2012.
settlements.
liquefaction potential of the subsoil. The ground model was undertaken
11.07.2011,
andofthe
one on 23.03.2012.
In undertaken
both
cases on
cost-benefit
analyses
conducted
during
For example,
for
monitoring
thelast
settlements
of thethe
Hotel
developed according to the adopted soil properties shown in the
both cases
cost-benefit
analyses
conducted
during
process
showed
soil
improvement
Park 8In survey
points
werethat
positioned.
Those
points using
initiallythe
Table 1,and also the exact geometry of the structure was applied designing
designing
process
showedmethod
that (during
using
is most
economical
insoil
suchimprovement
geotechnical
were
measured
after
placing
them
the
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to the model. Most of the analyses were carried out in Plaxis 2D geosyntetics
geosyntetics
is most
economical
method
such
geotechnical
conditions.
Regardless
aspect
thisinmethod
has aand
constructing),
later
inthetheeconomic
time of constructing
the
structure
software suitusingfinite element method.
conditions.
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theshort
economic
this first
method
has a
major
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which
period aspect
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after
finishing
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whole
construction.
The
initial
major advantage
which
is a very of
shortthe
period
of installation.
measurement
of the
elevation
fixed
points was
8 undertaken
REFFERENCES
on 11.07.2011, and the last one on 23.03.2012.
Figure 5. Axis forces in geogrid 80/30 (first layer of geogrids)
8In both
REFFERENCES
cases cost-benefit analyses conducted during the
Brinkgreve.
R. last
&process
Vermeer
P.
1998.
Plaxis
Code
for Soil
In the
2,5 years
this is
the
second
bigger
project
ofusing
soil
designing
showed
thatFinite
soilElement
improvement
andBrinkgreve.
Rock Analyses.
R.
&
Vermeer
P.
1998.
Plaxis
Finite
Element
Codefirst,
for Soil
improvement
using
geosyntetics
in
the
Ohrid
area.
The
geosyntetics is most economical method in such geotechnical
6 GEOTECHNICAL ANALYSES
Geing-KuK.
2011.
Geomechanical
report
for construction
of residential
and
Rock
Analyses.
very similar,
case
was the
soileconomic
improvement
under
new has
Hotela
conditions.
Regardless
aspect
this the
method
building
inyears
Ohrid.
SkopjeGeing
Kuk. report
Geing-KuK.
2011.
Geomechanical
forapproximately
construction of 2.0
residential
Park
2,5
ago.
The
two
buildings
are
km
major advantage
which
is
a
very
short
period
of
installation.
In order to adopt the measures for improvement of the subsoil, Geing-KuK.
2011.Project
on
improvement
of
the
foundation
soil
under
building
in Ohrid.
SkopjeGeing
Kuk.
apart.
On
a
basis
of
a
obtain
datafrom
monitoring
of
the
detailed analyses were conducted. These analyses involve flow
theGeing-KuK.
residential building
in Ohrid.
SkopjeGeing of
Kuk.
2011.Project
on improvement
the foundation soil under
settlements
it canOhrid.
be
concluded Kuk.
that edition.
the total
8buildings
REFFERENCES
net analyses, analyses of soil-structure interaction due to Robert
M.Koerner.1997.
Geosynthetics.
the residentialDesigning
building inwith
SkopjeGeingFourth
settlements
of Inc.
bothbuildings
are below
the initiallyFourth
estimated
Prentence-Hall,
geostatic
load
as well as analyses of the
Robert M.Koerner.1997.
Designing
with Geosynthetics.
edition.
Figure
6. Plaxis and
modeldynamic
of the Adora
building
Brinkgreve.
R. & Vermeer
settlements.
Prentence-Hall,
Inc.P. 1998. Plaxis Finite Element Code for Soil
liquefaction
potential
theAdora
subsoil.
The ground model was
Figure 6. Plaxis
model of
of the
building
and example,
Rock Analyses.
The
Plaxis according
model wastosubjected
to several
load cases
which
For
for monitoring of the settlements of the Hotel
developed
the adopted
soil properties
shown
in the
Geing-KuK.
2011.points
Geomechanical
report for construction
of residential
The
Plaxis
model
was
subjected
to
several
load
cases
which
involves
geostatic,
hydrostatic
and
dynamic
load.
The
analyses
Park
8
survey
were positioned.
Those points
initially
Table 1,and also the exact geometry of the structure was applied
building
in
Ohrid.
SkopjeGeing
Kuk.
involves
geostatic,
hydrostatic
and
dynamic
load.
The
analyses
are to
conducted
with
and
without
applied
geosyntetics
under
the
were measured after placing them (during the fundaments
the model. Most of the analyses were carried out in Plaxis 2D
2011.Project on improvement of the foundation soil under
construction.
Comparing
results
of applied
analysesgeosyntetics
of both models
are conducted
withthe
and
without
under the Geing-KuK.
constructing),
later in the time of constructing the structure and
software
suitusingfinite
element
method.
the residential building in Ohrid. SkopjeGeing Kuk.
Comparing
the results
analyses
of both
it wasconstruction.
obvious that
improvement
of ofthe
subsoil
usingmodels Robert
after finishing
of theDesigning
whole with
construction.
TheFourth
first edition.
initial
M.Koerner.1997.
Geosynthetics.
it wasis fully
obvious
that improvement of the subsoil using measurement
geosyntetics
justified.
of Inc.
the elevation of the fixed points was
Prentence-Hall,
Figure 6. Plaxis model of the Adora building
Thegeosyntetics
maximum istotal
fullysettlements
justified. of the subsoil after the
undertaken on 11.07.2011, and the last one on 23.03.2012.
total
settlements
of
subsoil
construction
ofmaximum
themodel
hotel was
are
estimated
at
cm.the
The
estimated
TheThe
Plaxis
subjected
to 30
several
load
cases after
whichthe
In both cases cost-benefit analyses conducted during the
construction
of the
hotelthe
areseismic
estimated
at 30
cm.The
The
estimated designing process showed that soil improvement using
differential
settlements
during
analyses
were
0.1analyses
cm.
involves
geostatic,
hydrostatic
and
dynamic
load.
Thearemaximum
developed
ingeosyntetics
theanalyses
geogrids
for0.1
differential
settlements
during
the seismic
were
conductedaxial
with forces
and without
applied
under
thecm. geosyntetics is most economical method in such geotechnical
The load
maximum
forces
developed
in geogrid
theboth
geogrids
geostatics
case
areaxial
13,86
kN/m
in of
theanalyses
middle
and for conditions. Regardless the economic aspect this method has a
construction.
Comparing
the
results
of
models
are
13,86
kN/mWhen
in the
middle
geogrid
10,14
kN/mobvious
in load
the case
lowest
geogrids.
model
is and major advantage which is a very short period of installation.
it geostatics
was
that
improvement
of
thethe
subsoil
using
subjected
to dynamic
axial the
forcemodel
in
10,14
kN/m
inloads
the (seismic
lowest activity)
geogrids.theWhen
is
geosyntetics
is fully
justified.
subjected
to dynamic
loads
(seismic
the axial
force
the middle
35,17
and
in the
lowest
geogrid
the
The geogrid
maximum
totalkN/m
settlements
ofactivity)
the subsoil
after
the in 8 REFFERENCES
the middle
35,17
kN/m andatin30the
geogrid the
axial
force
is 19,12
kN/m.
construction
ofgeogrid
the
hotel
are estimated
cm.lowest
The estimated
Brinkgreve. R. & Vermeer P. 1998. Plaxis Finite Element Code for Soil
analyses
Additional
were
carried
out in order
to estimate
axial force
is 19,12
kN/m.
differential
settlements
during
the seismic
analyses
were 0.1acm.
and Rock Analyses.
analyses
Additional
carried
outininanalyses
order
to were
estimate
liquefaction
potential
of forces
thewere
subsoil.
These
The maximum
axial
developed
the
geogrids
for a
liquefaction
potential
of
subsoil.
Thesesand
analyses
were Geing-KuK. 2011. Geomechanical report for construction of residential
necessary
due load
to thecase
presence
of the
saturated,
uniform
in theand
geostatics
are 13,86
kN/m
in the
middle
geogrid
building in Ohrid. SkopjeGeing Kuk.
subsoil
which
hasdue
a relative
densitygeogrids.
in
range
ofuniform
Dr=15-40%.
necessary
to
presence
ofthe
saturated,
sand inisthe Geing-KuK. 2011.Project on improvement of the foundation soil under
10,14
kN/m
in
thethelowest
When
the model
subsoil
which
hasthe
aloads
relative
density
in the range
of Dr=15-40%.
Thesubjected
results
showed
that
subsoil
has a activity)
liquefaction
to
dynamic
(seismic
the potential.
axial
force in
the residential building in Ohrid. SkopjeGeing Kuk.
results
showed
that kN/m
the subsoil
hasthe
a liquefaction
potential.
theThe
middle
geogrid
35,17
and in
lowest geogrid
the
Robert M.Koerner.1997. Designing with Geosynthetics. Fourth edition.
axial
is 19,12
Prentence-Hall, Inc.
Figureforce
6. Plaxis
modelkN/m.
of the Adora building
Figure 7.
Shear stresses
distribution
analyses
Additional
were carried out in order to estimate a
Figure
7. Shear
stresses
distribution
The Plaxis
model
was
subjected
to several
cases which
liquefaction
potential
of
the subsoil.
Theseload
analyses
were
involves geostatic,
dynamicuniform
load. The
analyses
necessary
due to thehydrostatic
presence ofandsaturated,
sand
in the
are conducted
witha relative
and without
applied
under the 2472
subsoil
which has
density
in thegeosyntetics
range of Dr=15-40%.
construction.
Comparing
thesubsoil
resultshas
of aanalyses
of both
models
The
results showed
that the
liquefaction
potential.
it was obvious that improvement of the subsoil using
buildin
Geing-KuK
the resi
Robert M.K
Prenten
ABSTRACT: As is largely testified by the scientific literature, in the last decade geoencased columns have become a quite common
alternative solution to standard stone columns. This is essentially due to the possibility of employing reinforcements to better the
mechanical response of the inclusions without reducing their drainage efficiency. Although GEC are often used to reduce settlements
induced by the construction of large embankments on soft soils, up to now a rational displacement based design approach has not yet
been introduced. This is thus the final objective of this paper, that, by starting from a critical review of the standards presently
available, will illustrate the results of a series of finite difference numerical analyses. The unit cell of an ideal reinforced soil
embankment placed on a soft soil stratum will be accounted for and the effect of the main geometrical/mechanical parameters, as well
as the response of the system during the construction stages, is discussed.
RSUM : Comme il est largement connu dans la littrature de ces vingt dernires annes, les colonnes en matriaux granulaires
renforce par gotextiles (GEC) sont devenues une solution trs utilise par rapport aux colonnes ballastes standard. Cela est
essentiellement d la possibilit d'employer des renforts pour amliorer la rponse mcanique des inclusions sans rduire leur
efficacit de drainage. Bien que les GEC soient souvent utilises pour rduire les tassements induits par la construction de remblais
importants sur sols mous, une approche rationnelle de conception base sur le dplacement n'a, jusqu' prsent, pas encore t mise en
place. Cela est donc l'objectif final de cette tude, qui, en partant d'une analyse critique des normes actuellement disponibles, illustrera
les rsultats danalyses numriques aux diffrences finies. Une cellule lmentaire d'un remblai idal de sol renforc plac sur un sol
mou sera prise en compte et l'effet des principaux paramtres gomtriques et mcaniques et la rponse du systme au cours des
diffrentes tapes de la construction seront discuts.
KEYWORDS: geoencased granular columns, geotextiles, numerical analyses, displacement based design, earth reinforced structures.
1
INTRODUCTION.
2473
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
The two most common design standards available for the design
of earth embankment on GECs are the British Standard BS
8006 (1995) and the German Standard EBGEO (Chapter 6.9;
2003). Both of them assume the column to be rigid and,
estimate the vertical stress distribution at the base of the
embankment to be independent of the mechanical interaction
with the foundation (i.e. the GEC and the soft soil). From an
engineering point of view, however, the vertical stress
redistribution at the base of the embankment is the main
parameter governing (i) the design of the reinforcement layers
(see Figure 1) and (ii) the evaluation of the differential
settlements.
According to BS8006, the vertical stress redistribution does
not depend on the mechanical properties of the embankment. In
particular, the average vertical stress acting at the columns top
(in the following this quantity will be called i) is determined
only as a function of the geometry (H, S, D), as was suggested
by the approach proposed by Martson (1913) for buried pipes
(see also Jones et al., 1990). The estimation of the average
vertical stress e acting on the soft soil is instead obtained by
means of empirical expressions, depending on the full or partial
formation of the arch effect, as a function of the ratio between
height H and difference S-D. According to EBGEO, on the
contrary, a rather complex analytical procedure, based on the
work proposed by Zaeske (2001), is employed to describe the
arch effect. This takes into account the geometry (H, S, D) and
the friction angle of the granular material constituting the
embankment, and imposes the equilibrium of one central slice
of a vault shell of the arch that it is supposed to develop within
the embankment. No estimation of the vertical stress i at the
top of the column is provided. For the sake of brevity, the
analytical expressions have not been reported here; for further
details, see BS8006 and EBGEO (Chapter 6.9).
As far as the evaluation of settlements is concerned, the
procedure prescribed by EBGEO follows the work proposed by
Ghionna and Jamiolkowski (1981) and consists in subdividing
the length L of the column in slices (each one of them is then
assimilated to an axisymmetric triaxial soil sample). The
following hypotheses are assumed: (i) the granular soil in the
column is at critical state (i.e. no changes in volume are possible
for the column), (ii) no relative settlement are considered
between the column and the soil. These two hypotheses
introduce very strong simplifications that can lead to unphysical
results. The second one, in particular, makes impossible the
superficial differential settlements to be estimated.
2.1
Parametrical analyses
a)
b)
Embankment
Column
20
19
Soft
soil
15
35
-
15
10
750
0.4
2474
a)
b)
i e f us uc ,
a)
(1)
i D2 e S2 D2 H S2 .
b)
(2)
a)
b)
2475
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
b)
a)
b)
2476
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT: The paper presents the solution of the complicated practical geotechnical problem of the skeleton structure foundation
strengthening. The strengthening was done due to change of the spatial arrangement of a building and essential load increase. The
experience of a foundation strengthening with jet grouted piles is described based on results of the base deformations monitoring. The
main design principles of the foundations under strengthening are given. The results of the deformation design prediction based on jet
grouted piles test and the base deformation measuring are presented.
RSUM : Dans cet article on prsente la solution dun problme gotechnique pratique compliqu du renforcement des souches
dun btiment en carcasse construit sur les sols de fondation dangereux cause du karst, en raison du changement lors de la
construction de la conception de plan et de volume du btiment et de laccroissement signifiant de charge. Lexprience est dcrite du
renforcement des souches par des papillons dinjection de forage sur la base des rsultats du monitoring des dformations des sols de
fondation. Les rsultats sont prsents des pronostiques prvisionnelles des sols de fondation des souches renforces la base des
essais des papillons dinjection de forage et de la mesure des dformations du sol de fondation.
INTRODUCTION
ENGINEERING-GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
Under the foundation base stiff clays, tough and soft loams
occur underlain with water saturated medium coarse sand and
gravel at the depth of 810 m. (table 3). Maximum predicted
ground water level is 2 m under the foundation base. The
building site applies to the third category of stability about karst
deformations and is divided into sections according to extent of
their risk in accordance with Russian Codes. At this site, areas
are located that are classified according to their karst risk as
potentially not dangerous and potentially dangerous (fig.1) with
the probable design diameter of karst hole 7 m.
Due to site severe engineering-geological conditions
characterized with lack of homogeneity and karst risk, the
following foundations were designed: post- and strip
foundations on the bed; piled foundations with the in-situ raft
(pile groups); strip foundations on the bed and piled foundations
2477
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Table 1
Dates of measurement (days) and settlements (mm) from the moment of last measuring
Settleme 24.
nt for the 11.
previous 2007
period,
20.
10.
07.
02.
15.
16.
20.
16.
16.
02.
04.
05.
09.
04.
11.
01.
05.
06.
2008
2008
2008
2008
2009
2009
2010
2010
2010
Settleme
nt for Strengthe Foundation
07.
958 days ning
type
2010
of
observati
23
on, mm
09.
mm
88
50
27
118
225
217
63
116
31
1,8
8,0
3,7
0,5
2,1
16,1
post
14
2,6
5,8
0,9
9,7
0,5
1,2
20,7
strip
26
1,9
2,5
2,1
0,7
0,9
9,1
strip
27
5,4
14,0
6,1
5,9
9,2
21,5
17,0
3,3
83,4
strip
29
6,2
11,7
5,2
2,3
10,2
13,8
2,1
1,2
52,7
strip
31
50
1,4
8,5
7,7
21,8
2,0
1,3
92,7
JGP
post
2478
Table 2
Settlement Base pressure
Mark
before
before
Foundat
number
ion type construction construction
(fig.1)
restart, mm restart, kH/m2
Coefficient
of subgrade
reaction,
kH/m3
post
13,5
64
4700
14
strip
9,3
114
12200
26
strip
5,4
114
20000
27
strip
25,5
114
4400
29
strip
25,0
114
4500
31
post
60,0
144
2400
S=f(P)
0
100
200
300
400
0,001
500
600
N1
700
800
900
,k
N2
0,002
0,003
0,004
0,005 S1(3,2)
0,006
0,007 S1 (1)
0,008
0,009
0,010 S2(3,2)
0,011
0,012 S2 (1)
0,013
S,m
(test N.3)
(test N.2)
(test N.1)
2479
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Fig.4 Types of foundation strengthening with jet grouted piles (technical decision)
Pile
(JGP)
length, m
1
2
3
10,6
10,88
11,50
Pile (JGP)
length in
soil, m
10
10,58
11,10
Pile
settlement
according
to test, mm
Stiffness ratio
of pile (JGP)
base, kN/m
13
11
10,35
50000
60000
60000
N 2 N1
S 2 S1
2480
CONCLUSION
Standardization of the molding procedures for stabilized soil specimens as used for
QC/QA in Deep Mixing application
Normalisation des procdures pour la production dprouvettes de sols stabiliss utilises dans les
processus de QC/QA pour des applications de Deep Mixing
Grisolia M., Leder E., Marzano I.P.
ABSTRACT: An international collaborative research has been undertaken to establish common understanding of the key issues
involved in Quality Control/Quality Assurance (QC/QA) of Deep Mixing technique and propose international standards on design,
execution and execution control. The aim of the study is to investigate the influence of the laboratory procedures on the mechanical
properties of stabilised soil specimens and develop an innovative method to select the appropriate molding technique. A large
laboratory testing program was carried out on seven types of heterogeneous natural soils, as found in Rome, and on Kawasaki clay
stabilised with Portland cement. Thirty soil-binder mixtures with different workability were prepared using five different molding
techniques, varying initial water content of the soils, water to cement ratio and binder amount. Unconfined compression tests have
been carried out systematically on over 800 specimens. The applicability of different molding techniques in function of the
workability of the mixture has been investigated and from the results it was possible to define an applicability index and therefore
the range of applicability for each technique in function of the mixtures workability.
RSUM: Une tude internationale a t entreprise dans le but de dfinir des orientations communes pour les procdures QC/QA lis
aux travaux effectus par Deep Mixing et proposer des normes internationales relatives la conception, l'excution et le contrle
des oprations. Le but de cette tude est d'tudier l'effet des procdures de laboratoire pour la ralisation des prouvettes de sols
stabiliss et de dvelopper une mthode innovante pour slectionner chaque fois la technique de ralisation approprie. Un vaste
programme d'essais en laboratoire a t ralis en analysant plus de trente mlanges diffrents de ciments et sols partir de huit sols
naturels de Rome et Tokyo. Cinq techniques de ralisation ont t utilises pour la confection dprouvettes testes avec des essais de
compression simple.. L'applicabilit des diffrentes techniques de ralisation a t tudie selon l'usinabilit du mlange. A partir des
rsultats, il a t possible de dfinir un index dapplicabilit et donc un champ d'application de chaque technique en fonction de
lusinabilit du mlange..
KEYWORDS: Deep mixing, workability, laboratory procedures, operational abaci.
1
INTRODUCTION
2481
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
clayey Sand (SS), Sand and Gravel (SG), Pliocene Clay (PC),
Black Pozzolana (BP), Red Pozzolana (RP) and Argillified Tuff
(AT). For each soil, different mixtures were produced, varying
the initial water content and keeping constant the cement
content, ac (defined as the weight of the introduced dry cement
divided by the dry weight of the soil to be stabilized).
Specimens with 5 cm diameter and 10 cm height were
employed. Each soil was sieved through a 9.5mm sieve, so that
the maximum grain size of the soil sample would be less than
1/5th of the inner diameter of the mold. The properties of the
soil-binder mixtures analyzed are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Soil properties and Testing conditions.
Soil
type
GravelSandSiltClay
KC
0-1442-44
SD
18-2434-24
SS
22-4020-18
SG
33-4014-13
PC
00-0064-36
BP
08-4938-05
RP
11-5824-07
AT
02-4739-12
Water
content,
wn
Cementitious
grout
(%)
72
66
60
60
60
54
54
49
49
20
30
40
35
40
45
6
8
10
50
60
70
25
30
35
20
26
32
44
48
53
w/c = 0
ac = 5%
ac = 20%
ac = 30%
ac = 20%
ac = 30%
ac = 20%
ac = 30%
ac = 10%
w/c = 1
ac = 10%
w/c = 0,5
Workability
parameter,
Torque, Mt
(Nm)
5,32
8,47
17,40
29,00
40,00
61,00
75,00
96,00
120,00
13,55
4,81
2,23
9,08
4,88
3,76
11,28
5,11
3,51
10,16
5,76
2,34
6,97
2,37
0,21
8,34
1,60
1,08
8,22
0,60
0,20
RESULTS
2482
(1)
The Figure 2 shows as example the N parameters vs. torque
values obtained for all the analyzed soil-binder mixtures molded
by the Rodding technique. From the figure clearly appears that
for all the measured mixtures workability the N values are
above the set limit as an expression of the high quality of the
specimens realized by Rodding.
SD
AT
SS
KC
SG
SD
PC
SS
(3)
According to the Eq. 3 and to the N and E parameters
definitions, also the IA values range between 0 and 1. To obtain
a target value for the choice of the applicable techniques, the
limit values given for the two different parameters N and E were
introduced in the Eq. 3. A target value of IA = 0.82 was then
obtained.
The Figure 3 shows an example of the IA vs. mixtures
workability graph obtained for all the analyzed soil-binder
mixtures molded by the Rodding technique.
KC
BP
BP
SG
1.0
0.9
N parameter
limit = 0.90
N, E parameter
0.8
0.7
SD
RP
SS
AT
SG
limit
PC
1.0
Applicability index, IA
KC
RP
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.3
E parameter
limit = 0.10
0.2
0.1
0.0
RODDING
12
18
28 days
18.0
28 days
SD
RP
1.0
Applicability index, IA
RODDING
12.0
0.0
0
6.0
(2)
SS
AT
SG
limit
PC
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
6.0
12.0
18.0
NO COMPACTION
28 days
2483
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Marginally Applicable
Not Applicable
3 6
Molding technique
No Compaction
65
75
Tapping
Static
Compaction
25kPa
10 15
Static
Compaction
50kPa
30
Dynamic
Compaction
40
6
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
120
90
...
100
Low
workability,
consistent
experimental data
example curve
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
Vm0, Sh0 , Rs0
30
Vm, Sh, Rs
20
10
0
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Prof. Masaki Kitazume for his help
and suggestions throughout the study. The Soil Stabilization
Group of the Port and Airport Research Institute (JP) is also
acknowledged for the helps during the tests and for providing
part of the data.
Rodding
CONCLUSIONS
2484
REFERENCES
Al-Tabbaa. A., Liska, M., McGall, R., Critchlow, C. 2012. Soil Mix
Technology for Integrated Remediation and Ground Improvement:
Field Trials. IS-GI Brussels 2012, Belgium.
Bruce, D.A., Bruce, M.E., Di Millio, A.F. 2000. Deep Mixing: QA/QC
and Verification Methods. Grouting Sol Improvement, Geosystems
Including Reinforcement. 4th Intnl Conf. Ground Improvement
Geosystems. Helsinki, Finland, pp. 11-22.
CDIT, Coastal Development Institute of Technology 2002. The Deep
Mixing Method - principle, design and construction. A.A. Balkema
Publishers, Lisse, Abingdon, Exton (PA), Tokyo, p. 123.
EuroSoilStab, 2002. Development of design and construction methods
to stabilise soft organic soils. Design Guide Soft Soil Stabilization.
EC project BE96-3177, 94p.
Filz, G., Adams, T., Navin, M., Templeton, A.E. 2012. Design of Deep
Mixing for Support of Leeves and Floodwalls. 4th Intnl. Conf. on
Grouting and Deep Mixing, Marriott New Orleans, LA, US.
Grisolia M., Kitazume M., Leder E., Marzano I.P., Morikawa Y. 2012.
Laboratory study on the applicability of molding procedures for the
preparation of cement stabilised specimens. IS-GI Brussels 2012,
Belgium
JGS 0821-00 2000. Practice for Making and Curing Stabilised Soil
Specimens Without Compaction (Translated version). Geotechnical
Test Procedure and Commentary, Japanese Geotechnical Society.
Kitazume, M., Nishimura, S., Terashi, M., Ohishi, K. 2009.
International Collaborative Study Task 1: Investigation into
Practice of Laboratory Mix Tests as Means of QC/QA for Deep
Mixing Method. International Symposium on Deep Mixing &
Admixture Stabilization, Okinawa, Japan.
Koehler, E.P., and Fowler, D.W. 2003. Summary of Concrete
Workability Test Methods. Research Report, International Center
for Aggregates Research The University of Texas at Austin.
Larsson, S. 2005. State of Practice Report Execution, monitoring and
quality control. Intnl. Conf. on Deep Mixing - Recent Advances
and Best practice, Stockholm, Sweden.
Marzano I.P., Al-Tabbaa A., Grisolia M. 2009. Influence of sample
preparation on the strength of cement-stabilised clays. Intnl. Symp.
on Deep Mixing & Admixture Stabilization, Okinawa, Japan.
Marzano I.P., Leder E., Grisolia M., Danisi C. 2012. Laboratory study
on the molding techniques for QC/QA process of a Deep Mixing
work. 3rd International Conference on New Developments in Soil
Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Near East University,
Nicosia, North Cyprus. ISBN 975-8359-28-2.
Richards, K. S., Reddy, K. R., 2010. True triaxial piping test apparatus
for evaluation of piping potential in earth structures. Geotechnical
Testing Journal, 33(1): 1-13.
Terashi, M. 1997. Deep mixing method Brief state of the art. 14th
International. Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering. Tokyo
Terashi, M., and Kitazume, M. 2011. QA/QC for deep-mixed ground:
current practice and future research needs. Proc. of the Institution of
Civil Engineers Ground Improvement 164 (3), 161-177.
Analysis
Analysis of
of Floating
Floating Pile
Pile Capacity
Capacity in
in Improved
Improved Ground
Ground for
for Thi
Thi Vai
Vai Port,
Port, Vietnam
Vietnam
Analyse
Thi Vaidu
Amlioration
deVietnam
Port, Vietnam
Analyse de
de la
la capacit
capacit de
de Pile
pile flottant
flottantedans
dansun
unterrain
sol amlior
port Thi Vai,
Hai
Hai N.M.,
N.M., Tuong
Tuong N.K.
N.K.
Long
Long P.D.,
P.D., Nhon
Nhon P.V.
P.V.
ABSTRACT: A static loading programme was performed to respond to total and effective stress analysis of floating pile capacity in
90 km southeast
of Ho
City, Vietnam.
soil profile
consists
an about
improved ground
at Thi
Vai Port
approximately
ABSTRACT:
A static
loading
programme
was performed
to respond
to Chi
totalMinh
and effective
stress The
analysis
of floating
pile of
capacity
in
15 to 23 ground
m thickatdeposit
soft,
normally consolidated,
compressible
clay
deposited
on denseThe
to soil
compact
Scheme
soil
improved
Thi VaiofPort
approximately
90 km southeast
of Ho Chi
Minh
City, Vietnam.
profilesand.
consists
of anofabout
improvement
was deposit
imposed,ofconsisting
of wick
drains installed
at a spacing
of 1.5
m through
the clay
the sandsand.
and placing
m
15
to 23 m thick
soft, normally
consolidated,
compressible
clay
deposited
on dense
to to
compact
Schemetoof4.7
soil
thick surcharge.
removal
of the surcharge,
two square
precast
concrete
mm diameter,
to placing
depths of
m
improvement
wasAfter
imposed,
consisting
of wick drains
installed
at a spacing
ofpiles,
1.5 m400
through
the clay towere
the driven
sand and
to16
4.7and
22 m surcharge.
and the static
loading
testsofwere
performedtwo
reaching
pile capacities
driven
about 14were
and driven
23 days,
The
thick
After
removal
the surcharge,
squarethe
precast
concrete after
piles,piles
400 mm
diameter,
to respectively.
depths of 16 and
capacity
16 and
22 mtests
pilewere
measured
are about
450 the
andpile
1,100
KN at maximum
5 and
6 mm,
respectively.
22
m and of
thethe
static
loading
performed
reaching
capacities
after piles movements
driven aboutof14about
and 23
days,
respectively.
The
The testsofindicate
a good
between
measurements
and KN
analysis
of total movements
stresses, and
correlation
coefficient,
NKT,
capacity
the 16 and
22 magreement
pile measured
are about
450 and 1,100
at maximum
of the
about
5 and 6 mm,
respectively.
between
porea pressure
adjusted cone
stressmeasurements
and vane shearand
stress
is about
instead
of 12and
through
16 as used for
the Project.
The
testsCPTU
indicate
good agreement
between
analysis
of 18
total
stresses,
the correlation
coefficient,
NKT,
between CPTU pore pressure adjusted cone stress and vane shear stress is about 18 instead of 12 through 16 as used for the Project.
RSUM : Un programme de chargement statique a t ralis pour rpondre l'analyse des contraintes totale et effective de la
capacit du: Unprogramme
pieu flottant dans
sol amlior au port
Vaipourrpondre
environ 90 l'analyse
km au sud-est
de Ho Chi Minh-Ville,
Vietnam. Le
profil
RSUM
de un
chargementstatiquea
tdeThi
ralis
des contraintestotale
et effectivedela
capacit
de pieuflottantdans
sol est constitu un
d'un
dpt de 15
23 deThiVai
m dpaisseur
d'argile
compressible
normalement
consolid,
sur de
unsolest
sable
du
solamlior
au port
environ
90 souple
kmau sud-estde
Ho Chi
Minh-Ville,
Vietnam.dpos
Leprofil
dense et compact.
Le schma
d'amlioration
des sols a t
impos, compos de drains verticaux
installs
une
de1,5 m
constitud'un
dptde
15 23m
dpaisseurd'argile
souplecompressiblenormalement
consolid,
dpos
surdistance
un sabledenseet
travers l'argile
au sable
et la mise des
4,7 sols
m d'paisseur
en supplment.
l'limination
de la surcharge,
deux pilesde1,5
carres
bton
compact.Le
schma
d'amlioration
a t impos,
compos Aprs
de drains
verticauxinstalls
une distance
mentravers
prfabriqu
de 400
de4,7md'paisseur
diamtre ont teninstalls
desAprs
profondeurs
de 16 22
m et les essais
de chargement
statique
ont t
l'argileau
sableet
lamm
mise
supplment.
l'liminationde
la surcharge,
deux pilescarresen
bton
prfabriqu
raliss
pour de
atteindre
les capacits
de pieux
ce que des 16
pieux
en place
14et 23
jours, respectivement.
La
de
400 mm
diamtreont
t installs
desaprs
profondeursde
22sont
metmis
lesessais
de environ
chargement
statiqueont
t ralisspour
capacit de capacitsde
la pile16 et pieuxaprs
22 m mesure
est denviron
450et 1100
kN aux mouvements
maximum
d'environ 5et
6 mm, respectivement.
atteindreles
ce quedes
pieux sontmis
en placeenviron
14et 23jours,
respectivement.
La capacitde
la pile16 et
Les tests montrent
un bon 450et
accord1100KNaux
entre les mesures
et l'analyse des contraintes
querespectivement.
le coefficient deLestests
corrlation,
NKT, entre
22mmesureest
denviron
mouvementsmaximum
d'environ totales,et
5et 6 mm,
montrentun
bon
la pression interstitielle
CPTUl'analyse
ajuste la descontraintes
contrainte cne totales,et
et la contrainte
cisaillementdeest corrlation,
d'environ 18au
lieu de
12 16comme
accordentre
les mesureset
quele decoefficient
NKT,
entrela
pression
utiliss pour le projet.
interstitielleCPTUajustelacontraintecne
et la contrainte de cisaillement est d'environ 18au lieu de 12 16comme utiliss pourle
projet.
KEYWORDS: soil improvement, static loading test, total stress analysis, effective stress analysis.
KEYWORDS: soil improvement, static loading test, total stress analysis, effective stress analysis.
10
15
20
10
15
20
10
U2
15
20
DEPT H (m)
5
DEPT H (m)
DEPT H (m)
INTRODUCTION
DEPT H (m)
10
15
20
U0
25
25
25
25
2485
40
60
80
20
80
100
CLAY
SAND
SILT
wP
15
20
wn wL
SILT
SAND
10
10
DEPTH (m)
10
DEPTH (m)
CLAY
DEPTH (m)
60
+ 4.0 m GWL
wn
20
20
SILT
25
CLAY
SAND GRAVEL
25
200
Temporary
stockpile
150
100
SS8
50
0
0
300
300
600
600 (day)
TIME
0.0
15
15
wn
25
40
SETLLEMENT (m)
0
+ 5.0 m
0
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
900
1,200
900
1,200
0.5
1.0
22 mTest
Pile Driving
SS8
1.5
16 mTest
Pile Driving
2.0
2.5
3.0
SETTLEMENT (m)
1.5
2.0
2.5
5
June 30, 2011
DEPTH (m)
10
August 29, 2009 June 30, 2011
15
20
25
BHs
Test Piles
Settlement Plates
CPTU and VST
Extensometer, Piezometer, and Standpipe
2486
200
Temporary
stockpile
150
SS8
100
50
0
0
250
200
400
600
800
1,000
200
150
-10.2 m
100
-1.5 m
50
0
200
400
600
TIME (Day)
800
1,000
4.1
(1)
12
qt
16
DEPTH (m)
DEPTH (m)
12
1.1
Sand
Clay
Eq. 4
Eq. 6
P
I
L
E
1
6
m
2,000
P
I
L
E
2
2
m
20
Eq. 1
Eq. 5
Sandy silt and silt
Su
rs = Ktanv0 = v0
= 0.3
1,500
Nkt
20
rs = 0.5(Su)0.50 (v0)0.50
rs = 0.5(Su)0.75 (v0)0.25
15
30
16
10
25
v0
20
DEPTH (m)
1,000
(2)
qt & v0
500
(6)
2487
(7)
(8)
(9a)
(9b)
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
500
1,000
= 0.3
1,500
Sand
DEPTH (m)
5
Eq. 9
10
Clay
Eq. 8
15
2,000
P
I
L
E
1
6
m
The total and effective stress analysis on two tested piles driven
in improved ground of Thi Vai Port is performed and
summarized as:
For total stress approach, the analysis indicates the
alpha method with a reduction coefficient
incorporated into the API 1987 edition gave the best
agreement.
For effective stress approach, the analysis shows the
Eslami and Fellenius method (1997) is approximately
the same as the measurements.
For two approaches, the total stress approach is the
better agreement.
Correlation coefficient, NKT, between CPTU pore
pressure adjusted cone stress and vane shear stress is
about 18.
P
I
L
E
2
2
m
20
25
30
The static loading tests for the 22 and 16 m Pile were performed
after piles driven about 23 and 14 days, respectively. The 22
and 16 m were tested on September 29, 2011 and November 22,
2011. The load-movement curves of the two tested piles in
Figure 12 indicate the ultimate loads of the plunging failures at
1,100 and 459 KN, respectively.
1,500
Pile 22 m
LOAD (KN)
1,200
1,100 KN
900
Pile 16
m
600
459 KN
300
0
0
10
15
20
25
MOVEMENT (mm)
30
Pile 22 m
(Qp/Qm)
0.967
1.422
1.048
1.203
0.949
1.416
1.280
1.423
0.915
0.624
0.884
0.688
REFERENCES
2488
School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-5306; PH:
(480) 965-3997
ABSTRACT: The use of plant-derived urease enzyme to induce calcium carbonate (CaCO3) cementation has been demonstrated
through laboratory column tests. Benefits of the use of plant-derived urease over the use of microbially-generated urease to induce
carbonate cementation include the small size of the enzyme, which permits penetration into finer grained soils and makes the process
less sensitive to bioplugging, and the availability of 100% of the carbon in the substrate for conversion to CaCO3. The laboratory
column tests employed both Ottawa 20-30 silica sand and finer-grained F-60 silica sand. The laboratory column specimens were
prepared in a variety of manners and showed varying degrees of cementation and carbonate yield. Triaxial tests performed on
cemented specimens showed significant strength increases over non-cemented specimens. These tests confirm the feasibility of using
plant-derived urease to induce carbonate cementation in sand and provide valuable insight into the factors that must be considered in
developing practical applications for ureolytic carbonate precipitation using plant-derived urease enzyme.
RSUM : La cimentation de sable par du carbonate de calcium (CaCO3) produit par lenzyme urase obtenue partir de plantes a
t ralise en laboratoire. Les avantages dutiliser de lurase obtenue de plantes plutt que de lurase produite microbilogiquement
pour produire la cimentation carbonate sont la petite taille de lenzyme qui permet la pntration dans les sols fins et rend le
processus moins sujet au colmatage biologique et la disponibilit 100% du carbone prsent dans le substratum pour conversion en
CaCO3. Des essais en colonnes ont t raliss sur deux sables de silice dits Ottawa 20-30 et F-60 (plus fin). Les chantillons ont t
prpars de diffrentes manires et ont atteint des degrs de cimentation varis et des productions de carbonate diffrentes. Les
rsultats des essais de compression triaxiale sur des chantillons ciments et des chantillons non-ciments indiquent que les premiers
sont beaucoup plus rsistants. Ces essais confirment que lurase obtenue partir de plantes peut tre utilise pour induire une
cimentation carbonate dans les sables. De plus ces essais ont permis de didentifier les facteurs considrer pour dvelopper des
applications pratiques pour lutilisation de la prcipitation carbonate urolytique en utilisant lurase issue de plantes.
KEYWORDS: carbonate, cementation, urease, calcite, soil improvement
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
The potential for using plant-derived urease enzyme to cement
sands by inducing calcium carbonate (CaCO3) precipitation has
been demonstrated through a series of laboratory column tests
on two different gradations of silica sand. The use of
microbially induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) to cement
cohesionless soils has recently received substantial attention
from geotechnical researchers (Burbank et al. 2012, Chou et al.
2011, Dejong et al. 2010, Harkes et al. 2010, van Paassen et al.
2010). The MICP mechanism most often discussed in the
literature and most advanced in terms of field application is
hydrolysis of urea (ureolytic hydrolysis). MICP via ureolytic
hydrolysis relies on microbes to generate urease enzyme, which
then serves as a catalyst for the precipitation reaction. The use
of plant-derived urease (enzymatic ureolytic hydrolysis) to
induce CaCO3 precipitation eliminates the need for microbes in
the CaCO3 precipitation process.
Besides eliminating the need to nurture urease-producing
microbes, enzymatic ureolytic hydrolysis offers several other
advantages over ureolytic MICP. Applications of ureolytic
MICP on clean sands in laboratory column tests and limited
field tests have encountered significant practical difficulties,
including bioplugging (permeability reduction accompanying
induced mineral precipitation) and generation of a toxic waste
product (ammonium salt) (Harkes et al. 2010, van Paassen et al.
2008). Bioplugging not only limits the distribution of
2489
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2490
3. RESULTS
2
3
Layer
Tube #
Table 1. Results from Experiment Set 1 using 20-30 Ottawa silica sand
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
1
2
3
Summary of Results
Amt.
Total
Weight
of
Amt.
Change via
CaCO3 CaCO3
Digestion
(g)
(g)
11%
3.57
3.8%
1.67
2.7%
1.73
11.8
2.1%
1.40
2.3%
1.74
2.0%
1.64
0.76%
0.63
2.07
0.65%
0.69
0.49%
0.75
0.23%
0.31
0.58%
0.63
3.57
1.7%
2.63
Figure 1. XRD results from cemented sand sample (top plot). Quartz &
calcite standards (middle & bottom plot, respectively).
Theor.
Max
CaCO3
(g)
14.5
4.35
4.35
2491
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2.0% CaCO3
CaCO3 not quantified
Figure 3. p-q plot failure envelopes for 20-30 silica sand: Cemented
(Dr = 60%); Uncemented (Dr = 60%)
1.6% CaCO3
Figure 4. p-q plot failure envelopes for F-60 silica sand: Cemented (Dr
= 35%); Uncemented (Dr = 37%);
4. CONCLUSION
Sand column tests at Arizona State University have shown that
agriculturally-derived urease can be used to induce calcium
carbonate precipitation in sand. Sand columns were developed
using Ottawa 20-30 and F-60 sand and three different
preparation methods: dry pluviation followed by percolation of
a calcium-urease-urea cementation solution, pluviation into a
calcium-urease-urea cementation solution, and mixing the sand
with urease prior to pluviation with a calcium-urea solution.
Cementation was observed in all of the columns. XRD and
SEM testing confirmed that calcium carbonate (specifically
calcite) was the cementing agent. Acid digestion showed that
increased applications yielded correspondingly greater
2492
aBstract: civil engineers have developed different soil improvement techniques in recent decades to improve the bearing
capacity of soft soils loaded by foundations and reduce soil settlement. a method for increasing the bearing capacity of foundation
soil is the use of stone columns. however, one of the major weaknesses in use of stone columns in loose soils is lack of confinement.
Using geosynthetic reinforcement to compensate low confinement pressure in these soils, is a solution to this problem. this paper
presents the results of an experimental study on the improvement of the bearing capacity of stone columns reinforced by
geosynthetics. in this study the influences of three variables have been investigated, including: surrounding soil types (i.e. clay and
sand), stone column aggregate size and length of reinforcement. having mentioned these variables, the results showed that
encapsulating stone column with geosynthetic is more effective in cohesive soil compared to granular soil. the results of the
experiments revealed that the coarser the aggregate the better behavior is expected for the stone column. the results also showed that,
reinforcing half height of stone columns is the optimal encapsulating length.
rsUm: ces dernires dcennies, les ingnieurs civils ont dvelopp diffrentes techniques pour l'amlioration de la capacit
portante du sol mou ainsi que celles des fondations. Une des techniques couramment utilise permettant l'augmentation de la capacit
portante des sols et des fondations est l'utilisation des colonnes de pierre. cependant, l'une des grandes faiblesses de l'utilisation de
colonnes de pierre dans les sols mous est le manque de confinement. l'utilisation de renforts gosynthtiques permet de compenser
pour la faible pression de confinement. cet article prsente les rsultats d'une tude exprimentale sur l'amlioration de la capacit
portante des colonnes de pierre renforces par des mthodes gosynthtiques. dans cette tude, l'influence de trois variables ont t
tudies, notamment: le type de sol environnant (i.e. argile et sable) ainsi que la longueur de l'armature de renforcement. les rsultats
dmontrent que l'emploi de la colonne en pierre avec encapsulation gosynthtique est plus efficace dans un sol consistant compar
aux sols granulaires. de plus, les rsultats de ces expriences ont rvl que plus la rugosit de l'agrgat augmente, plus le
comportement des colonnes de pierres est amlior. finalement, les rsultats indiquent que la longueur d'encapsulation optimale est
atteinte en renforant la hauteur mdiane des colonnes de pierre.
KeYWords: stone column, bearing capacity, geosynthetic, reinforcement.
1
2.1
introdUction.
laBoratorY settinGs
Test apparatus
Soil tested
Specimens preparation
to prepare the soil and column, first two 10 cm soil layers has
been poured in the tank and compacted using 20 strokes caused
by dropping a 50 n weight attached to a wooden handle from a
distance of 40 cm as the substrate layer.the next layerswere
compacted with 10 strokes from 10cm distance to provide loose
soil.
toprepare the stone column an open ended hollow
cylindrical pipe with a diameter of a little more than the
diameter of the stone column was used.after that the cylinder
was placed at its position and the surrounding was filled slowly
with soil.
2493
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Clay
Sand
friction angle
26.0
35.0
cohesion (Kn/m2)
5.0
0.0
Unit weight(Kn/m3)
15.0
16.0
liquid limit(%)
44.5
20.0
r2
F
Fmax(no)
r1
F
Fmax(no)
test resUlts
2494
F
Fmax(no)
F
Fmax(no)
F
Fmax(no)
F
Fmax(no)
F
Fmax(no)
F
Fmax(no)
F
Fmax(no)
2495
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
F
Fmax(no)
F
Fmax(no)
F
Fmax(no)
references
conclUsion
2496
Centre for Geomechanics and Railway Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong City, NSW Australia, ARC
Centre of Excellence in Geotechnical Science and Engineering, Australia
Ameratunga J.
aBstract: due to a projected increase in trade activities at the port of Brisbane, new berths on fisherman islands at the mouth of
the Brisbane river will be constructed in the outer area (235ha) close to the existing port facilities via land reclamation. a vacuum
assisted surcharge load in conjunction with prefabricated vertical drains was choosen to reduce the required consolidation time. the
features of the combined vacuum and surcharge fill system and the construction of the embankment are described in this paper. a
comparison of the performance of the vacuum combined surcharge loading system with a standard surcharge fill emphasizes the
obvious advantages of vacuum consolidation. field data is presented to show how the embankment performed during construction.
an analytical solution for radial consolidation incorporating both time-dependent surcharge loading and vacuum pressure is
employed to calculate the settlements and associated excess pore pressures of the soft holocene clay deposits.
rsUm : laugmentation des activits de commerce au port de Brisbane ncessite la construction, proximit des terminaux
existants, de nouveaux postes de quais dans les iles fisherman a lembouchure de la rivire de Brisbane sur une superficie de 235 ha
gagne sur la mer. Un chargement sous vide contrle, associe a des drains prfabriqus, a t appliqu pour rduire le temps de
consolidation. larticle dcrit les caractristiques de la technique de consolidation sous vide associe au chargement par remblaiement
et la construction du remblai. Une comparaison entre la consolidation sous vide associe au remblaiement et le pr chargement
classique montre clairement les avantages en faveur de la consolidation sous vide. les donnes enregistres sur le site illustrent le
comportement du remblai durant la consolidation. Une solution de consolidation horizontale tenant compte du chargement et de la
pression sous vide est prsente en vue de prdire le tassement et lexcs de la surpression interstitielle du dpt dargile molle de
lholocne.
KeYWords: consolidation, soil improvement, vertical drains, vacuum.
1
introdUction
2497
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
WD5A
35m
84.5m
41m
WD5B
MS22-1
WD1 VWP2-WD1
WD5B
70m
MS15-1
WD2
MS19VWP5
WD3
MS18-1
MS27WD3
VWP1-WD2
70m
MS20-VWP5
VC1
VC1-2
VWP4-WD4
MS17-1
155m
WD4
MS16-1
VC2
VC2-1
84.5m
pipes and the pumps that represent the vacuum system. the
horizontally pipes offered the desired uniform distribution of
suction beneath the membrane. the measured suction varied
from 60 kpa to 75 kpa, and no air leaks were observed during
vacuum application that ensured the intact seal provided by the
membrane. a vacuum pressure of 70kpa was applied after 40
days.
50m
MS28-VC1
169m
210m
Vertical displacement
(m)
Excess pore pressure (kPa)
drain type
Wd1
Wd2
Wd3
Wd4
Wd5a
Wd5B
Vc1
Vc2
circular
drains
circular
drains
Band drain
type -a
Band drains
type -a
Band drains
type -B
Band drains
type -B
circular
drains
circular
drains
fill height
(m)
treatment
scheme
1.1
5.2
surcharge
1.3
7-7.2
surcharge
1.1
4.3-4.6
surcharge
1.3
6.1
surcharge
1.2
3.3
surcharge
1.1
5.5
surcharge
1.2
3.2
1.2
2.8
4
2
0
100
(a)
6
200
300
400
100
200
300
4 00
100
200
300
Time (days)
400
0.5
1
1.5
2
200
(b)
WD3
WD5A
WD5B
VC1
VC2
(c)
100
-100
surcharge+
vacuum
surcharge+
vacuum
2498
Platform
Platform
4
2
Dredged mud
Holocene sand
HS
-2
UHC
-4
Depth (m)
Dredged mud
LHC
-10
-12
-14
-16
-18
-20
-22
-24
Section/Plate No.
VC1/MS28
WD3/MS27
-26
-28
-30
0
1
2
Lateral displacement/Total change in applied stress
(mm/kPa)
(a)
(b)
(c)
figure 4. (a) time-dependent surcharge loading, (b) unit cell including
smear zone, and (c) boundary conditions with vacuum distribution (after
indraratna et al. 2011)
uL
8ch t
1 exp
2
8ch t0
d e
d e2
for
8ch t t0
8ch t0
exp
uL
1 exp
2
d e2
8ch t0
d e
d e2
0 t t0
for t t0
(1)
(2)
p0 ,
t t vac
(4)
2499
2k
kh
3
lns h l 2
4
3q w
ks
(5)
n de dw
(6)
s ds dw
(7)
-6
-8
n
s
ln
1 e0
log
'i
ch
(m2/yr)
1
kh/ks
1
s=ds/dw
1
1.9
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
5
(a)
4
3
2
1
00
100
Settlement (m)
0.4
200
300
Time (days)
400
500
(b)
Field
Prediction
0.8
1.2
1.6
0
100
80
200
300
Time (days)
400
500
(c)
60
40
20
0
Field
Prediction
0
100
200
300
Time (days)
400
500
figure 5. Wd1 area: (a) stages of loading, (b) surface settlements at the
embankment centreline and (c) excess pore pressures at 9.2m deep
(a)
3
2
1
Vacuum application of 70 kPa
Settlement (m)
00
100
200
300
Time (days)
400
500
(b)
Field
Prediction
0.4
0.8
1.2
80
100
200
300
Time (days)
400
500
(c)
Field
Prediction
40
-40
100
200
300
Time (days)
400
500
figure 6. Vc1 area: (a) stages of loading, (b) surface settlements at the
embankment centreline and (c) excess pore pressures at 14.1m deep
(indraratna et al. 2011)
conclUsions
2500
acKnoWledGements
references
Amlioration
d'unS.J.M.
massif d'argile l'aide de drains verticaux prfabriqus et de pr-chargement
Islam M.S., Yasin
-Bangladesh
Une tude
de casof Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh
University
Islam M.S., Yasin S.J.M.
introdUction
the site for the container yard is in a tidal plain at a narrow strip
between chittagong hilly uplands and the Bay of Bengal.
Geologically it is a recent alluvium formed by the material
carried by the river Karnaphuli and its tributaries from the upper
tertiary hills. figure 1 shows the site map with grid lines. about
half of the land, the eastern side (segments marked 1, 2, 3 and 4)
had been used as jetty yard for more than 50 years and housed
storage sheds for general cargo, road and railway tracks. the
other half (western part, segments marked 1a, 2a, 3a and 4a)
contained a city road, a residential area of cpa containing
one/two storey building, ponds, play ground, open land, village
dwellings etc. different parts of this western side had different
elevations with 1~3 m ditches. Because of earlier diverse use of
the land, there was little possibility of homogeneity of the upper
soil layer in the area.
2501
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
sUB-soil characterisctics
-8
Fine
sand/silt
8~10 m
-12
-16
Claye silt
16m~
-20
Distance in meter
Grid points
-24
C-0 BL
D-6 BL
F-5 BL
H-7 BL
I-1 BL
L-8 BL
B-9 BL
3
4A
11
12
13
-32
Fine content, %
0
16
LL, PL, PI
24 0
15
16
17
18
20
40
60
LL/BL
PL/BL
PI/BL
-1
14
D-8 BL
E-4 BL
H-9 BL
I-5 BL
J-7 BL
L-6 BL
Reduced Level, m
Jetty deck
2
3A
9
10
-28
KarnafUli riVer
2A
1
2
3
4
7
8
48
Silty clay
4~6 m
-4
100
5
6
40
N
M
1A
L
K
J
I
H
G
F
E
D
C
Reduced Level, m
Void ratio, e 0
80 0.4
LL/AL
PL/AL
PI/AL
0.8
1.2
BL
1.6
AL
-2
-3
-4
-5
19
-6
10
20
MC, %
30
40
0
BL
AL
50 0
qu , kPa
100
BL
200
AL
300 0
Com p. Index, C c
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0
BL
AL
-1
Reduced Level, m
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
2502
U av 1
m 0 m
Ur 1 e
h2
8T r
)
m
where Tr
C vr t
d e2
k
n
n 3 S
m 2
ln 2 h
2
S
4
ks
n S
4n
de
ds
and S
n
dw
dw
200 mm
300 mm
150 mm
n2 S 2
n2
ln S
5m
cvt
2
and m 2m 1
e m t v , tv
surcharge, 5m of soil
pVd
dw
2(b t )
2503
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
16
24
32
40
48
0
E-4 BL
D-8 BL
F-5 BL
L-6 BL
I-8 BL
D-8 AL
F-5 AL
L-6 AL
I-8 AL
-2
-4
Reduced level, m
-6
J-2 BL
D-6 BL
J-7 BL
K-8 BL
I-8 BL
D-6 AL
J-7 AL
K-8 AL
Afte r loading
Data points
600
350
500
300
250
200
150
100
400
300
200
100
(a)
50
(b)
0
0
50
350
400
100
200
300
400
500
Estimated settlement, mm
600
conclUsions
-8
acKnoWledGements
this research work was carried out in connection with the consultancy
services provided to cpa through Brtc, BUet. the authors would
like to express their sincere thanks to cpa and contractor's personnel
involved in the project.
-10
-12
-14
400
Observed settlement, mm
8
Be fore loading
Data points
-16
2504
references
Berthelot P.
rsUm : les techniques traditionnelles damlioration des sols par inclusions visent le plus souvent renforcer laptitude du massif
reprendre les charges verticales auxquelles il est soumis, moyennant des dformations acceptables par les ouvrages. elles peuvent
galement avoir pour objectif damliorer la rsistance aux efforts horizontaux, et plus gnralement aux sollicitations dominante
dviatorique, dans le cadre de problmatiques lies aux sismes (traitements anti-liqufaction), la stabilit gnrale (remblais sur
sols compressibles), la rduction des pousses sur des ouvrages de soutnement, au poinonnement du sol sous de fortes surcharges
(effets de bord), la ralisation dinclusions forte inertie, sous forme de tranches parallles ou de rseaux de tranches, est une
rponse particulirement bien adapte ces problmatiques damlioration des sols. Une manire lgante de construire ces inclusions
sans perturber les structures existantes consiste traiter le sol en place en y incorporant un liant hydraulique, par application des
techniques de soil mixing les plus rcentes. aprs une prsentation de ces mthodes, la communication propose met en vidence le
rle fondamental jou par linertie des inclusions, par des considrations fonctionnelles et par divers exemples dapplication.
aBstract: conventional soil reinforcement techniques as rigid inclusions mainly report vertical loadings to the substratum layer
with an induced settlement. they can also improve soil resistance regarding lateral forces as those related to earthquakes (liquefaction
hazard), or slope stability for embankments on soft soil foundation. they can reduce active pressure on retaining walls.
the appropriate design answer to those issues is to create strong inertia inclusions based on a trench geometry with either a parallel or
a crossed frame arrangement. last but not least, an even better technique to build those inclusions with a reduced environment impact
consists in treating in situ soil by adding cement. this article presents different soil mixing projects and explains how strong inertia
trenches are relevant.
mots-cls: amlioration de sols, sol-mixing, sol-ciment, inclusions rigides, inertie, liqufaction, soutnement, pousse des terres,
tassement, tranches de sol-mixing.
KeYWords : soil reinforcement , soil mixing, rigid inclusions, slope stability, retaining wall, liquefaction, seismic, active pressure,
Bouassida approach, settlement, soil mixing caissons, soil mixing trench, crosswalls.
1
introdUction
2505
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
inclusion
rigide
inclusion
semi-rigide
inclusion
souple
fc (mpa)
5 500
0.5 5
ey (Gpa)
3 200
0.2 3
0.04 0.08
1.1
2506
domaines dapplication
Ntan
3
3.1
pp
eXemples dapplication
Renforcement de sol derrire un soutnement
2507
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Traitement anti-liqufaction
conclUsion
references
2508
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
valuation de la thorie de Carillo pour les sols mous de Tunis amliors par godrains
halima Jebali1, Wissem frikha2 & mounir Bouassida3
Jebali
H., Prikha
Bouassida
M.
Universit
TunisW.,
El Manar;
Geotechnical
Engineering Research Team, Ecole Nationale dIngnieurs de
Universit Tunis El Manar, Geotechnical Engineering Research Team, cole nationale dingnieurs de Tunis (ENIT)
aBstract: this paper presents an experimental study carried out on undisturbed cored samples of tunis soft soil extracted
at 17.25 m depth at the lagoon of sejoumi. three types of oedometer tests had been performed: first type was a standard test
on tunis soft soil, the second was an oedometer test on the same soil improved by a prefabricated vertical drain mebradrain
88 (mb88) type and the third test is similar to the second test in which vertical drainage was prevented. then, the assessment
of Carrillos theory is studied by quantifying the effect of radial and vertical consolidation from the observed global degree of
consolidation of improved tunis soft soil specimens by geodrains.
rsum: ce papier prsente une tude exprimentale ralise sur des chantillons intacts du sol mou de tunis prlevs
17,25 m de profondeur de la marcage de Sjoumi. Trois types dessais oedomtriques ont t effectus : le premier est un
test standard sur le sol mou de tunis, le second tait un essai oedomtrique sur le mme sol amlior par un drain vertical de
type mebradrain 88 (mB88); le troisime test est similaire au deuxime test dans lequel seulement le drainage radial a t
favoris . ensuite, l'valuation de la thorie de carrillo est tudie en quantifiant l'effet de la consolidation radiale et verticale
sur le degr de consolidation global.
1.
introdUction
(1 U) = (1 Ur) (1 Uv)
(1)
2 u r 1 u r
u r
c r
2
t
r r
r
(2)
8t
U r 1 exp r
fn
1
2509
(3)
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
n 1
4n
(4)
(6)
.
For vertical consolidation problem, the differential
equation of one-dimensional consolidation for the excess
pore pressure is written (Terzaghi, 1943):
2 u z
u z
CV
z2
t
- Uv < 50 %:
TV
(8)
- Uv > 50%:
U
V 1
T
8
exp V
(9)
60
50
40
30
(10)
STUDIED SOIL
0,1
0,01
1E-3
(7)
2.
Clay
70
10
3.
Tr
Silt
20
UV 2
Fine sand
80
D
dw
Tr
Coarse sand
90
Gravel
100
CONSOLIDATION TESTS
2
2510
Proceedings of the 18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Cs(Serie 3)
1,0
Cs(Serie 2)
0,9
Cs(Serie 1)
0,8
void ratio,e
4.2
coefficient of permeability
Vertical
and
radial
hydraulic
conductivities
(permeability coefficients kv and kr) are determined by
the variable head permeability test. in fact, oedometer
apparatus (in series 1 and 2) is equipped with a
conventional measuring device (tubes connected to the
base of the specimen). the measurements are performed
for different levels of applied load form 100 kpa to 800
kpa (100, 200, 400 and 800 kpa).
figure 9 shows opposite variations of the ratios cr/cv
and kr/kv when the consolidation stress varies from 100
to 800 kpa. in this range, ratio cr/cv varies from 36 to
12 and ratio kr/kv varies from 4 to 12. obtained results
show that the assumption made e.g. cr/cv = kr/kv is
only valid at high levels of consolidation stress (Jia and
chai, 2010).
0,7
Cc
0,6
40
Cc
Cc
0,5
Serie 1
Serie 2
35
Serie 3
0,4
1
10
100
log(kPa)
25
20
15
10
coefficients of consolidation:
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
degree of consolidation:
s( t )
(11)
s
s(t) and s denote respectively the settlements at given time
and at the end of consolidation.
the second method consists in calculating U by the
Carillos equation (1). The radial degree of consolidation
Ur is estimated from the experimental results of series 2
(case of radial consolidation rc) and equations (7) and
(9). the vertical consolidation Uv is obtained from
recorded results in series 1 (case of vertical
consolidation Vc) by using equation (2).
figures 4a and 4b illustrate the variation of global
degree of consolidation U in function of time for vertical
consolidation stress of 400kpa and 800 kpa.
U( t )
4.1
100
4.3
kr/Kv
4.
Cr/Cv
30
3
2511
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
1,0
Degree of consolidation
0,8
(400 kPa)
Ucarillo
0,6
Acknowledgement:
authors gratefully appreciate the help provided by mrs.
s. Boussetta during the experimental work carried out at
the soil mechanics laboratory of the national
engineering school of tunis.
0,4
0,2
0,0
-200
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
time (min)
References
(a)
1,0
Degree of consolidation
0,8
(800 kPa)
Carillo
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
-200
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
time (min)
(b)
figure 4. Variation of global degree of consolidation
4
2512
Improvement of soft fat clay using rigid inclusions and vertical drains
Amlioration dune argile plastique molle par inclusions rigides et drains verticaux
Kirstein J.F.
Wittorf N.
ABSTRACT: In the case of a new road crossing in Germany with 1.5 to 7.0 m high embankments nearby the Danish border
particularly soft clays were found 13 to 20 m deep below sea level. The undrained shear strength of the clay varied between 7 and 20
kN/m. The water content was almost 100 % and the organic matter below 6 %. The consolidation coefficient Cv < 0.3 m/year is
characteristics of a fat clay which requires a long time or tight spacing of vertical drains to consolidate. Due to stability risks, vertical
wick drains were installed at a 0.5 m spacing in the part of the highest embankments, which were built in three load steps, each time
waiting for 60 to 80 % consolidation degree before loading the next step. Even using 600 kN/m woven geotextiles, a total vertical
settlement of around 1.5 m and up to 27 cm horizontal deformation were measured throughout one year of monitoring. These
deformations were too high for the existing and running highway in the middle of the new projects. Therefore, full displacement
concrete columns (rigid inclusions system CMC) were installed up to 22 m deep with load transfer platforms installed on top the
inlcusions. In order to improve the installation process of the rigid inclusions, additional vertical drains were installed in the soft soil
before the inclusions. Within the first two years, the area supported by the rigid inclusion experienced less than 2 cm of deformation, a
proportionally small amount compared to the deformations recorded in the wick drain consolidation parts of the project.
RSUM : Pour un projet dune nouvelle route sur des remblais de 1,5 7,0 m de hauteur en Allemagne prs de la frontire danoise,
des argiles particulirement molles ont t trouvs de 13 20 m de profondeur sous le niveau de la mer. La rsistance au cisaillement
de l'argile varie entre 7 et 20 kN / m. La teneur en eau est proche de 100% et la matire organique infrieure 6%. Le coefficient de
consolidation Cv <0,3 m / an montre une argile plastique qui ncessite un long temps ou un rseau de drains verticaux trs serre
pour la consolidation. En raison de calculs de stabilit, les drains verticaux ont t installs avec un espacement de 50 cm dans la
partie des remblais les plus hauts, qui ont t construits en trois tapes de chargement, avec pour chaque tape des priodes d'attente
de 60 80% degr de consolidation avant de la prochaine tape de chargement. Mme avec lutilisation de geotextiles de 600 kN/m,
des tassements verticaux de 1.5 m et des dformations horizontales jusqu 27 cm ont t mesurs pendant une anne de surveillance.
Ces dformations sont trop importantes pour l'autoroute existante en exploitation prs du nouveau projet. Des inclusions rigides
(systeme CMC) ont t installes jusqu' 22 m de profondeur avec diffrents matelas de rpartition placs au dessus des colonnes.
Afin damliorer le processus d'installation des inclusions rigides supplmentaires, des drains verticaux ont t installs dans le sol
mou avant linstallation des colonnes. Au cours des deux premires annes de construction, la zone supporte par les inclusions
rigides a eu moins de 2 cm de dformation, une dformation relativement petite compar avec celles enregistres dans des zones du
projet consolides par des drains verticaux.
KEYWORDS: soil improvement, Controlled modulus columns (CMC), vertical drains
1
INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE
PROJECT
Large areas nearby the northern sea are nearly flat with
elevations slightly above or under the sea level. Soft soil of silt,
clay, mud and peat reach between five and twenty meters from
the surface, before glacial sands are encountered.
The existing west coast highway B5 near the German city of
Husum will be widened from two to three lanes in the future in
order to improve traffic. The crossing between B5 and B202
was designed as a bridge project with high embankments
located on the unconsolidated soft soils, typical at the flat costal
region near the North Sea.
All traffic constructions bring new loads in form of deadand live-loads to these soft soils. Without soil improvement
methods large long-time settlements will occur, which often
causes damages to the road during the construction or later on.
The traffic on the highways B5 and B202 in the site had to
be maintained during the construction period and the existing
road could not tolerate additional stability risks or settlements,
especially when the 1.5 to 7 m high embankments are built
directly beside the traffic. There are different stages to look at,
but we will focus only on the western part with the highest dam
nearby the bridge.
2513
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
F
igure 3. boring, cone penetration test and shear vane test in the detail
area bridge west
shear
strenght
k
[grade]
fill sand
18/10
30,0
---
14/4
17,5
15
15/5
20,0
10
sand
18/10
27,5
---
16/6
20,0
10
soil
properties /
soil
Cohesion
C,k Cu,k
[kN/m]
50-100
kN/m
SOIL-PARAMETERS
After the first part of the soil investigations with several borings
(BS) and cone penetration tests (CPT) it was clear that there
was a problem of stability and consolidation time due to the
presence of fat clay in the upper soft soil layer. The project can
be modelled with two layers of soft soils divided by a loose
sand layer in between. This reaches 13 m up to 22 m in the
deepest parts from the surface.
The undrained shear strength cu in the soft soil from the
results of shear vane tests multiplied with factors of 0.5 to 0.65
are linked to the plasticity according to Bjerum standard DIN
2514
3
3.1
Modulus
Es,k
[MN/m]
Consolidation
coefficient
cv [m/s]
60
6,0*10-1
12
0,8
8,0*10-9
12
0,8
2,0*10-8
25
2,5*10-3
2,0
1,0*10-7
20
SOILIMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES
Vertical drains
(1)
degree of consolidation
total load at a given depth
internal friction angle
final drained cohesion
undrained shear strength
(2)
Figure 4. installation of CMC combined with vertical drains and porewater on the platform
4.2
4.1
Due to the presence of very soft soils, the CMC are designed to
take the full load of the embankment, neglecting the small load
bearing capacity of the soil in between the inclusions. With
500 kN characteristic load per CMC, the calculated settlement
at the top of each CMC is very similar to the settlement of the
piles under the bridge.
2515
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
5.2
MONITORING RESULTS
Wick drains
F
igure 10. horizontal inclinometer results with arround 1 cm of CMC
settlements and 2 cm of reinforced earth settlements
Figure 8. measurement at the settlement plates SP 9 und SP10.
Soft and fat clay were found at the B5 / B202 road crossing.
Additional soil investigations and laboratory tests were
performed to be able to complete a proper design, regarding
stability and consolidation time.
Oedometer consolidation tests allowed to precisely predict the
movements during the consolidation processes that were
accelerated by the use of vertical drains at different spacings.
Large deformations of up to 1.5 m of settlements and 27 cm of
horizontal displacement were experience and closely match the
calculations and show that it was the right decision not to place
the highest embankment directly on the softest soil beside the
bridge over the running traffic on the highway B5.
Vibration free CMC in combination with reinforced earth
allowed to construct this high embankment with less than two
centimetre differential settlements to the piled bridge.
With a careful planning of the work within the overall
construction schedule, detailed design combined with an
extensive monitoring program, economic soil improvement
techniques can be combined with deep foundations in one
project even on very soft soil can be treated successfully.
7
REFERENCES
2516
Sarigiannis D.D.
AUTh, MSc DIC
ABSTRACT: This work deals with a simulation of a construction sequence of a stone column in two distinct stages: a) a one stage
excavation and b) a multi-stage backfilling of the column stone excavation with crushed gravel at ascending steps of 1m. Simulation
of this procedure is attempted using a 3D model which represents the stone column and the surrounding soil. Analysis is carried out
using a numerical code, called FLAC3D, based on finite differences. The mathematical model incorporates geometry and boundary
conditions of the problem, profile of soil layers with their physical, deformational and mechanical properties and their constitutive
laws, as well as, initial conditions of stresses and deformations of subsoil stratums of the examined area. Special emphasis is given to
simulation of an harmonically imposed vertical loading of the vibrating column, into an equivalent static vertical loading and
subsequently into an equivalent radial pressure against internal wall of the cylindrical excavation of the constructed stone column.
Results clearly denote that there is a strong interaction of the complex system in the kinematical and stress field, which satisfactorily
justifies modification of the final diameter of the constructed stone column compared to the theoretical proposed diameter.
RSUM : Ce travail se rfre une simulation numrique de la squence de construction dune colonne ballaste, en deux tapes
spares : a) une tape unique dexcavation, et b) plusieurs pas successifs de remblayage de lexcavation cylindrique de la colonne
ballaste, avec du matriau granulaire cras, des pas montants de 1m. La simulation est effectue laide dun modle 3D qui
reprsente la colonne ballaste et le sol environnant. Le code numrique utilis est FLAC3D et il est bas sur le modle des
diffrences finies. Le modle mathmatique intgre la gometrie et les conditions limites du problme, le profil du sol avec leurs
proprits physiques, mcaniques et de dformation, ainsi que leurs lois de comportement et les conditions initiales de la rgion
examine. Une attention particulire est donne la simulation dun chargement harmonique vertical impos la colonne vibrante,
un chargement quivalent vertical statique, et par la suite, une pression quivalente radiale exerce sur lintrieur de lexcavation
cylindrique de la colonne ballaste construite. Les rsultats dmontrent clairement linteraction prononce du systme complexe, qui
justifie aisment le grossissement du diamtre construit par rapport au diamtre thorique conu lors du dimensionnement du projet.
KEYWORDS: stone column, excavation, multi-stage backfilling, Flac3D, interaction, complex system, diameter.
5
GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERIZATION
2517
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH
Modeling Procedure
1
2
1 f / f 2 4 2
1
(1)
2518
Pcyclic qcyclic
Rotation:
X: 140.000
Y: 130.000
Z: 360.000
Mag.: 1.25
Ang.: 22.500
Magfac = 0.000e+000
Live & unassigned mech zones shown
Axes
z ,st
Linestyle
f / f1
2 1
(2)
b f
P f
Pst
2
1 f / f 2 4 2
1
(3)
VLa
4H
3VS
8H
(4)
f1
30 x
3.14 x0.4 2
3.768MN
4
(6)
Surface
u ( f ) / u st 1
d 2
3 250m / s
3 Hz
8 30m
(5)
1130 x 4
1777 kPa
3.14 x 0.8 2
(7)
2519
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
FLAC3D 3.10
Rotation:
X: 110.000
Y: 130.000
Z: 360.000
Mag.: 3.05
Ang.: 22.500
1716
13
11
1007
1006
1003
1001
Surface
Magfac = 0.000e+000
Exaggerated Grid Distortion
Live mech zones shown
2726
23
21
Axes
37
36
33
31
Linestyle
Block State
47
46
43
41
57
56
53
51
History Location
67
66
63
61
77
76
73
71
FLAC3D 3.10
Rotation:
X: 120.000
Y: 130.000
Z: 360.000
Mag.: 5.96
Ang.: 22.500
137
136
133
131
147
146
143
141
Surface
Magfac = 0.000e+000
Exaggerated Grid Distortion
Live mech zones shown
Axes
Linestyle
Block State
History Location
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Minneapolis, MN USA
157
156
153
151
167
166
163
161
177
176
173
171
187
FLAC3D 3.10
Rotation:
X: 120.000
Y: 120.000
Z: 360.000
Mag.: 4.77
Ang.: 22.500
Surface
Magfac = 0.000e+000
Exaggerated Grid Distortion
Live mech zones shown
17
16
13
11
Axes
Linestyle
Block State
History Location
1007
1006
1003
1001
27
26
23
21
37
36
33
31
6.
REFERENCES
7.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
For the needs of the present project it has been decided to adopt
a rather simple, yet representative, soil profile corresponding to
a bridge pier, where typical stone columns of 0.8m diameter and
23m length are constructed, in order to improve foundation soil
behaviour. The complex system consisting of a stone column
2520
Laboratory tests and numerical modeling for embankment foundation on soft chalky
silt using deep-mixing
Essais au laboratoire et modlisation numrique de la fondation dun remblai sur un limon crayeux
mou des sols amliors par malaxage en profondeur
Koch E., Szepeshzi R.
ABSTRACT: The deep-mixing is nowadays world-wide accepted method as a ground treatment technology to improve the
permeability, strength and deformation properties of soils. Binders, such as lime or cement are mixed in-situ with the soil by rotating
mixing tools. The method is undergoing rapid development, particularly with regard to its range of applicability, cost effectiveness
and environmental advantages. The paper describes the results of laboratory tests on chalky silt samples mixed with cement of
different content. The influence of the different mixing parameters on the unconfined compression strength and deformation modulus
is shown and evaluated. Typical results of the laboratory tests were used in numerical modeling with PLAXIS 3D as input parameters
to study the behavior of a 4 m high embankment constructed on this soil improved by deep mixed columns with different spacing and
diameters. The parameters of the soil improvement technique were analyzed to study their influence on the settlement and the stability
of the embankment. The trends of the calculation outputs are shown and evaluated.
RSUM : Pour lamlioration de la prmabilit, de la rsistance et des caractristiques de dformation des sols mous la malaxage
est considr comme une technique courante, prconise partout. La procdure consiste malaxer, par rotation, les liants: la chaux
ou/et le ciment et le sol in-situ laide de loutil de malaxage par rotation. Grace la diversit technique et aux possibilits
dapplication de lappareillage, ainsi que ses avantages conomiques, tout en respectant les intrts de lenvironnement, cette
technologie approuve un dveloppement continu mme dans nos jours. Ltude a pour but de faire connaitre las rsultats des essais au
laboratoire raliss sur des prauvettes prleves du sol trait avec les liants: la chaux et le ciment, dont la teneur par prouvettes tait
variable. Lanalyse des rsultats de ces essais a mis lvidence linfluence des divers paramtres de malaxage sur la rsistance la
compression simple et sur le modul de dformation du sol trait. Ces rsultats nous ont rendu possible dappliquer le programme
dlments finis PLAXIS 3D, en vue dtudiar une digue de 4m de hauteur, reposant sur des colonnes de sol trait, ayant une
disposition variable et des diamtres diffrents. Le but de cette tude tait de fournir un moyen de calcul qui permat le suivi des
tassements et la stabilit de la digue, en fonction de la variation des paramtres de malaxage.
KEYWORDS: deep mixing, laboratory test, numerical modeling
1
INTRODUCTION
2521
Figure 1.
Column-type deep-mixing
Figure 2.
Mass stabilization
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2.1
The quality of the mixed depends on the applied binder type and
quantity as well as the ratio of water to binder in the mixture.
These quantites can be expressed by volume or weight. It is
essential that the water content of the original soil is considered
when calculating the water content of the slurry.
The binder quantity is described with the cement factor (
and the in-place cement factor (inpl):
= mcement / Vsoil = binder weight / soil volume [kg/m3],
inpl = mcement / Vmix = binder weight / mixture volume [kg/m3].
The water content of the soil is described with
wT / c = mw,mix / mcement = the total water-cement ratio [-].
The quality of the mixture is generally described with two
parameters:
qu = the unconfined compressive strength [MPa],
E = the Youngs modulus [MPa]).
These mechanical properties are generally measured at 7, 14,
28, 42 and 90 days after mixing, because the stregthening of the
improved soft fine grained soils is a long process, but the qualifying parameter is generally the 28 day unconfined compression strength [Filz et. al., 2003].
2.2
mix- wT / c
ture
kg/m3
P1
6.8
102
P2 13.5
51
P3
3.4
204
1
5.3
127
2
4.4
153
3
3.8
178
4
2.7
254
5
2.2
305
6
6.8
108
7
5.5
134
8
4.5
162
9
3.4
214
10
2.7
268
IP
%
17.7
w
%
71.1
e
Es Es,ur
c
*
MPa MPa
2.08 2.1 15 0.0015 0.038
70
12
303
58
196
301
655
1037
81
81
196
370
508
day
70
11
567
92
343
312
1351
2125
94
165
334
910
1162
80
17
418
69
235
297
878
1487
71
92
231
542
670
93
18
727
88
334
380
1384
2853
82
174
424
1024
1458
90
104
17
980
93
430
598
1900
2991
117
246
508
1559
1952
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
P1
20
P2
P3
40
1
60
80
100
hardening time t [days]
6
10
kg/m3
96
49
187
120
144
166
231
274
97
120
144
188
231
qu kPa
28
42
14
2.3
wP
%
54.4
3000
wL
%
72.1
inpl
2500
wT/c total water-cement ratio
2000
1500
2,22
2,67
2,74
3,37
3,43
3,81
4,43
4,54
5,33
5,48
6,75
6,81
13,47
q u = 4.810-5 inpl3.1
1000
R = 0.97
500
50
100
150
200
250
300
2522
railtrack
49
2000
1500
96
97
144
144
166
231
231
274
120
187
0.6
120
embankment = 20 kN/m
2
E = 50 MN/m = 40 = 10
3.4
188
5.0
1000
R = 0.97
soft soil
Es = 2000 kN/m
gravel
E = 25 kN/m
10
cref = 10 kN/m
unsat=15 kN/m3
= 6 = 22 kN/m3
= 36
column distance
1:1.5
500
3.0
3.0
3.0
2500
12
14
16
250
200
Eu = 0.068 qu
R 2 = 0,97
MohrCoulomb
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3.1
Eref
qu
cref
50
Figure 9.
Partial mass stabilization
100
Figure 8.
Column-type deep-mixing
(1)
150
kN/m2
kN/m2
kN/m2
1.
7000
100
50
2.
1500
200
100
mixture
3.
20000
300
150
4.
40000
600
300
5.
70000
1000
500
2523
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
settlement s [cm]
35
30
without treatment
mass stabilization
25
E 70 qu
20
15
10
5
0
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
1,2
unconfined compressive strength q u [MPa]
3.3
Stability analysis
3,0
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
2,8
2,6
without treatment
mass stabilization
2,4
2,2
2,0
1,8
1,6
1,4
1,2
1,0
E 70 qu
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
1,2
unconfined compressive strength q u [MPa]
2524
Department of Geotechnical Engineering, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, Warsaw, Poland
ABSTRACT: The article is an answer proposal for the conclusion stated in European regulations regarding the environment friendly
and more sustainable development, which among others includes utilising secondary and recycled material in order to obtain durable
and stable cuttings and embankments. Bearing in mind that the slope stability and erosion control on embankments are the issues
rising the nowadays geotechnics awareness through all around the world, the paper content provides the alternative engineering
solutions to such problems. The techniques proposed in the paper mainly consist of the proper vegetation cover implementation on
embankment slopes, the reinforcement of earth structures by utilising geotextiles and a combination of those two. Additionally, it is
presented how secondary materials could be used as a vegetation development accelerating and enhancing material. In order to prove
the reliability and efficiency of such activities the laboratory material tests and numerical modeling of slope failures were conducted.
RSUM : L'article est une proposition de rponse la conclusion nonce dans les rglements europens concernant
l'environnement de dveloppement favorable et plus durable, ce qui comprend entre autres l'utilisation des matriaux de rcupration
et de recyclage afin d'obtenir des dblais et remblais stables et durables. Il est admis que la stabilit des pentes et le contrle de
lrosion sur les remblais sont des problmes qui apparaisse comme des priorits pour la gotechnique actuelle. Le papier propose des
solutions dingnierie ces problmes. Les techniques proposes dans le document se composent principalement de la mise en uvre
de couverture vgtale sur les talus, le renforcement des structures en terre en utilisant par gotextiles et une combinaison des deux.
En outre, il est prsent comment les matriaux secondaires pourraient tre utiliss comme un dveloppement de la vgtation
acclrant et en amliorant le matriau. Afin de prouver la fiabilit et l'efficacit de telles activits, les essais de matriaux en
laboratoire et la modlisation numrique des ruptures de pente ont t effectues
KEYWORDS: slope stability, reinforcement, vegetation cover, recycled materials, landfill.
INTRODUCTION.
SITE DESCRIPTION
2525
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
I
II
II
III
III
retaining wall
Legend:
designed ski slope
Figure 1. Current development plan of Radiowo landfill, and location of cross-section for slope stability analyses.
2526
The reason for this is some of the particles are filled with
gas. The chemical reactions proceeding during the coal
combustion process produce mineral phases stated in Table 1.
Table 1. Mineral phases of the fly-ash (Koda and Osinski 2011).
Mineral phases
Glass
Millite
Quartz
Hematite
Magnetite
Coke
G E O T E X T IL E
G E O G R ID
w i d th 2 .0 m
2 .0m
2 .0 m
w id th 1 .3 m
2.0m
2 .0 m
1 .3 m
1 .3 m
1 .3 m
1. 3 m
1.3m
1.3m
1 .3m
1 2 .5 m
1 2 /2
5 /3
1 3 /2
1 5.0 m
4 /2
MP
1 4 /1
2 1.0 m
3 /2
MT
1 4 /2
4 8 . 0m
2 /2
1 2 .5 m
1 /2
1 5 .0 m
2 1.0 m
2 5 .0 m
5 /4
2.0m
1 .3 m
1 2 .5 m
2 .0 m
5 /2
1 2 .5 m
2 5 .0 m
the sewage sludge are developing slowly and are not exposed to
the erosion processes. This kind of material is hazardous when
disposed but when treated by vegetation and additives it is
safely absorbed and utilized by plants. Additionally it has to be
mentioned that sewage sludge supply is free of charge. The
mixture is applied by hydraulic seeders supplied with high
pressure pumps, which enables spraying on different
soil/material types. The advantage of using sewage sludge is
that seeds are protected from the erosion and excessive drying.
The viscosity of the sludge and its mixing ability with other
components, assure even and smooth protection cover, and
moreover, high adhesion to the sprayed surface. The most
significant advantage of using the sewage sludge is the nutrition
content, essential for the vegetation cover establishment.
Especially the undrained sludge is rich in microelement,
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and organic matter. Some of
them are highly valuable for plants (Koda 2011), however
cannot exceed normative values of dry mass. The usability of
ashes and sewage sludge for the geotechnical purpose is
determined by several physical and mechanical properties such
as: capacity index in saturated conditions, grain-size
distribution, maximum dry bulk density, swelling, internal
friction angle, and passive capillarity.
1 /1
MT
2 /1
MT
3 /1
4 /1
5 /1
MP
MP
1 P /1 K /1
10
11
MT
MT
MT
MT
MP
MP
1 2 /1
1 3 /1
V o lu m e tric c o n te n t o f su b s tra te :
1 s a n d m e a s u re
1 , 2 c o m p o st m e a su re
1 ,2 l a y e rs o f s u b s tra te
K /2
1 P /1 K /2
M T - L a w n t yp e m ix tu re
1 P /2 K /1
M P - P a stu re ty p e m ix tu re
1 P /2 K /2
G - G a z o n t y p e m ix tu re
1 P / 1 K /1
1 P / 2 K /2
1 /1 1 /2 3 /2 8 1 1 1 4 /2 - N u m b e rs o f v a ria n ts
4
VEGETATION COVER AS A RELIABLE METHOD
OF SLOPE STABILITY IMPROVEMENT
Beyond described activities for the slope stability and erosion
control improvement purpose on the Radiowo landfill, there
were also bio-engineering techniques applied with additional
use of geosythetics. Due to the usability assessment of the
compost, from organic waste as an enhancing material for the
grass carpets, an experimental plot was established within the
compostory plant area (Koda, 2012). A composite (grass carpet)
consisting of three elements was constructed: reinforcing
material, substrate and grass seeds mixture was prepared. As a
reinforcing material the geotextile (G) and geogrid (Gs) was
used. A reinforcing material task was to connect particular
elements of the carpet, improving the shear strength and
hydraulics conditions, and also an increase of erosion control on
landfill slopes. A porous structure of geotextile and geogrid
enhances establishment of the root zone deeper into the surface.
During the selection of reinforcing material the mechanical
properties and the stock was considered. The polypropylene
materials guarantee long term durability and resistance to
aggressive environmental conditions. A seeding suspension
consisted of a mixture of three types of grass seeds: lawn type
(MT), pasture type (MP) and gazon type grass seeds (G). A
substrate consisted of sand and compost mixture in three
different volumetric proportions: 1P/1K- 1:1 (1 measure of sand
+ 1 measure of compost), 1P/2K- 1:2 (1 measure of sand + 2
measures of compost), and K- pure substrate (100% compost).
The scheme of experimental plot is presented in Figure 2.
Additionally an application of already described fly-ash and
sewage sludge suspension on such slopes to accelerate the
establishment of a green cover was also provided. The grass
carpets were introduced in order to maintain the observation and
to conduct further research on how does such solution influence
conditions of slopes. The assessment of the effectiveness of bioengineering activity on landfill slopes were undertaken after 1,
2, 6, and 10 years of the experiment duration. The result of the
observation confirms the reinforcing purpose of the method, as
even after 10 years of grass carpets establishment the slopes are
evenly covered with plants, while on the slopes where only
traditional method of planting was applied, the slope conditions
are significantly worse. Additionally, the numerical analyses
involving the influence of reinforcing layer also proved the
correctness of applied method on slope of section I-I marked on
Figure 1 where location map is provided. For the results please
refer to Table 3.
Material
non-composted
waste
non-composted
waste + sand
old municipal
waste
[kN/m3]
[]
11.0
20
12.0
25
14.0
26
c
[kPa]
Method
failure tests,
CPT, WST
failure tests,
23
CPT, WST
back-analysis
20
CPT, WST
25
2527
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
(W
) T cos
(c cv )l (W Wv ) cos (U
(U 2D
U v)W
l v )sin
Uw2cos(
v) (U 1 U 1v ) sin Dw sin ( ) T sin tan
F
(W Wv ) sin Dw cos( ) T cos
(1)
(1)
1.32
1.32
Figure
includingthe
theinfluence
influenceofofvegetation
vegetationcover
cover
(cross-section
III-III
please
refer
to Figure
Figure3.3.Numerical
Numericalanalysis
analysis of
of slope
slope stability
stability including
(cross-section
III-III
please
refer
to Figure
1). 1).
where
with vv mean
mean changes
changes
where all
all the
the parameters
parameters indexed
indexed with
according
suchparameters
parameters
accordingtotovegetation
vegetation influence.
influence. Additionally
Additionally such
like
strength) are
arealso
alsoincluded
included
likeDDww(wind
(windforce),
force), TT (tensile
(tensile rooth
rooth strength)
ininthe
basically developed
developedtotoassess
assess
theequation.
equation.This
This method
method was
was basically
the
soil reinforcement
reinforcement by
by
thestability
stability of
of slope
slope according
according to the soil
anchors
effects. By
By using
using the
the
anchors oror geotextiles,
geotextiles, or
or vegetation effects.
Slip4Exspreadsheet
spreadsheet (Greenwood
(Greenwood 2006), itit is
Slip4Ex
is possible
possible totoassess
assess
howthe
thedistribution
distribution and
and type
type of vegetation
vegetation can
how
can influences
influencesthe
the
FactorofofSafety.
Safety. After
After full
full establishment
establishment and
Factor
and grow
growof
ofproposed
proposed
plantsthe
thenumerical
numerical analyses
analyses of
of slope
slope stability
plants
stability were
wereconducted.
conducted.
distribution of
of high
high vegetation
vegetation cover
AA distribution
cover on
on analysed
analysed slope
slope
(cross-sectionIII-III)
III-III)isis presented
presented in
in Figure
Figure 3.
(cross-section
3.
Firstly the
the numerical
numerical analyses
analyses were
Firstly
were conducted
conducted for
for bare
bare
slopes.
The
computations
were
based
on
Bishop
method
slopes. The computations were based on Bishop methodwhich
which
wasemployed
employed during
during analyses
analyses performed
performed in
was
in GeoStudio2007
GeoStudio2007
software.
The
second
step
was
to
determine
software. The second step was to determine factor
factor ofof safety
safety
influenced by plants.
influenced
by plants.
The results obtained proved that the factor of safety for the
The results obtained proved that the factor of safety for the
slopes covered with plant was improved as much as 20%. The
slopes
covered with plant was improved as much as 20%. The
initial results of numerical modeling for bare slopes has
initial
results
of numerical
for term
bare monitoring
slopes has
presented
unstable
condition, modeling
however long
presented
unstable
long The
termonly
monitoring
proved that
no singscondition,
of failure however
were noticed.
reliable
proved
that no
of failure
noticed.ofThe
reliable
explanation
forsings
such state
could were
be a presence
wellonly
developed
explanation
stateThe
could
be a presence
of well
developed
vegetation for
on such
slopes.
example
of results
of numerical
vegetation
on slope
slopes.
The example
of results
of slopes
numerical
analyses for
stability
for bare and
vegetated
is
analyses
slope 3.stability for bare and vegetated slopes is
presentedfor
in Table
presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Comparison of numerical analyses of factor of safety for bare
and vegetated
slopes of numerical analyses of factor of safety for bare
Table
3. Comparison
and vegetated slopes
Factor of safety
Factor of Vegetated
safety
Cross Section
Bare slope
slope
Cross Section
Bishop
method
Greenwood
Bare slope
Vegetatedmethod
slope
I-I
1.30 Greenwood method
1.38
Bishop method
1.35
1.42
I-III-II
1.30
1.38
III-III
1.15
1.32
II-II
1.35
1.42
III-III
1.15
1.32
5 CONCLUSIONS
5
CONCLUSIONS
The instability of slopes is one of the most significant problem
concerning
reclamation
of landfill
sites. Theproblem
partial
The instability
of slopes processes
is one of the
most significant
solution forreclamation
this issue processes
is presented
in the paper.
Therepartial
are
concerning
of landfill
sites. The
availableformethods,
which
relatively
efficient,
solution
this issue
is are
presented
in simple,
the paper.
Thereand
are
available methods, which are relatively simple, efficient, and
cost effective. The use of fly ash and sewage sludge for the
reclamation of the surface of landfill is an alternative.. It also
solves the problem of the ash storage which, from the
economical and environmental point of view, is very positive.
4
The reinforcement
doessewage
not require
heavy
cost effective.
The use ofofflyslope
ash and
sludge only
for the
engineeringofmethods,
basic
solutionis as
proper selection
reclamation
the surface
of landfill
an aalternative..
It also and
implementation
of plants
always
worthwhich,
consideration.
solves
the problem
of theis ash
storage
from theIt is
definitely and
costenvironmental
effective, environment
friendly
reasonable
economical
point of view,
is veryand
positive.
technique
acceleratingoflandfill
works.only
Furthermore,
The reinforcement
slope reclamation
does not require
heavy
other wastemethods,
material basic
like compost
be a great
substitute
engineering
solution could
as a proper
selection
and of
implementation
plants isreclamation
always worth
consideration.
It is The
humus for theofsurface
layer
establishment.
definitely
and reasonable
compost cost
couldeffective,
be used environment
for reinforcedfriendly
grass carpets
production,
technique
accelerating
landfill reclamation
Furthermore,
which positively
influences
the erosionworks.
control
on slopes, a
other
waste
material
like compostprocesses
could be of
a great
factor
which
often determines
slopesubstitute
failure. of
humus for the surface reclamation layer establishment. The
compost
could be used for reinforced grass carpets production,
6
REFERENCES
which positively influences the erosion control on slopes, a
CEN/BT
2009. Earthworks.
Final
Feb. 2009.
factor
whichWG2003
often determines
processes of
slopereport
failure.
Clark L.J., Whalley1 W.R, and Barraclough P.B. 2003. How do
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Coppin, N. J., and Richards, I. G. 1990. Use of vegetation in
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Greenwood,
J.R. 2006.
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A P.B.
Program
Clark
L.J., Whalley1
W.R, and
Barraclough
2003. for
HowRoutine
do
Slope
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Effects of
roots
penetrate
strongAnalysis
soil? PlanttoandInclude
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Richards, I. G. 1990.
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Butterworths,
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M. 2010.
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Koda slope
E. 2011.
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GeoCongress
- State
Scien.,
Land
Reclam. No.2012,
43 (1),
1-12.of the Art and Practice in
ASCE
GSPUse
No of
225,
3873-and
3890.
Koda Geotechnical
E., Osiski P.,Engineering.
and Gaewski
M. 2012.
fly-ash
Norris,
J.E.sludge
and Greenwood,
J.R.control
2003 Root
reinforcement
sewage
for the erosion
on sanitary
landfill on
unstable
slopes in Northern
Greece
Italy. in
Inter.
slopes.
GeoCongress
2012, - State
of theand
ArtCentral
and Practice
Conf. on Problematic
Soils,
Nottingham,
414-418.
Geotechnical
Engineering.
ASCE
GSP No 225,
3873- 3890.
Norris, J.E. and Greenwood, J.R. 2003 Root reinforcement on
unstable slopes in Northern Greece and Central Italy. Inter.
Conf. on Problematic Soils, Nottingham, 414-418.
2528
Hong S.J.
introdUction
(1)
where, s = ln(de/dw)+(kh/ks-1)ln(ds/dw)+z(2l-z)(kh/qw)-0.75,
th is a time factor (= cht/de2), ch is the coefficient of horizontal
consolidation in the field, de is the circular diameter influenced
by the drain, dw is the drain diameter, kh is the coefficient of
horizontal permeability in the undisturbed zone, ks is the
coefficient of horizontal permeability in the disturbed zone, ds is
the disturbed zone diameter, l is the drainage path length, and
qw is the drain discharge capacity.
hansbos analysis is based on the horizontal flow
characteristics of the undisturbed zone (kh or ch) to evaluate the
radial consolidation. however, it is difficult to obtain due to the
anisotropy of permeability and difference between laboratory
and field measurement values (Bergardo et al. 1991, chai and
miura 1999).
the consolidation characteristics of the disturbed zone are
homogeneous and isotropic due to the disturbance (lo 1991).
to analyze the radial consolidation based on the consolidation
characteristics of disturbed zone, hansbos solution is modified
in this study. since hansbos solution assumes an equal vertical
strain, the ratio of horizontal permeability between the
undisturbed and disturbed zones (kh/ks).
2529
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
layer 1
U
el
kh/ks=1
kh/ks=2
layer 2
1.81
r
2.22
kh/ks=20
r
1.35
e0
1.65
1.32
1.95
1.46
0.94
0.78
cc
0.84
0.46
1.04
0.57
0.57
0.34
4.8
22.0
5.0
cv
7.1
3.8
13.0
(10-4 cm2/sec)
note. U: undisturbed clay, r: remolded clay
kh/ks=5
kh/ks=10
layer 3
U
2
40
60
0
kh/ks=1
kh/ks=2
kh/ks=5
kh/ks=10
kh/ks=20
(2)
where, s = ln(ds/dw)+[ln(de/ds)+z(2l-z)(kh/qw)-0.75]/(kh/ks),
ths is a time factor based on chs.
the permeability reduction in the disturbed zone, frequently
represented as kh/ks, is important factor for the vertical drainenhanced consolidation. the effect of kh/ks on the analysis
results is investigated both hansbos solution and modified
solution. figure 1 shows the effect of kh/ks on U r Th and
U 'r Ths curves. other factors are maintained as a constant
value (de/dw=25, ds/dw=5), and well resistance is ignored.
as shown in figure 1(a), the rate of consolidation by
hansbos method is continuously retarded with increasing in
kh/ks. however, the consolidation rate by proposed method
(figure 1(b)) is slightly speeded up and finally converged with
increasing in kh/ks, because the rate of vertical drain-enhanced
consolidation is governed by the permeability of disturbed zone
(Basu and prezzi 2007).
3
2530
in this study, the clay layers of Busan new-port are divided into
3 layers for the consolidation analysis based on the soil
properties. the consolidation tests were carried out for 50
samples for the natural clay and 3 samples for the remolded clay
to figure out the consolidation characteristics of clay layers.
table 1 shows the void ratio, compression index (cc) and
coefficient of consolidation (cv) representing the each clay
layer.
3.3
(3)
V rs 2 H e /(1 e0 )
V [(r f
Case a (4)
2531
analytical condition
hansbos method
proposed method
no disturbance, ch = cv
no disturbance, ch = cv
ch = cv in disturbed zone,
ch = 2cv in undisturbed zone
no disturbance, ch = chs
ch = cv in undisturbed zone,
kh/ks = 2.5
ch = cv in undisturbed zone,
kh/ks = 5.0
ch = cv in undisturbed zone,
kh/ks = 10.0
Consolidation analysis
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
figure 5. measured and predicted settlement rate for the layer above el
-30m: (a) hansbos method, (b) proposed method with case a, (c)
proposed method with case b
conclUsion
2532
references
Basu d., Basu p., and prezzi m. 2006. analytical solutions for
consolidation aided by vertical drains. Geomechanics and
Geoengineering: An International Journal 1(1), 63-71.
Basu d. and prezzi m. 2007. effect of the smear and transition zones
around prefabricated vertical drains installed in a triangular pattern
on the rate of soil consolidation. Journal of Geomechanics 7(1), 3443.
Bergado d.t., asakami h., alfaro m.c., and Balasubramaniam a.s.
1991. smear effects of vertical drains on soft Bangkok clay.
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering 117(10), 1509-1530.
Burland J.G. 1990. on compressibility and shear strength of natural
clay. Geotechnique 40(3), 329-378.
carillo n. 1942. simple two and three dimensional cases in the theory
of consolidation of soils. Journal of Mathematics and Physics
21(1), 11-18.
chai J.c. and miura n. 1999. investigation of factors affecting vertical
drain behavior. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering 125(3), 216-226.
hansbo s. 1981. consolidation of fine-grained soils by prefabricated
drains. Proceedings of 10th International Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, stockholm,sweden,
Vol.3, 677-682.
hird c.c. and moseley V.J. 2000. model study of seepage in smear
zones around vertical drains in layered soil. Geotechnique 50(1),
89-97.
holtz r.d., Jamiolkowski m.B., lancellotta r., and pedroni s. 1987.
Performance of prefabricated band-shaped drains. construction
industry research and information association (ciria) report,
research project 364.
hong s.J. 2011. Evaluation of geotechnical properties of Busan
Newport clay, doctoral thesis, Korea University.
indraratna B. and redana i.W. 1998. laboratory determination of smear
zone due to vertical drain installation. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering 124(2), 180-184.
lo d.o.K. 1991. Soil improvement by vertical drains, doctoral thesis,
University of illinois at Urbana-champaign.
onoue a. 1988. consolidation by vertical drains taking well resistance
and smear into consideration. Soils and Foundation 28(4), 165-174.
onoue a., ting n.h., Germaine, J.t., and Whitman, r.V. 1991.
permeability of disturbed zone around vertical drains. Proceedings
of 1991 ASCE Geotechnical Engineering Congress, Boulder,
colorado, Vol. 2, 879-890.
sathananthan i. and indraratna B. 2006. laboratory evaluation of smear
zone and correlation between permeability and moisture content.
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering
132(7), 942-945.
sharma J.s. and Xiao d. 2000. characterization of a smear zone around
vertical drains by large-scale laboratory tests. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal 37(6),1265-1271.
shin d.h., lee c., lee J.s., and lee W. 2009. detection of smear zone
using micro-cone and electrical resistance probe. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal 46(6),719-726.
tavenas f., Jean p., leblond p., and leroueil s. 1983. the permeability
of natural soft clays. part ii: permeability characteristics. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal 20(4), 645-660.
Zeng G.X. and Xie K.h. 1989. new development of the vertical drain
theories. Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
Vol.2, 1435-1438.
Rydn N.
aBstract: in lund a new next-generation synchrotron radiation facility are under construction, maX iV. this facility requires
extraordinary techniques for the earthworks at site. the vibration requirements are very stringent compared to traditional earthwork
standard. the tolerance is 26 nm (1 s rms above 5 hz) and this requires a very good damping from external and internal vibrations.
different solutions were discussed and simulated during the design phase and the best performance was achieved with a four meter
thick layer of stabilised soil below the concrete foundation. the soil consists of clay till with high clay content. during the design
phase many different binder combinations were tested to meet the design criteria regarding seismic modulus. in order to achieve a
monolith the binders setting time was critical since the soil is stabilised in 0.35 meter layers were the next layer are mixed into the
layer below. the binder to best meet both design and construction requirements were a combination of quicklime and ground
granulated blast furnace slag (GGBfs).
rsUm : Un nouveau centre de rayonnement synchrotron de dernire gnration, maX iV, est en cours de construction lund. ce
centre ncessite des techniques exceptionnelles pour les travaux de terrassement sur le chantier. les exigences de vibrations sont trs
strictes par rapport la norme de terrassement traditionnel. la tolrance est de 26 nm (valeur efficace 1 s rms au-dessus de 5 hz), ce
qui ncessite un trs bon amortissement des vibrations internes et externes. des solutions diffrentes ont t discutes et simules au
cours de la phase de conception et la meilleure performance a t ralise avec une couche paisse de quatre mtres de sol stabilis en
dessous de la fondation en bton. le sol se compose de till argileux forte teneur en argile. au cours de la phase de conception, de
nombreuses combinaisons de liants diffrents ont t testes pour rpondre aux critres de conception concernant le module sismique.
en raison de la ralisation d'un monolithe, le temps de durcissememt tait critique puisque le sol est stabilis en couches de 0,35 mtre
dont la couche suivante est mlange dans la couche de dessous. le liant qui rpondait le mieux aux exigences la fois de conception
et de construction tait une combinaison de chaux vive et de laitier granul de haut fourneau (slGhf).
KeYWords:soil stabilisation, sesmic testing, vibration, p-wave.
1
introdUction
Geotechnical testing
2533
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
2200
Sample 1
Sample 2
Limit
800
2000
1800
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
600
1600
PS 6
PS 5
1400
800
PS 6
PS 5
PS 6
PS 5
PSPS
11
PS 2
PSPS
22
PS 1
1200
1000
PS 6
PS 6 PS 5
PS 5
PS 6
PS 5
PS 1
PS 6
PS 5
PS 6
PS 5
PS 6 PS 1
PSPS
15
PS 6
PS 5
PS 2
PS 2
PS 9
PS 9
PS 11
PS 9 PS 11
600 PS 1 PS 9
PS 11
11
PSPS
2 PS
9
PS 11
PS 9
PS 9
PS 9
PS 11
PS 9
PS 9
PS 9
PS 11
PS 11 PS 11
PS 9
PS 9PS 9
PS 9PS 9
PS 9
PS 11
PS 11
PS 11
PS 11
PS 11
PS 11
PS 11
PS 11
400 PS 9
PS 11
200
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
in-sitU measUrements
figure 4.a result from seismic in-situ measurement along the surface of
the stabilised layer is presented in the figure. the top layer has almost
reached a surface wave velocity (~0.92Vs) of 800 m/s at the time for
measurement. the target shear wave velocity after curing is 900 m/s.
2534
conclUsions
soil stabilisation with binders increases the stiffness (emodulus) of the soil and thereby changes the resonance
frecuency of the soil. in this project the soilstabilisation has
been a key issue to meet the requrements regarding vibrationsin
a cost effective way.it has been proven that it is possible to
achieve a homogenius stabilised monolitic ring with a
circumference on 528 meters and a depth of 4 meters.
the homogenity of the stabilised material is a result of an
extensive testing program in both laboratory and full scale. the
binders working period has also been an important issue to
ensure a crac-proof construkton.
it has also been shown that seismic testing works very well
for both laboratory and in-situ testing of stabilised soils.
acKnoWledGements
aB
for
the
references
2535
Lim S.K.
Lam J.P.W.
INTRODUCTION
A containment bund consisting of modified geotextile tubes (MGT) filled with cement mixed soil has been constructed for a
major port development project in Singapore. This containment
bund forms part of the Pasir Panjang Terminal Phase 3 & 4
Expansion Project, which is located at the Southern part of
Singapore water (Figure 1). During the project construction
phase, this bund serves as a retaining structure to retain dredged
materials and at the same time contains any sediment plumes
arises from construction activities from being transported
towards the nearby forest reserve area by currents. This
containment bund, termed as a geotextile containment bund, is
being constructed by systematically stacking of modified
geotextile tubes (M-GT) and filling of cement mixed dredged
soil. A typical cross section of the geotextile containment bund
is shown in Figure 2.
A geotextile tube is a tubular container (diameter 1m to
10m) that is formed in-situ, on land or in water, by hydraulically
filling the tube with sand or dredged material (Pilarcyzk, 2000)
and Lawson, 2006). On the other hand, geotextile container is
made of geotextile sheet laid onto a split-bottom barge, filled
mechanically with sand or other fill material, and sewn the top
opening to form into a closed container. The barge will then
move to the desired position, and the bottom of the barge will
open allowing the containers to sink into the sea at the intended
location. The volume of these containers can range from 100m3
to 800m3.
2537
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
d)
b)
e)
c)
In the design of this bund, there are a few stability criteria that
have to be fulfilled: Stability against hydraulic force of waves
and current, local stability against sliding failure, local stability
against slip failure, settlement and deformation. The tensile
strength of the geotextile material is one of the major design
parameters. This is because the installation of the tubes at water
depth of 25m is deemed to be extreme in the field installation
of geotextile tubes and containers.
The installation process of the M-GT consists of five (5)
main phases, namely:1) Filling of the M-GT The dredged material mixed with
cement, known as cement mixed soil, is being pumped into the
modified geotextile tube via the inlet ports that are available at
the top face of the M-GTs.
2) Opening of split-hopper barge the bottom of the splithopper barge opens slowly to allow the exit of the filled M-GTs
through its opening. High tension in geotextile is expected to be
experienced at this stage.
2538
2539
Settlement(mm)
Elevation
Extensometer
Extensometer
(Center)
(Side)
Settlement
plate
Top
11
3.0CD
24
6.0CD
26
40
9.0CD
25
29
12.0CD
17
23
15.0CD
18
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
(b)
(a)
Figure 8 Lateral deformations measured from inclinometer at: (a) top of the bund. (b) side of the bund
CONCLUSION
2540
REFERENCES
Chew, S.H., Tan, C.Y., Loh, C.K., Lim, S.K., Lam, J.P.W. 2011. Design
and Construction of Containment Bund using Geotextile Tubes in
Singapore. The 14th Asian Regional Conference on Soil Mechanics
and Geotechnical Engineering, Hong Kong
Chew, S.H., Tan, C.Y., and Tan, H.W.A. 2010. Application of
Geotextile Containment System in Coastal, Beach and River
Restoration Projects. The 1st International GSI-Asia Geosynthetics
Conference, Taiwan.
Lawson, C. 2006. Geotextile containment for hydraulic and
environmental engineering. The 8th International Conference on
Geosynthetics, Yokohama, Japan.
Pilarczyk, K.W 2000. Geosynthetics and Geosystems in Hydraulic and
Coastal Engineering. Balkema, Rotterdam.
INTRODUCTION
Materials tested
2541
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
kaolinite and feldspar (Yan and Li, 2012). The grain size
distribution (shown in figure 1) reflects that the soil has 16%
particles finer than 63. The specific gravity of the soil was
found to be 2.65. From Standard Proctor compaction tests, the
maximum dry density of the soil was determined as 1.93Mg/m3
with an optimum moisture content of 12.3%. Tests on particles
finer than 425 indicated the plastic and liquid limits to be
25.6% and 35.6% respectively. Using the Unified Soil
Classification System (USCS) the soil can be classified as
clayey sand of low plasticity (SC-CL).
The fibres used are short filaments made of polypropylene
similar to those used by Silva dos Santos et al. (2010). They are
chemically inert and have uniform characteristics, with a
relative density of 0.91, a tensile resistance of 120MPa, an
elastic modulus of 3GPa and a range of linear deformation at
rupture between 80% and 170%. The dimensions of the fibres
used in the tests were 0.023mm in diameter and 24mm long
(Silva dos Santos et al., 2010). After performing a series of
unconfined compression tests on CDG reinforced with a range
of fibre contents (0.3 1%), it was decided to continue the
study with 0.3% of fibre per weight in the triaxial tests.
3
3.1
TEST RESULTS
Unconfined compressive strength
3.2
2542
Triaxial shearing
pc'(kPa)
112.0
210.4
499.6
98.9
202.9
499.4
OCR
5
1
1
5
1
1
(a)
(b)
Figure 3. Stress-strain-volumetric response of CDG and fibrereinforced CDG sheared at different effective confining stresses.
2543
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
REFERENCES
Figure 5. Critical states and end of test points for CDG and
fibre-reinforced CDG in q-p' plane.
4
CONCLUDING REMARKS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
2544
Hybrid Application of Deep Mixing Columns Combined with Walls as a Soft Ground
Improvement Method Under Embankments
Application hybride de la mthode de Deep Mixing sur des colonnes combines des murs en
tant que mthode damlioration des sols mous sous remblais
Matsui H., Ishii H., Horikoshi K.
ABSTRACT: In this paper, we introduce theconcepts and general functions of a hybrid application of deep mixing columns combined
with walls. This newmethod for improving the soft ground under embankments helps control ground deformation. We brieflydescribe
a case in which the method was applied under an embankment 7m in height. The method effectively restricted the induced
deformation of the ground surface to a target level, not only under the embankment but also adjacent to the embankment toes. Twodimensional finite element analysis was adopted to the case and foundeffective for simulating the performance. Also proposed is a
design flow for the new methodto efficiently determine the best arrangement of deep mixing columns and walls. Numerical
parametric studies were carried out to compare the new method with conventional methods.
RSUM : Dans cet article, nous prsentons les concepts et les fonctions gnrales de lapplication hybride de mthode de Deep
Mixing sur des colonnes combines des murs. Cette nouvelle mthode damlioration de sols mous sous remblais aide contrler
la dformation du terrain. Nous dcrivons brivement un cas dans lequel la mthode a t applique sous un remblai dune hauteur de
7 m. La mthode a permis de limiter efficacement la dformation induite de la surface du sol un niveau cible, non seulement sous le
remblai, mais aussi dans les zones adjacentes aux pieds de talus. Une analyse par lments finis en deux dimensions a t applique
ce cas et sest avre efficace pour simuler les performances. Une mthode doptimisation est galement propose en vue de
dterminer de manire efficiente la meilleure disposition des colonnes et des murs. Des tudes paramtriques numriques ont t
menes pour comparer la nouvelle mthode avec les mthodes classiques.
KEYWORDS:soft ground improvement method, finite element analysis, deep mixing method
12.0m
1:1.8
Ac1- 2
As2
Dvc
5.2m
Inside piles
Ac2- 3
Walls
Dvs
9.8m
39.2m
Ac2- 2
36.2m
1.9m
37.2m
Section view
6.7m 4.5m
7.0m
Deep mixing methods have been widely used in Japan for the
foundation systems of embankments constructed on soft clayey
ground, and various low improvement ratio arrangements have
been proposed (Miki and Nozu 2004, Ishikura et al. 2009, Miki
et al. 2011). Typical of recent applications is to achieve limited
soil improvement around 10-20%through an arrangement
of soil improvement columns. This reduces the volume of soil
that must be improved and limits the ground settlement under
the embankments. Moreover, embankment construction in
urban areas requires strict control of ground deformation,
especially in the areas adjacent to the embankment toes.
The authors propose a new hybrid application of deep
mixing columns combined with walls (Tsutsumi et al. 2009) as
a method of improving the soft ground under embankments to
control ground deformation. In this paper, the concepts and
general functions of the method are introduced. The paper then
describes a case in which the method was applied under a tall
embankment 7 m in height. Two-dimensional finite element
analysis was adopted to simulate the performance. Also
proposed is a design flow for the new method that efficiently
determines the best arrangement of deep mixing columns and
walls. Finally, numerical parametric studies were carried out to
compare the new method with conventional methods.
10.0m
INTRODUCTION
21.2m
Outside piles
16.48m
2.6m 1.76m
3.0m 3.0m
Plain view
2.5m
2.5m
1.76m 2.6m
3.0m 3.0m
2.81@8=22.48m
37.2m
2545
Heightof
embankment (m)
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Out l i ne of embankment
Settlementof
embankment(mm)
I nsi de pi l es
Out si de pi l es
Wal l s
8
6
4
500
1500
3.2
Notreatment
2546
1000
Settlementafterconstruction
ofembankment(mm)
100
Walls
200
300
Improvement
400
Notreatment
500
0
10
20
30
40
50
Distancefromcenterlineofembankment(m)
60
3000
300
800
Limitvalue 20mm
10m
Embankment
7000
400
600
Elapsed days(day)
100
18600
6000
12600
4@2810 2600 3000
1:1 1760
.8
Steelwire
Hsteel
Geotextile
Ac12
Outsidepiles
21200
Work outline
Result of construction
200
TRIAL EMBANKMENT
Startingdateof
service
2000
GL1.90m
GL4.50m
As2
GL11.20m
Insidepiles
39200
3.1
Improvement
1000
Starting dateof
service
Improvement
0
0
Notreatment
Ac22
GL21.20m
Walls
Ac23
GL31.00m
Dvc
GL36.20m
Dvs
GL41.60m
Back-analysis
=H/quck
(1)
Settlementof
Embankment (mm)
6
4
2
0
0
50
100
Measurement
150
200
250
Analysis
300
100
200
300
400
500
Elapseddays(day)
600
700
Embankment
Limit value
20mm
10m
100
Walls
Measurement
Analysis
200
0
10
20
30
40
50
Distancefromcenterlineofembankment(m)
60
Verticalstrainofwalls after
constructionofembankment()
500
0
500 1000 1500
(b)
10
Depth(m)
Settlement afterconstruction
ofembankment(mm)
Heightof
Embankment (m)
Effective
Coefficient
Unit Effective
Critical
Deformation Initial Consolidation
Compression Expansion
angle of
Poissons
of
weight cohesion
void
yield stress
state
modulus
friction
permeability
index
index
ratio
t
c'
ratio
pc
parameter
E
'
k
e0
M
(kN/m2)
(kN/m3) (kN/m2)
(kN/m2)
(deg.)
(cm/sec)
Embankment 19.0
10.0
35.0
28,000
0.25
1.0010-3
Ac1-2
14.6
10.0
36.4
1,720 2.13
36.8
0.289
0.029
1.48
0.35
1.3010-6
As2
18.7
28,000
0.25
1.0010-3
Ac2-2
14.3
10.0
36.2
6,380 2.53
146.1
0.665
0.067
1.47
0.35
3.0010-7
Ac2-3
15.1
10.0
33.0
7,130 2.00
178.5
0.408
0.041
1.33
0.35
2.3010-7
Dvc
15.8
10.0
33.0
6,510 1.21
215.7
0.149
0.015
1.33
0.35
1.4010-9
Dvs
19.0
70,000
0.35
1.0010-3
1.4010-9
367,000
0.20
Columns
19.0
1.0010-3*2
718,000*1
*1 The deformation modulus of thedeep mixing columns was derived from quality verification tests, which reduced dependence on the improvement
ratio.
*2 The coefficients of permeability of the deep mixing columns are same as those for each layer.
Measurement
20
Analysis
Analysis
Measurement
30
40
2547
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Optimumarrangement
Floating
1000
Result forSaga(Example)
ResultforKumamoto
:Optimumarrangement
200
150
Walls reached
bearinglayer
100
(a)
Settlementofembankment(mm)
250
Allcolumnsreached
bearinglayer
600
Newtechnique
400
200
0
100
200
300
400
500
Improvementvolumeperonemeterinalongitudinaldirection(m3/m)
100
0
Limitvalue
Settlementofapoint10maway
fromembankmenttoes(mm)
Confinedrange
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Improvementvolumeperonemeterinalongitudinaldirection(m3/m)
Equallyarrenged
inlowratio
50
Arrangement
underslopes
800
CONCLUSIONS
(b)
80
Equallyarrenged
inlowratio
Arrangement
underslopes
60
40
20
Newtechnique
Limitvalue
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
Improvementvolumeperonemeterinalongitudinaldirection(m3/m)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
2548
Oteo C.
aBstract: this paper presents a case history of the application of wet deep soil mixing columns for underpinning of the existing
floor slab of an industrial building, which settled due to different encountered post-constructive pathologies related to ground
conditions. the soil-cement columns were constructed with the application of the new developed springsol tool that permits the
underpinning of existing foundations, infrastructure transport platforms and embankments, as well as working in limited spaces and
under low headroom conditions. the quality control regarding laboratory testing of core and wet grab samples is reported. design
procedure and the finite element analysis that verify settlement calculations are described. the fem is focused on the axisymmetric
numerical modeling in plaxis.
rsUm : cet article prsente une tude de cas de ralisation de colonnes de soil mixing par voie humide pour la reprise en sous
uvre du dallage dun btiment industriel, ayant tass aprs sa construction cause de pathologies du sol. les colonnes de sol-ciment
ont t ralises avec la mthode springsol, qui permet la reprise en sous oeuvre de fondations existantes, dinfrastructures de
transports et de remblais, partir demprises troites et sous faible gabarit. les contrles le qualit raliss en laboratoire sur des
prouvettes carottes et sur des prlvements frais y sont prsents. le mode de dimensionnement ainsi que les analyses par lments
finis pour estimer les tassements sont galement dcrits. les calculs ef ont t raliss avec le code plaxis en axi-symtriei.
KeYWords: deep mixing, soil-cement columns, springsol, underpinning, fem.
1
introdUction
figure 1. the springsol spreadable tool: (a) original and (b) modified.
2549
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
0.6-1.2
15-50
min 350
ii (kg/m3)
150-350
Ucs (mpa)
e50
shear strength
Bending strength
see Figure 3
400-700
im (rev/m)
0.5-6.0
(50-500) Ucs
20-40% Ucs
8-15% Ucs
Coring 62 mm
2550
Slab
LTL
CU
CM
NSC
thickness
(m)
0.2
4.06.5
1.5
>4.5
density
(kn/m2)
22
16
17
18
20
500
10
20
500
40
18
20
22
35
300
2.5
5.0
50
300
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.2
cohesion
(kpa)
friction
angle ()
Youngs
modulus (mpa)
poisson ratio
5.2
SC
Results
figure 6 present the employed mesh in the fem model, and the
results regarding vertical displacements and axial stresses for
the case of the grid spacing of 1.50 m corresponding to the
surcharge of 20 kn/m2.
Req
LTL
5-8
mm
CU
figure 4. drilled core samples of soil-cement columns.
5
5.1
SC
nUmerical model
2-5
mm
NSC
0-2
mm
4.5m
(1)
where: req is the radius of the unit cell and s is the grid
spacing.
in this project different square grid patterns (grid spacing
varying from 1.50 to 2.00 m) depending on the surcharge of the
slab (ranging from 10.00 to 20.00 kn/m2) are taken into
account.
in this study the commercial finite element code used for 2d
modelling is plaxis (version 8.6). Both the soft soil and the soilcement column behaviour are modelled by the elastic-plastic
mohr-coulomb failure criterion, while the slab is characterized
50-150
kN/m 2
1.5m
Req s
4.0m
6.5m max 7.85 mm
CM
General data
0-50
kN/m 2
150-200
kN/m 2
2551
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Settlements (cm)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1,5
1,6
1,7
1,8
1,9
EL
QP
W Q
E
set 1
SM
(2)
Efficiency (%)
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
1,5
1,6
1,7
1,8
1,9
2552
conclUsions
acKnoWledGements
the authors wish to thank to the personnel of Grupo rodioKronsa for their technical assistance, especially to Juan ignacio
lpez, Juan manuel dimas, francisco martn and esteban
casado. also, the collaboration and provision of all necessary
information by the proprietary of the industrial building is
highly appreciated.
8
(3)
S0
references
Moridzadeh M.
INTRODUCTION
LIME-SOIL INTERACTION
2553
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Untreated
110
Liquid Limit
Water Content, %
100
80
Lime Content, %
60
0
6.6
Plastic Limit
Untreated
20
100
Untreated
80
60
40
20
Plasticity Index
0
Figure 1.
pressure
10
20
30
40
50
BRENNA FORMATION
100
40
60
2554
the range of 100 to 450 kPa in the direct shear tests, there is a
minor increase in liquid limit (Fig. 1). The interpretation of this
significant observed behavior appears to be that when
aluminosilicates form in unconfined condition, they hydrate
fully, thus holding significant amount of water that contributes
to the high liquid limit. On the other hand when lime-clay
reaction products form under effective confining pressure, either
the resulting aluminosilicates do not hydrate much or they
experience irreversible dehydration through consolidation, thus
resulting in little change in the liquid limit. The implication of
this behavior, which is under more detailed examination, is
significant for both laboratory study of lime-soil interaction to
improve frictional resistance as well as field application of lime
to remediate reactivated landslides.
13
12
11
PH
The pulverized clay was mixed with dry hydrated lime, and was
thoroughly rehydrated using distilled water. Two halves of the
pre-cut specimen were formed by remolding or compaction and
separately consolidated inside the top and bottom halves of the
shear box using the procedure described by Mesri and CepedaDiaz (1986) and Mesri and Huvaj-Sarihan (2012). The
consolidation pressure ranged from 100 to 450 kPa, and shear
displacement rate was in the range of 3.3x10-4 to 5x10-4
mm/min.
Lime content as a percent of dry weight of clay ranged from
0 to 10%, and water content was in the range of 30 to 274%. In
a few direct shear tests, dry hydrated lime was sprinkled on the
exposed shear surface or on the top and bottom, of the direct
shear specimen to examine lime diffusion.
For one series of direct shear specimens with lime content
of 6.6%, liquid limit and plastic limit were determined at the end
of the test. These data are shown in Fig. 1. For another series
of lime-treated Brenna clay samples with lime content of 2, 5
and 9% and water content of 80, 100, 150 and 230%, pH and
Atterberg limits were measured as a function of time. These
samples were sealed; however, they were not subjected to
confining pressure. The pH measurements are shown in Fig. 2,
and the liquid limit and plastic limit at lime content of 5% and
water contents of 80 and 100% are shown in Fig. 3.
The data on residual friction angle and fully softened
friction angle from drained direct shear tests are summarized in
Table 1. All index tests and direct shear tests reported here were
performed at laboratory temperature of 20 2C.
10
9
8
Untreated
7
140
130
13
120
12
110
100
10
Lime Content, %
2
5
9
9
8
7
Untreated
80
100
Untreated
90
10
20
30
40
50
Curing Time, days
60
70
Liquid Limit
90
Water Content, %
PH
11
80
70
60
Plastic Limit
50
Untreated
40
30
50
Untreated
40
30
Lime Content, %
20
10
0
5
Plasticity Index
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
2555
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
0.0
0.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
8.0
10.0
Curing
(days)
0
0
7
11
28
54
1
11
7
120
40
56
3
8
14
26
26
0.4
180
15
24
17
-
14
-
20
29
34
20
18
20
36
17
18
21
18
-
9
9
11
11
11
11
15
13
12
13
15
13
11
16
-
7
6
7
9
8
9
11
10
12
12
13
13
11
16
-
Notes:
a- Lower Brenna was used for these specimens.
b- Lime was sprinkled on top and bottom of the sample to
investigate the treatment caused by lime diffusion.
c- Lime was sprinkled on the shear surface.
d- Lime-treated sample was stored for 120 days before being
placed in the shear box.
For the 27th Avenue slide in Grand Forks, North Dakota
(Mesri and Huvaj 2004), with entire slip surface in Brenna clay
at residual condition, 5% lime content treatment of fifty percent
of the slip surface increases computed factor of safety from 1.00
to the range of 1.26 to 1.37 (r = 7 to 8 increases to r = 12).
This level of lime remediation effort is expected to have a
significant effect on rate of movement of the slide.
A combination of horizontal directional drilling (HDD),
mechanical deep mixing (MDM) with augers and paddles, and
dry jet mixing (DJM), together with signal receivers at the
ground surface, is being investigated for introducing lime into
clay along a pre-existing slip surface. The longest crossing of
HDD to date has been 2000 m and borehole diameter of up to
160 mm.
6 CONCLUSIONS
Remediation of the montmorillonitic Brenna clay from North
Dakota using lime contents of 3 to 8% and treatment periods of
2 to 8 weeks increased drained fully softened friction angle by 3
to 10 and drained residual friction angle by 3 to 6, in the
2556
REFERENCES
Arndt B.M. 1977. Stratigraphy of offshore sediment Lake AgassizNorth Dakota, Report of Investigation No. 60. North Dakota
Geological Survey.
Baracos A. 1977.
Compositional and structural anisotropy of
Winnipeg soils a study based on scanning electron microscopy
and X-ray diffraction analysis. Can. Geotech. .J., 14 (1), 125-143.
Baver L.D. 1956. Soil Physics, 3rd edition. John Wiley & Sons,
London.
Bell F.G. 1996. Lime stabilization of clay minerals and soils.
Engineering Geology 42, 223-237.
Clare K.E. and Cruchley A.E. 1957. Laboratory experiments in the
stabilization of clays with hydrated lime. Gotechnique 7 (2), 97111.
Diamond S. and Kinter E.B. 1965. Mechanisms of soil-lime
stabilization: an interpretive review. Highway Research Record
92, 83-102.
Diamond A, White J.L. and Dolch W.L. 1964. Transformation of clay
minerals by calcium hydroxide attack. In: Bradley, W.F.(Ed.),
Proc. 12th Int. Conf. Clays and Clay Minerals. Pergamon Press,
New York, 359-379.
Eades J.L. and Grim R.E. 1960. Reaction of hydrate lime with pure
clay minerals in soil stabilization. Highway Research Record 262,
51-63.
Eades J.L., Nichols F.P. and Grim R.E. 1962. Formation of new
minerals with lime stabilization as proven by field experiments in
Virginia. Highway Research Board 335, 31,-39.
Goldberg I. and Klein A. 1952. Some effects of treating expansive
clays with calcium hydroxide. ASTM Special Publication 142,
Symp. on Exchange Phenomenon in Soils, 112-128.
Hunter D. 1988. Lime-induced heave in sulphate-bearing clay soils. J.
Geotech. Engrg. 1114 (2), 150-167.
Mesri G. and Cepeda-Diaz A.F. 1986. Residual shear strength of clays
and shales. Gotechnique 36 (2), 269-274.
Mesri G. and Huvaj N. 2004. Residual shear strength mobilized in Red
River slope failures. Proc. 9th Int. Symp. on Landslides, Brazil,
925-931.
Mesri G. and Huvaj-Sarihan N. 2012. Residual shear strength
measured by laboratory tests and mobilized in landslides. J.
Geotech. and Geoenviron. Engrg. 138 (5), 585-593.
Mesri G., Rokhsar A. and Bohor B.F. 1975. Composition and
compressibility of typical samples of Mexico City clay.
Gotechnique 25 (3), 527-554.
Mesri G. and Shahien M. 2003. Residual shear strength mobilized in
first-time slope failures. J. Geotech. and Geoenviron. Engrg. 129
(1), 12-31.
Quigley R.M. 1968. Soil mineralogy, Winnipeg swelling clays.
Can.Geotech. J., 5 (2), 120-122.
Richardson I.G., Brough A.R., Groves G.W. and Dobson C.M. 1994.
The characterization of hardened alkali-activated blast-furnace
slag pastes and the nature of the calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H)
phase. Cement Concrete Res. 24 (5), 813-829.
Terzaghi K., Peck R.B. and Mesri G. 1996. Soil Mechanics in
Engineering Practice, 3rd edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York,
549 p.
Verhasselt A. 1990. Lime-cement stabilization of wet cohesive soils.
Proc. 6th Int. Symp. on Concrete Roads, Madrid, 67-76.
Zolkov E. 1962. Influence of chlorides and hydroxides of calcium and
sodium on consistency limits of fat clay. Highway Research
Record 309, 109-115.
Kolev Ch.
aBstract: the geological profile of the ground for the construction of a hall of the stilmet plant in sofia includes soft saturated
soils. the improvement is developed of the natural ground by constructing a geosynthetic reinforced pad of crushed stone. to
determine the mechanical parameters of the improved soil ground, in situ tests have been performed and settlement/load relationships
and e modulus values have been obtained. a numerical model is made of the ground by the finite element method. the undrained
short term stability and the consolidation long term stress-strain process of the improved soil ground are investigated.
rsUm : le profil gologique du terrain dassise, prvu pour la construction dune halle de lusine stilmet sofia, contient des
sols peu solides, imbibs deau. on a effectu une amlioration du terrain dassise naturel par la mise en place dune semelle en
pierres concasses, arme de matriaux gosynthtiques. pour dfinir les paramtres mcaniques de la fondation consolide, on a
excut des essais in situ et lon a obtenu la relation affaissement-charge, ainsi que le module e. on a tabli un modle numrique
suivant la mthode des lments finis. la stabilit court terme (non drain) et lvolution des contraintes et dformations
(consolidation) des sols amliors sont tudis.
KeYWords: soft saturated soil, geosynthetics, reinforced foundation pad, fem
introdUction
(a)
(b)
Geotechnical considerations
2557
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
soil type
e
-
kn/m3
c'
kpa
'
deg
E
mpa
top soil
1,35
1,45
11,0
8,0
3,5
Black clay
1,30
1,62
15,0
5,0
3,5
Brown clay
0,95
1,86
32,5
7,0
8,5
silty clay
1,41
1,70
11,0
5,0
6,0
sandy clay
0,82
1,89
32,5
18,5
15,0
2558
E
mpa
Ee
mpa
10,0
33,0
25,7
60,0
the first geogrid layer and the second 50cm-thick stone layer
44,3
121,0
57,7
181,0
nUmerical analYses
( i layer )
( ii layer )
2559
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
6 references
mihov Y. and mihova l. 2012. finite element analysis of reinforced
foundation soil. proc. 2nd international scientific meeting, tuzla.
Kolev ch. and mihova l. 2012. project for improvement of a soft soil
under the foundation slab of a building in haskovo. (unpublished).
tenaX 3d Geogrid Xl, www.tenax.net.
2560
Deptt. of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Srinagar- 190006, Kashmir, India
Juneja A.
Deptt. of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai-400076, MH, India
ABSTRACT: Sand columns traditionally known as sand compaction piles-(SCPs) have been used to increase the load carrying
capacity of soft clays and accentuate consolidation during preloading. Installation of SCPs is known to cause disturbance due to
smear in a limited zone of the soil surrounding the SCP. In this study, conventional triaxial tests have been performed on 200mm
long and 100mm-diameter clay samples installed with SCP to simulate the strength behaviour of composite ground under different
confining pressures ranging from 50kpa to 575kpa. The SCPs were prepared using area replacement ratio of 6.25 to 64% and
compacted using pneumatic compactor. The smear zone was created by using a rough casing to drill the hole. The results seem to
suggest that the stress-strain behaviour of the clay was influenced by the presence of smear zone. The effect of smear zone on SCP
was investigated by observing the change in pore pressure during undrained shear strength of the composite ground. The natural
fabric of the soil was destroyed adjacent to the SCPs and the shear-induced pore pressures were less in composite specimens with
smear-effect. In addition, as the area replacement ratio was increased, both the stiffness and the strength of the specimen increased.
RSUM : Des colonnes de sable traditionnellement connues comme piles de compactage (SCPs) de sable ont t utilises pour
augmenter la capacit portante des argiles molles et accentuer la consolidation au cours du prchargement. Linstallation de MCS est
connue pour causer des perturbations dues au frottis dans une zone limite du sol entourant le SCP. Dans cette tude, les essais
triaxiaux conventionnels ont t raliss sur les chantillons dargile, de 100 mm de long et de 200 mm de diamtre, installs avec
SCP pour simuler le comportement de la rsistance du terrain composite sous diffrentes pressions de confinement allant de 50 kPa
575 kPa. Les MCS ont t prpars laide du coefficient de remplacement de 6,25 64 %, et compactes au pneumatique. La zone
de souillure a t cre en utilisant une enveloppe rugueuse pour percer le trou. Les rsultats donnent penser que le comportement de
contrainte-dformation de largile a t influence par la prsence de la zone de souillure. Leffet de zone de souillure sur SCP a t
examin en observant le changement de pression interstitielle au cours de la consolidation et de la rsistance au cisaillement du sol
composite. Le tissu naturel du sol a t dtruit adjacent la SCP et les pressions interstitielles induites par cisaillement taient
infrieures dans les chantillons composites avec un effet de maculage. En outre, lorsquon augmente le ratio de remplacement du
frottis, la rigidit et la rsistance de lchantillon augmentent.
KEYWORDS: Sand compaction pile, installation effects, smear, soft ground
MOTS-CLS : Sable tas de compactage, les effets de l'installation, les frottis, sol mou
1
INTRODUCTION
2561
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Soil
specimen
PVC casing
pushed into
the sample
Pneumatic
compactor
Plastic
limit (%)
23
Shrinkage
limit (%)
16
Gs
2.64
(1)
Soil sample
(Aboshi et al. 1979) that ranges between 6.25- and 64%. The
smear zone was created by using a rough casing painted with a
paste of coarse sand (d50 = 1.3mm) to drill the hole. Thickness
of the smear zone was taken equal to the thickness of the paste.
The effect of smear beyond this zone was ignored. After
preparing the sand column, the ends of the specimen were
covered with a thin circular rubber sheets having a central hole.
Diameter of the hole was slightly less than that of the sand
column so as to only permit radial drainage. Two deaired
porous stones were then placed at the two ends of the specimen
and the entire assembly mounted on the triaxial chamber.Table
1 shows properties of the clay used in this study. The ratio of
the diameter of sand column with smear zone to the diameter of
sand column without smear zone (ds/d) was about 1.1 to 1.2 in
all tests, which compares well with the values reported by the
previous researchers (e.g. Indraratna and Redana, 1998;
amongst others). The specimen was enclosed in a rubber
membrane and the chamber filled with water. The soil samples
were then isotropically consolidated under mean effective
stress, p' which varied between 50 and 575 kN/m2.
2562
S1
404
24.6
285
95
S1
404
24.6
285
146
S1
404
24.6
300
299
S1
264
29
187
95
S1
264
29
187
145
S1
264
29
300
289
S2
211
31.7
450
450
S2
211
31.7
200
197
S2
211
31.7
149
50
S2
211
35.7
450
434
S2
211
35.7
200
195
S2 211
35.7
149
49
S3
211
40
375
374
S3
211
40
575
575
S3
211
40
149
71
S3
211
45.2
575
572
S3
211
45.2
375
372
S3
211
45.2
149
68
S4
211
80
149
144
S4
211
80
149
142
*:
v =Vertical stress at end of 1D loading,
#:
ds = Equivalent diameter of sand column,
$:
po =Preconsolidation pressure,
**:
p = Mean effective stress at end of consolidation,
800
600
q (kN/m2)
3
2
1
2
1.3
1
1
1
3
1
1
3
1
1
2.1
1
1
2.2
1
1
500
300
100
0
10
15
20
25
q (kN/m2)
600
30
1.2
400
200
100
15
20
25
A-factor
0.4
S2:50kPa
S3:575kPa
S3:375kPa
S3:75kPa
10
15
20
30
30
900
CSL
Without smear
With smear
800
S1:100kPa
S1:150kPa
q (kN/m2)
700
Figure 3a-b Deviator stress versus axial strain relationship for: (a)
Samples without smear zone; and
(b) Samples with
smear zone.
600
500
400
was
S2:450kPa
S2:200kPa
S3:375kPa
S3:75kPa
S4:150kPa
100
0
S1:300kPa
S2:50kPa
S3:575kPa
300
200
q
taken equal to max , and the effect of stress history induced
2
su
ratio '
p
25
(b)
S1:150kPa
S1:300kPa
S2:450kPa
0.6
-0.2
expressed as:
S1:100kPa
S2:50kPa
S3:575kPa
S3:375kPa
S3:75kPa
S4:150kPa
300
(4)
Without smear
With smear
0.2
S1:300kPa
S2:450kPa
500
an empirical
(3)
0.8
700
10
With smear
Test
S1:100kPa
S2:150kPa
NC
(a)
800
p'
exponent equal to 1 , , are soil model parameters
obtained from triaxial testing. Using test data, undrained shear
strength (su) of composite ground was expressed in the
following form:
S3:575kPa
S3:375kPa
S3:75kPa
S4:150kPa
200
equal to
S2:450kPa
S2:50kPa
400
(2)
Without smear
Test
S1:100kPa
S1:150kPa
S1:300kPa
700
s p'
aOCR m
u
OC
OCR
Figure 5. Effective stress paths for samples without smear and with
smear zone
2563
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
The figures show that the shear induced pore pressures were
found to be less in specimens which had the smear zone
surrounding the sand column. Due to the smear zone, these
pore pressures within the SCP were reduced because the water
was not permitted to flow towards the column during shearing.
This was also evident from Scanning Electron Microscope
(SEM) images (Fig. 6a-b) taken on post shear tests of specimens
with and without smear. The images of samples with and
without the smear zone show differences in the microstructure.
The clay minerals in the smear zone appear to be closely packed
with reduced pore space. 7.5 mm x 7.5 mm x 7.5 mm air dried
samples were prepared at room temperature for the SEM
images.
Pores
(a)
(b)
Figure 6. SEM images: (a) Composite samples without smear zone; and
(b) Composite samples with smear zone.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The strength behavior of composite ground reinforced with sand
compaction piles has been studied using 20 consolidated
undrained triaxial tests. Vertical stress of the sand column was
examined when the composited specimens were tested to failure
in conventional triaxial tests. The test results suggest that the
stress-strain behavior of the clay was influenced by the presence
of smear zone. It seems clear that the presence of smear zone
has reduced the ultimate undrained shear strength by 25%.
SEM images indicated that the natural fabric of the soil was
destroyed adjacent to the SCPs with smear zone which in turn
affected pore pressure response of the composite soil sample.
Specimens sheared with smear effect appear closely packed and
more homogeneous with partly discernible particle systems,
while specimen without smear condition indicate a distinct
division between smaller intra-aggregate pore spaces and the
larger inter-aggregate voids. Shear induced pore pressures were
less in soil specimens with smear-effect because the water was
not permitted to flow towards the column during shearing. It
was postulated that the difference in the behavior of smear and
non-smear specimens was because that the pore pressure
measurements were taken within the sand column. This
difference was not apparent when 80mm diameter SCP with
smear zone was used. These changes affect the effective
horizontal stress in the clay and hence the load carried by the
individual sand columns.
6. REFERENCES
Aboshi, H. and Suematsu, N. (1985). Sand compaction pile method:
State-of-the art paper. Proceedings of the 3rd International
Geotechnical Seminar on Soil Improvement Methods, Narryang
Technological Institute, Singapore.
Aboshi, H., Ichimoto, E., Enoki M. and Harada, K. (1979). Composer:
method to improve characteristics of soft clays by inclusions of
large diameter sand column. Proceedings of the International
Conference on Soil Reinforcement: Reinforced Earth and other
Technique, Paris, Vol. 1, 211-216 (1979).
Asaoka, A., Kodaka, T. and Nozu, M. (1994). Undrained shear strength
of clay improved with sand compaction piles.
Soils and
Foundations, Vol. 34, No. 4, 23-32.
Balaam, N.P., Brown, P.T. and Poulos, H.G. (1977). Settlement
analysis of soft clays reinforced with granular piles. Proceedings
of the 5th Southeast Asian Conference on Soil Engineering,
Bangkok, 8191.
Bergado, D. T. and Balasubramniam, A. S. (1994). Laboratory testing
of prefabricated vertical drains (PVD). Geotechnical Engineering
Journal, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp.1.
Indraratna, B. and Redana, I. W. (1998). Laboratory determination of
smear zone due to vertical drain installation.
Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 124, No. 2, 180-184 (1998).
Juneja, A. and Mir, B. A. (2011). Effects of Sand Compaction Pile
Installation on Surrounding Soft Soil. Procc. of National
Conference on Recent Advances in Ground Improvement
Techniques (RAGIT-2011), pp. 1-10, CBRI Roorkee, India.
Madhav, M. R., Park, Y. M. and Miura, N. (1993). Modelling and Study
of Smear Zones around Band Shaped Drains.
Soils and
Foundations, Vol. 33, No. 4, 137-149.
Matsuda, H., Fujiwara, Takahasi, S. and Kitayama, M. (1997).
Influence of SCP driving on the behaviour of clay. Ground
improvement geosystems: Densification and reinforcement,
Thomas Telford London, 233-238.
Mir, B. A. (2010). Study of the influence of smear zone around sand
compaction pile on properties of composite ground. Ph.D. Thesis,
IIT Bombay.
Singh, G. and Hattab, T. N. (1979). A laboratory study of efficiency of
sand drains in relation to methods of installation and spacing.
Geotechnique 29(4), 395-422.
Skempton, A. W. (1954). The pore-pressure coefficients A and B.
Geotechnique 4(4), 143-147
Raj, D. and Dikshith, C.V. (2009). Vibro replacement columns for
shipyard infrastructure at Pipavav, Gujarat, India. Proceedings of
the International Symposium on Ground Improvement
Technologies and Case Histories, GeoSS, Singapore, 763-769.
Randolph, M. F., Carter, J. P. and Wroth, C. P. (1979). Driven piles in
clay-the effects of installation and subsequent consolidation.
Geotechnique 29(4), 361-393.
Schofield, A. N. and Wroth, C. P. (1968). Critical State Soil
Mechanics. MacGraw-Hill, London, p. 218.
Xu, X. T., Liu, H. L. and Lehane, B. M. (2006). Pipe pile installation
effects in soft clay. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, Geotechnical Engineering 159, Issue GE4 pp. 285-296.
Weber, T. M., Plotze, M., Laue, J., Peschke, G. and Springman, S. M.
(2010). Smear zone identification and soil properties around stone
columns constructed in-flight in centrifuge model tests.
Geotechnique 59(3), 197-206.
Wroth, C. P. (1984).
The interpretation of in-situ soil tests.
Geotechnique 34(4), 449-489.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The first author would like to acknowledge the financial support
from the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay (IITB) in the
form of research scholarships.
2564
aBstract - Vital coastal lifelines can be vulnerable during large storm events. large wave action and high sea levels erode the
sandy soil that supports coastal infrastructure, including highways, structures, pipelines, and other utilities. damage from these
events can result in severe property damage, loss of revenue, and large repair costs. natural bio-geochemical methods can be used
to reinforce the erodible sandy soil to help prevent damage to the infrastructure. Utilizing naturally-occurring biological metabolic
activity, calcium carbonate cementation can be induced in situ to bind the sand grains together, thereby improving the strength and
stiffness of the soil and in turn preventing erosion of the coastal deposits. microbial induced carbonate precipitation (micp) has
been shown to be an effective method to improve the soil behavior in saturated conditions subjected to undrained monotonic and
seismic loading in both laboratory and centrifuge tests. applying this proven natural treatment technique to unsaturated coastal soils
can improve the soils resiliency during large storm events. results indicate that the strength of the unsaturated soils increase from
intermittent surficial treatments. rigid-walled soil column tests were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of treating sandy soils
by flooding the surface of the soil with the appropriate microbes and nutrients and allowing free drainage. clean fine sand, typical
of coastal dune deposits, was used in the soil column tests. the strength of the cemented sand was evaluated using unconfined
compression tests. a discussion of upscaling the results from the laboratory tests to application in situ to improve the resiliency of
coastal infrastructure is also presented herein.
1. introdUction
Vital coastal lifelines can be vulnerable during large storm
events. large wave action and high sea levels erode the sandy
soil that supports coastal infrastructure, including highways,
structures, pipelines, and other utilities. damage from these
events can result in severe property damage, loss of revenue,
and large repair costs. the outer banks of north carolina have
seen several hurricanes in recent years (irene in 2011, and
sandy in 2012) which have inflicted damage to vital coastal
lifelines as illustrated in figures 1 and 2.
natural bio-geochemical methods can be used to reinforce the
erodible sandy soil to help prevent damage to the
infrastructure.
Utilizing naturally-occurring biological
metabolic activity, calcium carbonate cementation can be
induced in situ to bind the sand grains together, thereby
improving the strength and stiffness of the soil and in turn
preventing erosion of the coastal deposits. microbial induced
carbonate precipitation (micp) has been shown to be an
effective method to improve the soil behavior in saturated
conditions subjected to undrained monotonic and seismic
loading in both laboratory and centrifuge tests (montoya et al.,
2013, mortensen and deJong, 2011, deJong et al., 2006).
applying this proven natural treatment technique to
unsaturated coastal soils can improve the soils resiliency
during large storm events. results indicate that the strength of
the unsaturated soils significantly increase from intermittent
surficial treatments. rigid-walled soil column tests were
conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of treating sandy soils
by flooding the surface of the soil with the appropriate
microbes and nutrients and allowing free drainage. clean fine
sand, typical of coastal dune deposits, was used in the soil
column tests. changes in the strength of the sand from the
unsaturated cementation treatments was evaluated using
unconfined compression tests. a discussion of upscaling the
results from the laboratory tests to application in situ to
improve the resiliency of coastal infrastructure is also
presented herein.
2565
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
d50 (mm)
cu
cc
Gmax
emin
emax
mineralogy
shape
ottawa 50-70
sand characteristics
0.22
1.4
0.9
2.65
0.55
0.87
Quartz
round
chemical
Urea
1.0
cacl2
0.25
2566
soil column
1 (top)
1 (bottom)
2 (top)
2 (bottom)
3 (top)
3 (bottom)
4 (top)
4 (bottom)
soil column
1
4
Unconfined compressive
strength (kpa)
5.2
5.4
2567
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
5. references
astm d4373, Standard Test Method for Rapid Determination
of Carbonate Content in Soils
deJong, J.t., fritzges, m.B., and nsslein, K. (2006)
microbial induced cementation to control sand
response to Undrained shear, ASCE Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol.
132, no. 11, pp. 1381-1392.
faison, h., and mahin, s.a. (2012). microbial induced
calcite precipitation in partially saturated soils. PEER
2011/10 Earthquake Engineering for Resilient
Communities: 2011 PEER Internship Program Research
Report Collection, december.
martinez, B.c., deJong, J.t., Ginn, t.r., mortensen, B.m.,
Barkouki, t.h., hunt, c., tanyu, B., major, d. (2013)
experimental optimization of microbial induced
carbonate precipitation for soil improvement, ASCE
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, in press.
montoya, B.m. (2012) Bio-Mediated Soil Improvement and
the Effect of Cementation on the Behavior, Improvement,
and Performance of Sand, doctoral dissertation,
University of california, davis, pp. 238.
montoya, B.m., deJong, J.t., and Boulanger, r.W. (2013)
seismic response of liquefiable sand improved by
microbial induced calcite precipitation, Geotechnique. in
review.
mortensen, B.m., and deJong, J.t. (2011). strength and
stiffness of micp treated sand subjected to Various
stress paths, ASCE GeoFrontiers 2011: Advances in
Geotechnical
Engineering,
Geotechnical
special
publication 211, pp. 4012-4020.
Weil, m.h., deJong, J.t., martinez, B.c., mortensen, B.m.,
Waller, J.t. (2012). seismic and resistivity
measurements for real-time monitoring of microbially
induced calcite precipitation in sand.
ASTM
Geotechnical Testing Journal, Vol. 35, no.2.
2568
INTRODUCTION
80
For the purposes of this investigation, a Portland, a Portlandcomposite and a pozzolanic cement (CEM I, CEM II/B-M and
CEM IV/B according to Standard EN 197-1) were used. Each
cement was pulverized to produce three additional cements with
nominal maximum grain sizes (dmax) of 40m, 20m and 10m
and average Blain specific surface values of 567, 720 and
928m2/kg, respectively. Cements with dmax=10m can be
considered as microfine according to Standard EN 12715
(d95<20m and specific surface over 800m2/kg). Also, cements
with dmax=20m have adequately small characteristic grain sizes
to be considered, marginally, as microfine. Typical gradations
of these cements are presented in Figure 1.
All suspensions tested during this investigation were prepared
using potable water since it is considered appropriate for
90
10m
20m
40m
70
100m
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
100
10
2569
0.1
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
100m
5-10
17-19
16-39
44-60
60-70
40m
5-7
11-15
10-26
42-55
56-68
20m
N/T
N/T
0-4
25-37
43-49
10m
N/T
N/T
0-2
7-26
38-42
0.6
dmax
100m - 40m
20m - 10m
1.00E-03
1.00E-04
1.00E-05
1.00E-06
1.00E-07
1.00E-08
1.00E-09
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
1.00E-02
dmax
dmax
1.00E-03
100m - 40m
20m - 10m
1.00E-04
1.00E-05
1.00E-06
1.00E-07
1.00E-08
1.00E-09
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
2.0
1.00E-02
dmax
35
100m - 40m
20m - 10m
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
2570
0.8
W/C
1.0
d max
35
100m - 40m
20m - 10m
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
60
dmax
Internal friction angle, ( )
45
40
3 (kPa)
100 - 200 - 400
30
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
dmax
100m - 40m
20m - 10m
55
50
45
40
35
3 (kPa)
100 - 200 - 400
30
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Figure 4. Effect of grout W/C ratio and bleed capacity on the internal
friction angle of cement grouted sands.
SHEAR STRENGTH
50
35
100m - 40m
20m - 10m
55
1600
d max
1400
100m - 40m
20m - 10m
Cohesion, c (kPa)
1200
1000
800
600
400
3 (kPa)
100 - 200 - 400
200
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
d max
1400
100m - 40m
20m - 10m
Cohesion, c (kPa)
1200
1000
800
600
400
SHEAR MODULUS
3 (kPa)
100 - 200 - 400
200
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Figure 5. Effect of grout W/C ratio and bleed capacity on the cohesion
of cement grouted sands.
2571
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
4.5
4
1.5 GPa, with increasing W/C ratio, from 0.6 to 3. The shear
modulus values of the clean sands did not exceed 170MPa,
indicating an improvement up to 25 times by grouting. The
effect of grout bleed capacity on the shear modulus of grouted
sand is clearly depicted in Figure 6, where it can be observed
that above a bleed capacity value of about 30%, the shear
modulus of the grouted sand decreases sharply by about 40%.
Cement grain size seems to have a measurable effect on the
shear modulus values of the grouted sands. For similar bleed
capacity values, the sands grouted with microfine cement grouts
have lower shear modulus values, by 15% to 30%, compared to
sands grouted with coarse-grained cement grouts.
dmax
100m - 40m
20m - 10m
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
3 = 50 kPa
0.5
= 10 -5 %
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
dmax
100m - 40m
20m - 10m
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
3 = 50 kPa
0.5
= 10 -5 %
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Figure 6. Effect of grout W/C ratio and bleed capacity on the shear
modulus of cement grouted sands.
4
dmax
20m - 10m
2.5
2
1.5
1
3 = 50 kPa
0.5
= 10 -3 %
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
100m - 40m
20m - 10m
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
d max
3.5
CONCLUSIONS
100m - 40m
3.5
DAMPING RATIO
10 REFERENCES
2.5
2
1.5
1
3 = 50 kPa
0.5
= 10 -3 %
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Figure 7. Effect of grout W/C ratio and bleed capacity on the damping
ratio of cement grouted sands.
2572
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney (UTS), Sydney, Australia
ABSTRACT: In this paper, the effects of uncertainties of smear zone characteristics induced by installation of prefabricated vertical
drains on the preloading design are numerically investigated. FLAC 2D finite difference software with additional developed
subroutines has been employed to conduct the numerical simulations. The finite difference analyses have been verified using a case
study. Furthermore, a comprehensive parametric study is conducted to investigate the influence of smear zone permeability and extent
on the model predictions. Results of this study indicate that the assumptive properties for smear zone characteristics may result in
inaccurate predictions of ground deformations and pore water pressures. This may lead to early removal of the surcharge in the
construction process causing excessive post construction settlement. It is recommended to practising engineers to use results of trial
preloading to back calculate the required smear zone characteristics in the early stages of embankment construction to optimize the
design.
RSUM : Dans cet article, les effets des incertitudes des caractristiques de la zone endommage induites par linstallation des
drains verticaux prfabriqus sur la conception du prchargement sont tudis par une mthode numrique. Le logiciel de diffrences
finis FLAC2D avec sous-programmes additionnels a t utilis afin de raliser les simulations numriques. Les analyses de
diffrences finis ont t vrifies laide dune tude de cas. Par ailleurs, une tude paramtrique approfondie est effectue afin
dinvestiguer linfluence de la permabilit de la zone endommag sur les prdictions du modle. Les rsultats de cette tude
montrent que les proprits supposes pour les caractristiques de la zone endommag peuvent entrainer des prdictions incorrectes
de dformations du sol et de pressions interstitielles. Cela peut conduire un retrait prcoce de la surcharge dans le processus de
construction engendrant un tassement post-construction excessive. Il est recommand aux ingnieurs d'utiliser les rsultats de lessai
de prchargement afin de calculer les caractristiques requises de la zone endommage pour optimiser la conception.
KEYWORDS: FLAC, numerical analysis, preloading, smear zone, vertical drain
1
INRODUCTION
Intact Zone
Intact Zone
Smear
Zone
kh
rs
kv
rw
Vertical
drain
S R
kh
rs
Vertical
drain
rw
kh
ks k
v
Intact Zone
Intact Zone
Smear
Zone
Smear
Zone
rs
kv
Smear
Zone
ks
rw
ks
Vertical
drain
rs
Vertical
drain
rw
ks
kh
kv
Lower bound
Barron (1948)
Upper bound Casagrande and Poulos (1969)
Holtz and Holm (1973)
Akagi (1976)
Hansbo (1981)
Hansbo et al.(1981)
Jamiolkowski et al. (1983)
Bergado et al. (1991)
Onoue et al. (1991)
Bergado et al. (1993)
Almedia et al. (1993)
Hansbo (1994)
Mesri et al. (1994)
Hansbo (1997)
Indraratna and Redana (1998)
Chai and Miura (1999)
Eriksson et al. (2000)
Sharma and Xiao (2000)
Hird and Moseley (2000)
Bo et al. (2003)
Indraratna et al. (2005b)
Indraratna et al. (2005c)
Sathananthan and Inraratna
Sathananthan et al. (2008)
Ghandeharioon et al. (2009)
Kim et al. (2010)
Tran-Nguyen and Edil (2011)
Ghandeharioon et al. (2012)
4 5 6 7 8
0
Experimental
Analytical
Lower bound
Upper bound
FEM
Assumed
It can be observed that wide ranges are proposed for kh/ks and
rs/rm and there is no definite method to predict these parameters
precisely to be used by practising engineers. The assumptive
properties for smear zone characteristics may result in
2573
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
LL=45
PI=18
Gs=2.74
Silty
sand
0m
10
20
30
40
50
60
Time (days)
70
80
90
Soil
type
s
kN/m3
kh
10-9m/s
kh/
kv
Clayey
Silt
Soft
soil
0.94
0.13
0.026
0.3
1.28
14.0
2.31
1.5
(1)
(2)
= 2(n-s) / [3(n-1)n ]
(3)
(4)
Intact zone
Smear zone
60 kPa
PVD
20 m
Sand bags
t=20 kN/m 3
10 m
3.0m
Clayey
silt/Silty
clay
(CL/ML)
Commencement of recording
settlement plate readings
1
0
PVDs
NUMERICAL MODELLING
CL
G1
4m
9m
G2
1m
7m
10m
1m
2574
Settlement (mm)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
10
20
30
40
Time (Days)
50
60
70
(a)
Settlement (mm)
250
rs/rm=2
= 90%
200
t = 53.0
t = 47.5
100
t = 41.0
t = 34.0
150
Kh/Ks=2
Kh/Ks=3
Kh/Ks=4
Kh/Ks=5
50
0
20
80
(b)
250
100
rs/r m=3
= 90%
200
Kh/Ks=2
Kh/Ks=3
Kh/Ks=4
Kh/Ks=5
t = 57.0
50
t = 48.0
100
t = 42.0
150
t = 35.0
Settlement (mm)
40
60
Time (Days)
0
300
zone properties are kh/ks=5 and rs/rm=5, the required time would
be the maximum and equal to 67 days, which is approximately
twice longer than the minimum (see Figure 7d). According to
the settlement curves in Figure 7, the influence of smear zone
permeability variations is more critical when the smear zone
extent ratio is larger. For instance the required time to obtain
90% degree of consolidation has been increased by 56% (from
34 days to 53 days) changing the permeability ratio from 2 to 5
considering the extent ratio equal to 2, while this boost is 80%
(from 37 days to 67 days) for extent ratio of 5.
The general trend in Figures 7(a)-7(d) shows that changing
the permeability ratio in a smaller range results in large
variations of the required time to obtain 90% degree of
consolidation considering a constant extent ratio. According to
Figure 7(a), the consolidation time is increased by 23% by
varying the permeability ratio from 2 to 3, while this change is
17% and 12% when the permeability ratio is changed from 3 to
4 and 4 to 5, respectively.
Figure 8 illustrates the numerical parametric study results
investigating the influence of the smear zone properties on the
excess pore water pressure (EPWP) dissipation. Graphs are
plotted for point G2 located at the depth of 4 m (see Figure 3).
Figure 8 confirms that increasing the permeability and extent
ratios prolongs the pore water pressure dissipation process
considerably. According to Figure 8, the permeability ratio is
more critical parameter than the extent ratio, although the
influence of extent ratio variation on the consolidation time can
not be neglected. For example, according to Figure 8b, there is
160% difference between the predicted excess pore pressure
values after 34 days (90% of the field degree of consolidation)
for kh/ks=2 (EPWP=13 kPa) and kh/ks=5 (EPWP=34 kPa), while
keeping rs/rm=3.
0
20
80
(c)
250
t = 63.0
t = 53.0
t = 45.0
150
Kh/Ks=2
Kh/Ks=3
Kh/Ks=4
Kh/Ks=5
30
20
10
20
40
60
Time (Days)
80
(b)
70
100
r s/rm=3
Full height of
embankment reached
60
50
Kh/Ks=2
Kh/Ks=3
Kh/Ks=4
Kh/Ks=5
40
30
20
= 90%
10
0
0
20
40
60
Time (Days)
80
(d)
250
100
80
rs/rm=5
= 90%
0
300
200
t = 47.0
50
t = 67.0
100
t = 60.0
150
t = 37.0
Settlement (mm)
Kh/Ks=2
Kh/Ks=3
Kh/Ks=4
Kh/Ks=5
40
200
50
rs/rm=2
Full height of
embankment reached
50
80
rs/rm=4
100
(a)
60
100
= 90%
t = 36.0
Settlement (mm)
40
60
Time (Days)
300
70
Kh/Ks=2
Kh/Ks=3
Kh/Ks=4
Kh/Ks=5
10
20
30
40
50
60
Time (Days)
(c)
70
70
80
90
100
rs/rm=4
Full height of
embankment reached
60
50
Kh/Ks=2
Kh/Ks=3
Kh/Ks=4
Kh/Ks=5
40
30
20
10
0
0
0
20
40
60
Time (Days)
80
100
80
20
40
60
Time (Days)
(d)
70
80
100
rs/rm=5
Full height of
embankment reached
60
50
Kh/Ks=2
Kh/Ks=3
Kh/Ks=4
Kh/Ks=5
40
30
20
10
0
0
20
40
60
Time (Days)
80
100
2575
5.0
rs/r m=3
r s/r m=4
rs/rm=5
3.0
S4 S3
1.0
32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70
Time (Days)
Figure 9 clearly indicates that the smear zone extent ratio (rs/rm)
is an important parameter influencing the consolidation time
and cannot be neglected. Varying rs/rm in the range of 2 to 5,
assuming kh/ks as a constant parameter can influence the
required consolidation time by more than 25%. Combined
effects of uncertainties in the smear zone extent and
permeability will result in momentous changes of consolidation
time. Results presented in Figure 9 indicate that the influence of
uncertainties in rs/rm becomes more important when
permeability of smear zone decreases.
According to the back calculation results presented in
Figure 6, the predicted settlement curve is in the best agreement
with the field measurements considering smear zone properties
of kh/ks=2 and rs/rm=3. The required time to obtain 90% degree
of consolidation for this condition is equal to 34 days, which is
highlighted as point S2 in Figure 9. A vertical line is plotted
from t90%= 34 days, which intersects the set of lines at points
S1, S2, S3 and S4. Smear zone properties at these points are
summarised in Table 2.
Table 2. Back calculated smear zone properties to achieve t 90%= 34 days
S1
S2
S3
S4
kh/ks
2.10
2.0
1.85
1.75
rs/rm
(a)
Settlement (mm)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
20
40
Time (Days)
60
80
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
20
40
Time (Days)
60
80
Figure 10. FLAC analysis results for points in Table 2 (a) Settlement
variation; (b) Excess pore water pressure dissipation
S2 S1
Point
(b)
60
4.0
2.0
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
2576
Ching J.
ABSTRACT: This paper presents the construction of virtual sites using multivariate normal distributions calibrated from actual soil
property databases. By doing so, the actual magnitude of uncertainty reduction from conducting better/more soil tests can be
estimated realistically, rather than theoretically.
RSUM: Cet article prsente la construction de "sites virtuels" en utilisant des distributions normales plusieurs variables calibres
partir de bases de donnes de proprits de sols rels. Par cette mthode, la rduction relle de l'incertitude que l'on peut obtenir en
augmentant le nombre et/ou la qualit des essais de sol peut tre estime de manire raliste, et non plus seulement thorique.
KEYWORDS: virtual site; uncertainties; soil properties; correlation; site investigation; reliability-based design.
1
INTRODUCTION
2577
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
f (X) C
1
2
(2 ) 2 e
1
X ' C-1 X
2
(1)
1 12
C
1
12
13 23
13
23
(2)
Y1 = LI
Y2 = su
Y3 = sure
Y4 = p
Y 5 = v
Lognormal
Lognormal
Lognormal
Lognormal
Lognormal
1.25
31.01kN/m2
2.51kN/m2
105.82kN/m2
66.63kN/m2
0.49
0.95
1.52
0.98
0.80
ln(Yi), i
0.122
3.051
0.226
4.311
3.891
ln(Yi), i
0.459
0.898
1.191
0.835
0.823
Table 2. Correlation matrix C for (X1, X2, X5) for the five
selected parameters of structured clays (Source: Ching & Phoon
2012a).
X1 (LI)
X2 (su)
X3 (sure)
X4 (p)
X5 (v)
X1 (LI)
1.000
-0.083
-0.824
-0.176
0.280
X2 (su)
-0.083
1.000
0.276
0.915
0.801
X3 (sure)
-0.824
0.276
1.000
0.365
0.453
X4 (p)
-0.176
0.915
0.365
1.000
0.850
X5 (v)
0.280
0.801
0.453
0.850
1.000
X i ln Yi i i
(3)
Mean
COV
Mean of
stdev of
2578
(4)
X1 (cv)
X2 (IR)
X3 (p)
X4 (qc1)
X5 [(N1)60]
X1 (cv)
1.000
0.000
0.642
0.491
0.536
X2 (IR)
0.000
1.000
0.642
0.491
0.536
X3 (p)
0.642
0.642
1.000
0.764
0.835
X4 (qc1)
0.491
0.491
0.764
1.000
0.638
X5 [(N1)60]
0.536
0.536
0.835
0.638
1.000
ln
(5a)
ln q T
v ln s u 2.54 0.34U 3
2.4
(5b)
2.3
X1 (OCR)
1.000
0.554
0.355
0.395
X2 (su)
0.554
1.000
0.642
0.714
X3 (qT - v)
0.355
0.642
1.000
0.458
X4 (N60)
0.395
0.714
0.458
1.000
(6)
2579
Factor
bOCR
Test type
CIUC
CAUC
Formula
OCR0.602
OCR0.681
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
CAUE
DSS
VST
UU
UC
crate
CIUC
CAUC
CAUE
DSS
VST
UU
UC
dPI
OCR0.898
OCR0.749
OCR0.902
OCR0.800
OCR0.932
1.0+0.1log10(strain rate/1%)
(PI/20)0 = 1
(PI/20)0 = 1
(PI/20)0.178
(PI/20)0.0655
(PI/20)0.124
(PI/20)0 = 1
(PI/20)0 = 1
# pts.
Mean
COV
637
555
224
573
1057
435
387
0.404
0.350
0.184
0.241
0.275
0.243
0.223
0.316
0.318
0.324
0.399
0.416
0.504
0.611
Stdev of
ln(Yi), i
0.315
0.280
0.355
0.277
0.372
0.463
0.523
Mean of
ln(Yi), i
-0.955
-1.090
-1.748
-1.468
-1.363
-1.523
-1.640
X2
X3
X4
X1
(CIUC) (CAUC) (CAUE) (DSS)
1.00
0.84
0.47
0.72
0.84
1.00
0.39
0.78
0.47
0.39
1.00
0.45
0.72
0.78
0.45
1.00
0.63
0.35
0.41
0.73
0.88
0.7*
0.4*
0.6*
0.85
0.6*
0.3*
0.5*
X5
(FV)
0.63
0.35
0.41
0.73
1.00
0.64
0.46
X6
(UU)
0.88
0.7*
0.4*
0.6*
0.64
1.00
0.68
X7
(UC)
0.85
0.6*
0.3*
0.5*
0.46
0.68
1.00
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
2580
Technique of reinforced soil base calculation under fall initiation in ground mass
Technique du compte arm les raisons du sol l'apparition des checs le massif du sol
Ponomaryov A., Zolotozubov D.
ABSTRACT: On the basis of carried out investigations, the authors obtained stress and strain development mechanisms of the
reinforced ground mass depending on the properties of soils, the characteristics of the reinforcing elements, the depth of their location
and their number. The obtained mechanisms allowed to propose the calculation methodology of the reinforced base surface settlement
in the territories expose to deformation. To evaluate the proposed method, it was compared with previously obtained results of the
experiments and calculations carried out with the help of BS8006, Giroud, Perrier, R.A.F.A.E.L methods and PLAXIS and Sofistik
programs.
RSUM : la base des tudes accomplies les auteurs ont reu les mcanismes du dveloppement de l'effort et l'effort de la masse
affermie de la raison en fonction des proprits des sols, les particularits des lments du renforcement, la profondeur de leur
situation et leur nombre. Les rgularits reues ont permis de proposer la mthode du compte le dpt de la surface des raisons armes
sur les territoires exposs aux dformations. Pour estimer la mthode propose, c'tait en comparaison d'auparavant rsultats acquis
des expriences et calculs accomplis avec l'aide de BS8006, Giroud, Perrier, les mthodes R.A.F.A.E.L et PLAXIS et les programmes
Sofistik.
KEYWORDS: reinforced soils, fall in ground mass, technique of calculation.
1
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
2581
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
clamp sinking, the constant strain rate or the fixed rate of load
increase (similar to ISO 10319:2008) with relative error
indications of breaking load 1.0 %, with absolute error
indications of elongation 1.0 mm, with an average rupture
duration regulated from (3015) to (6015) sec.
2582
1
6 a
(1)
sa 3 / 8 a D 2 .
(3)
D
s
sa ,
2h tan
(4)
h
i
i 1
(5)
i 1
Surface
settlement,
mm
105
90
30
64
240
30*
Giroud
215.5
90*
30*
Perrier
120
90
90
R.A.F.A.E.L.
95.8
120
**
PLAXIS
103
160
Sofistik
113
130
***
114.5
107
34
Experiment
BS8006
i 1
Deflection
of
geosynthetic
material,
mm
Calculation method
(2)
hi
Tensile force
in
geosynthetic
material ,
kN/m
Proposed method
REFERENCES
2583
Stress Concentration Ratio and Design Method for Stone Columns using 2D FEA with
Equivalent Strips
Ratio de concentration de contraintes et mthode de conception pour les colonnes ballastes en
utilisant une analyse aux lments finis 2D avec des bandes quivalentes
Poon B., Chan K.
b cos30
INTRODUCTION
d = diameter of
a = width of equivalent
stone column
strip in 2D FEA
2D strip
Asoil
d
Acolumn
where Asoil and Acolumn are the areas of the soil and column
inside a unit cell within the 2D strip as shown in Figure 1.
2585
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Soil
Rigid
boundary
0 2 4
6 8 10 12 14 16
20kPa
60kPa
80kPa
100kPa
140kPa 120kPa
Elastic
solution 1
Stress Concentration n
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
nmax
40kPa
Fill
Load
(c)
B
C
z/ qa
Plastic
stress
point
(b)
4
5
6
7
120kPa
10
b/a = 2; Ec/Es = 30
b/a = 2.5; Ec/Es = 30
b/a = 3; Ec/Es = 30
(for y/a )
(3)
where is the influenced zone (also normalized by the column
diameter a) that is measured from the base of the column to the
equal settlement plane (where r = 1). The magnitude of m
controls the rate of reduction of r with y/d. The higher the m the
more rapid reduction of r would be towards the column tip.
nmax
140kPa
b/a = 2; Ec/Es = 20
b/a = 2.5; Ec/Es = 20
b/a = 3; Ec/Es = 20
80kPa
column = 35
3.2
60kPa
100kPa
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
column = 40
Stress Concentration n
0 2 4 6 8 1012141618202224
40kPa
0 2 4 6 8 1012141618202224
b/a = 2; Ec/Es = 10
b/a = 2.5; Ec/Es = 10
b/a = 3; Ec/Es = 10
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Embank.
fill
Stonecolumn
Clay:
E=3MPa,
=22,
c=1kPa, total = 17kN/m3
(b)
Stress Concentration n
(a)
z / qa
-2
Ecolumn=60MPa
-4 Esoil=3MPa
b/a=2
-6
-8
Lower equal
settlement plane
-10
Ebase=50MPa
-12
-14
(a)
Ebase=200MPa
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Stress concentration n
3.1
z / qa
Ecolumn
Esoil
4
3
Ebase
Eq.3:=2.45, m = 9
Ebase = 50MPa
1
0
(b)
FEA
results
Eq3: =1.2, m = 27
Ebase = 200MPa
0
0.2
2586
(a)
60
50
40
m
30
20
10
0
5
6
4
0.01
0.1
10
(b)
Ebase/Ecolumn
2 b/a = 3, Ebase/Esoil =2
5 b/a = 2, Ebase/Esoil =2
4 b/a = 2, Ebase/Esoil 10
8 b/a 3, Ebase/Esoil =2
7 b/a 3,Ebase/Esoil 10
1 b/a = 3, Ebase/Esoil 10
9
8
Elastic
solution
-2
20kPa
-4
40kPa
-6
-8Fill
-10
Load
(a)
-12
60kPa 140kPa
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
(b)
-14
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Ebase/Ecolumn
3 b/a = 3, Ebase/Esoil =1
6 b/a = 2, Ebase/Esoil =1
9 b/a 3, Ebase/Esoil =1
0 2 4 6 8 10121416
-14
3.3
7.5
6.5
5.5
4.5
3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
2.5 has not been shown for clarity of the figure. Note that
these curves can apply to cases where Ebase/Esoil 10 as Esoil
has negligible effect on the shape of r under this condition.
For a particular b/a ratio, the shows a lower value as
Ebase/Esoil reduces to less than 10, although the trend of
reduction with log(Ebase/Ecolumn) remains linear and parallel
with that for Ebase/Esoil 10 (curves 2 & 3, 5 & 6 in Figure 6a).
The rate of reduction of r towards the column tip, represented
by the m, has been found to increase linearly with Ebase/Ecolumn.
Curve 7 in Figure 6b shows such relationship and is applicable
for cases with different b/a ratio up to 3 (limit of parametric
range) and with Ebase/Esoil 10. Curves 8 and 9 delineate the
corresponding curves for cases with Ebase/Esoil = 2 and 1.
b/d
2.0,
2.3,
2.9
ar
0.26,
0.19,
0.12
2.0
0.26
2.3
0.19
2.9
0.12
4 - 2D
2.0
0.26
FEA
2.3
0.19
Eblock=6MPa, cblock~1kPa, block = 30
(equiv.
2.9
0.12
Eblock=6MPa, cblock~1kPa, block = 30
block)
Soil surrounding columns are Esoil = 3MPa, csoil = 2kPa, soil = 26;
Soil beneath columns are Ebase = 3MPa, csoil = 5kPa, soil = 28
2587
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
6m
10m
~13m
Zone 1
Bulging
Leaning
(a) 3D FEA (Baseline Analysis 1) with cylindrical stone columns
Max vert.
Max vert. disp.
disp.
Q
230
210
190
170
150
10
15
20
25
30
Area replacement ratio ar
(d)
Axi-symmetric
250
5
3
1
2
0
10
20
30
Area replacement ratio ar
(e)
Settlement at Point P
3D (100% )
2D_Strip (100%)
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
3D (67%)
2D_Strip (67%)
CONCLUSIONS
270
Zone 3
Zone 2
Bulging & Leaning
2D_Block
2D_Strip (80%)
REFERENCES
2588
ABSTRACT: This paper highlights the importance of the porosity/cement index on the evaluation of the geomechanical properties of
soil-cement mixtures as a contribution to analyse these materials. This index is defined as the ratio between porosity and volumetric
cement content combining the degree of compaction with the cement content. The relevance of these two parameters is defined by an
exponent to the volumetric cement content which changes with the type of soil. This paper results from a broad experimental program
with unconfined compression tests, indirect tensile tests, triaxial tests and oedometer tests, which were all analysed by this index
adjusted by a specific exponent value. The (tensile and compression) strength, the (elastic and initial tangent) stiffness, as well as the
compressional behaviour are conveniently represented by this index and a different behaviour is observed when this index is changed.
RSUM : Limportance du paramtre porosit/ciment dans lvaluation des proprits gomchaniques des mlanges sol-ciment est
prsente dans cet article comme une contribution pour lanalyse de ces matriaux. Ce paramtre est dfini comme le rapport entre la
porosit et la teneur volumique en ciment. Limportance relative entre la porosit et la teneur en ciment est introduite en introduisant
un exposant la teneur volumique en ciment dpendant du type de sol. Les rsultats dun vaste programme exprimental incluant
essais de compression simples, essais de traction indirect, essais triaxiaux et essais domtriques sont prsents et analyss par ce
paramtre ajust par un exposant spcifique. La rsistance la compression et la traction, la rigidit lastique et tangente initiale,
ainsi que le comportement en compression sont bien reprsents par lintermdiaire de ce paramtre et un comportement diffrent est
observ si le paramtre est modifi.
KEYWORDS:soil-cement, porosity/cement index, tensile strength, compression strength, compressional behaviour.
1
INTRODUCTION
2589
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
although a low plasticity index was obtained (IP=wL-wP=34%31%=3%). From the particle size distribution curve presented in
Figure 1 an average diameter D50 equal to 0.25 mm was
obtained, as well as uniformity and curvature coefficients of 113
and 2.7 respectively.A high strength Portland cement (CEM I
52,5R) of grain density equal to 3.15 was used as the cementing
agent in order to speed up the laboratory tests.
The experimental program is performed with specimens
made by the mixture of silty sand, Portland cement and tap
water that is compacted statically in three layers in a stainless
steel mould. For each specimen, a quantity of fines equal to the
weight of cement to be introduced was removed from the soil,
in order to have the same grain size distribution curve in the
mixture of soil-cement as in the soil itself. Following this
procedure the dry density of the soil was also constant
throughout the study even though the cement content changed.
The specific gravity of the cement-soil mixture was calculated
as a weighted average of those of the soil (Gs=2.72) and of the
cement (Gs=3.15), and thus it was different for different cement
contents.
100
90
10
80
20
70
30
60
40
50
50
40
60
30
70
20
80
10
90
0
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
Grain size (mm)
(2)
The results showed that the indirect tensile strength (Rtb) was
about 11% of the UCS. In Figure 2 both Rtb and UCS are
plotted against n/Civ0.21 in different scales for comparison. It is
clear that both trends are very similar (except for the absolute
values) corroborating the convenience of the adjusted
porosity/cement ratio.
In Consoli et al. (2011), where the data from these tests is
plotted together with data from other two soils, it is shown that
for the three soils a decrease in porosity promotes an increase in
the tensile strength as a consequence of the higher number of
contact points between particles which improves the
cementation. Also for the other two soils, a unique correlation
was found between the adjusted porosity/cement ratio and the
indirect tensile strength, the exponent of the ratio depending on
the soil.
STRENGTH PARAMETERS
Tensile strength
100
10
1.1
(1)
2590
Drained triaxial compression tests were performed over soilcement specimens, which were moulded to have two different
adjusted porosity/cement ratios (n/Civ0.21=36 and 29)
corresponding respectively to UCS of 800 kPa and 2000 kPa.
For these ratios, two moulding conditions were defined
characterized by cement content and dry unit weight while the
water content remains constant and equal to 12%. For the first
ratio (n/Civ0.21= 36), 2 and 4% cement contents were considered
which lead to dry unit weights of 16.7 and 15.4 kN/m3,
respectively. For the second ratio (n/Civ0.21 = 29) higher strength
was needed, so 5 and 7% of cement contents were assumed with
17.0 and 16.4 kN/m3 of dry unit weight. The tests were
performed at three different effective confining pressures (30,
80 and 250 kPa) over specimens moulded in four moulding
points, comprising 12 tests (Table 1).
The stress-strain curves (see Figure 3 as an example) clearly
evidence that the specimens with n/Civ0.21=29 have higher peak
deviator stresses than the specimens with n/Civ0.21=36
independently of the cement content. Adding cement to the sand
had the effect of increasing the shear strength by up to five
times for the adjusted porosity/cement ratio of 36 and tenfold
for the adjusted porosity/cement ratio of 29.All specimens
initially compressed, followed by significant dilation, which
was associated to a peak strength, before strain softening. This
is typical of cemented soils, with the maximum rate of dilation
taking place right after the peak strength (Viana da Fonseca
1998). The peak strength corresponds to the onset of significant
%C
(%)
2
d
(kN/m3)
16.6
2
2
4
4
4
5
5
5
7
7
7
16.5
16.7
15.4
15.7
15.5
16.9
17.0
17.0
16.3
16.5
16.7
n/Civ0.21
0.61
w
(%)
12
0.62
0.60
0.74
0.71
0.73
0.59
0.58
0.58
0.66
0.63
0.61
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
36
36
36
36
36
29
29
29
29
29
29
e0
36
UCS
(kPa)
800
800
800
800
800
800
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
2000
c
(kPa)
30
80
250
30
80
250
30
80
250
30
80
250
STIFFNESS PARAMETERS
5000
2%C
3%C
5%C
Eti (MPa)
4000
3000
7%C
2000
1000
0
20
25
n/Civ0.21
30
35
40
2591
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
1
2
3
4
Test condition
2%C; 'c =30 kPa
2%C; 'c =80 kPa
2%C; 'c =250 kPa
4%C; 'c =30 kPa
3000
5
6
2000
7
8
9
Eur (MPa)
n/Civ0.21=29
n/Civ0.21=36
5000
4000
1000
0
5 6 7 8
Test condition
10 11 12
COMPRESSIBILITY PARAMETERS
n/Civ0.21= 36
0.70
0.60
0.50
n/Civ0.21= 29
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.001
0.010
0.100
1.000
p' (MPa)
10.000
100.000
Figure 7.Void ratio against mean effective stress for two different
porosity/cement ratios
CONCLUSIONS
2592
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT: The stabilization of soils using cementing agents has long gained acceptance and is well established in geotechnical
engineering practice. Furthermore, adding discrete fibers to the cement-treated soil has been shown to improve the soils response to
loading and its overall engineering behavior. Limited studies of the behavior of fiber-reinforced cemented sand in the laboratory
indicated that the addition of cement and fibers results in an increase in the strength of the composite, especially at high fiber contents
and lengths. Cemented sands were found to be brittle compared to un-cemented sands, with the brittleness decreasing with the
inclusion of fibers. The objective of this paper is to investigate the effect of randomly distributed fiber reinforcements and cement
addition on the response of sandy soils. To achieve this objective, the behavior of cement/fiber-reinforced sands was studied using
unconfined compression tests. The parameters that were varied are [1] the cement content (0.5% and 1%), [2] the fiber content (0%,
0.25%, 0.5%, and 1.0%), and [3] fiber lengths (6, 12 and 20 mm). The results of the tests were used to quantify the degree of
improvement in strength and stiffness due to the addition of fibers and cement to the cohesionless sand.
RSUM: La stabilisation des sols en utilisant des agents de cimentation a longtemps t accept et est bien tablie dans la pratique
de la gotechnique. De plus, l'ajout de fibres discrtes au sol-ciment a t demontr effectif pour amliorer la rponse du sol au
chargement et son comportement mcanique global. Seules quelques tudes xistent o le comportement des sols renforcs par des
fibres et ciment a t tudie au laboratoire. Elles ont indiqu que l'addition de ciment et de fibres engendrent une augmentation de la
rsistance du composite, en particulier des teneurs en fibres et des longueurs leves. Les sables ciments ont t jugs fragiles par
rapport aux sables non ciments; cette fragilit diminue avec l'inclusion de fibres. L'objectif de cet article est d'tudier l'effet de
renforts en fibres distribues de faon alatoire et l'ajout de ciment sur la rponse des sols sableux. Pour atteindre cet objectif, le
comportement de sables enforcs par ajout de ciment / fibres r a t tudie par des essais de compression non confine. Les
paramtres qui ont t varies sont [1] la teneur en ciment (0,5% et 1%), [2] la teneur en fibres (0%, 0,25%, 0,5%, et 1,0%), et la
longueur des fibres [3] (6, 12 et 20 mm). Les rsultats des tests ont t utiliss pour quantifier le degr d'amlioration de la rsistance
et de rigidit due l'ajout de fibres et de ciment au sable pulvrulent.
KEYWORDS: fiber-reinforced sand, cement stabilized sands, fibers, cement, unconfined compressive strength.
1
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Material Properties
The sand used in this study is Ottawa Sand with the properties
shown in Table 1. The sand classifies as a poorly graded sand
(SP) according to the Unified Soil Classification System.
The fibers (Fig. 1) chosen for the reinforcement are
polypropylene fibers, typically used as secondary reinforcement
of lightweight concrete and mortar mix designs. They were
adopted because they are available in several lengths, they can
be mixed with soil-cement mixtures and satisfy efficiently the
intended role of reinforcement. The fibers have a specific
gravity of 0.91 g/ml, a tensile strength of 0.38 kN/mm2 and a
young modulus of 3.5 kN/mm2. Fiber lengths of 6 mm 1, 12
mm 1 and 20 mm 1 were used in the testing program. The
nominal diameter of the fibers was determined in the lab under
an electronic microscope to be in the order of 0.1mm.
Table 1. Table caption (TNR 8), numbered consecutively. Tables placed
below caption. TNR 8 for text and numbers in Table.
Soil Property
Value
D10 (mm)
0.22
D30 (mm)
0.31
D60 (mm)
0.42
1.95
1.04
(0.75,0.49)
2.65
Sample Preparation
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Specific gravity
2.65
Sample Preparation
2594
3.1
Stress-Strain Response
200
0.50% Cement
0.25%Fibers
160
200
120
80
40
L=20mm
L=6mm
L=12mm
0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
2.0
160
120
80
L=20mm
40
0
200 0.0
1.0
160
NoFibers
1.0
2.0
L=6mm
3.0
4.0
L=12mm
5.0
120
6.0
7.0
8.0
L=20mm
L=12mm
80
L=6mm
NoFibers
0
0.0
1.0
2.0
80
40
0
2000.0
160
3.0
4.0
L=12mm
NoFibers
1.0
2.0
1.0% Cement
0.50%Fibers
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
7.0
8.0
80
L=12mm
40
L=6mm
160
1.0
2.0
1.0% Cement
1.0%Fibers
120
3.0
4.0
Axial Strain
(%)
L=20mm
L=6mm
L=12mm
80
40
NoFibers
0.0
3.0
L=20mm
120
3.3
L=20mm
NoFibers
40
120
0
200 0.0
200 0.0
160
1.0% Cement
0.25%Fibers
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
3.4
2595
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
160
200
120
80
40
0
12 0.00
10
0.25
0.50
0.75
Fiber Length = 6mm
Fiber
Length
=12mm
Fiber Content, FC (%)
Fiber Length =20mm
1.00
8
6
4
2
0.25
0.50
0.75
120
80
40
0
12 0.00
10
0.25
0.50
0.75
Fiber Length = 6mm
Fiber Length
= 12mmFC (%)
Fiber Content,
Fiber Length = 20mm
1.00
8
6
4
2
0.00
1.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
The range of the cement content that was chosen in this study
(0.5% to 1.0%) is indicative of lightly-cemented sands.
However, the results presented in Figs. 2 to 5 indicate a clear
difference in the performance of the composite specimens that
were stabilized with 0.5% cement and specimens stabilized with
1.0%, particularly with regards to the contribution of the fibers
to the improved compressive strength.
For specimens that were not reinforced with fibers, the
increase in cement content from 0.5% to 1.0% increased the
unconfined compressive strength from 15 kPa to 50 kPa. With
the addition of fibers, results showed that the UCS could be
improved by more than 10 times for a cement content of 0.5%
but only to 3.7 times for the cement content of 1.0%, indicating
a decreased relative efficiency of the fibers at improving the
compressive strength as the cement ratio increases.
It should be noted however that the actual maximum value
(largest fiber content and fiber length) of the unconfined
compressive strength was still higher (about 185 kPa) for the
cement content of 1.0% compared to the maximum value (159
kPa) measured for the cement content of 0.5%. For the smaller
fiber contents and fiber lengths, the values of the UCS for the
cement content of 1% were all higher than those of the 0.5% at
the same fiber content and fiber length, indicating that the
magnitude of the improved UCS was larger for the higher
cement content.
4
160
0
0.00
3.5
200
CONCLUSION
2596
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT: This article deals with the geotechnical design of the building pit and the foundation restoration of the
Conservatoriumhotel Amsterdam. It involves a selection of results of analytical and Plaxis calculations and damage predictions
regarding vibrations and settlements. The second part of the paper deals with the execution of the works and the important role of a
pro-active monitoring-system and careful communication with all stakeholders. It briefly outlines the monitoring plan, type and
results of the monitoring and the risk management during implementation. Some measurement results are compared with predictions
and two calamities that occurred during the construction will be specifically addressed. This will clearly show the added value of
monitoring and active risk management, that eventually has led to the successful completion of this project in 2011.
RSUM : Cet article traite de la conception gotechnique de la tranche couverte du btiment et reprise en sous uvre des
fondations du ConservatoriumhotelAmsterdam. Il s'agit d'une slection de rsultats de calculs analytiques et Plaxis et des prvisions
concernant les dommages dus aux vibrations et les tassements induits. La deuxime partie de l'article traite de l'excution des travaux
et le rle important que la surveillance pro-active et de la communication prudent avec toutes les investisseurs. Le plan
dinstrumentation est brivement dcris ainsi que le type et le suivi, des rsultats et de la gestion des risques lors de la mise en uvre.
De plus les rsultats des mesures sont compars aux prvisions. Deux sinistres qui se sont produits lors de la construction seront
abords. La valeur ajoute de linstrumentataion est montre ainsi que la gestion active des risques qui a finalement conduit la
russite de ce projet en 2011.
KEYWORDS: geotechnical design, building pit, Plaxis, monitoring, restoration
INTRODUCTION
SOIL CONDITIONS
2597
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
th
Proceedings of the 18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
In Figure 3,4 and 7 the lay out of the building and building
pit are shown. Because of the very deep excavation next to the
pile foundation of the existing building, much precaution had to
be paid to settlements and angular distortion (damage) of this
listed building. Also, the bending moments in the existing
wooden piles were a major concern. This resulted in a staged
excavation as shown in Figure 4. Note the different excavation
levels of the two excavations A and B, which cause an
asymmetrical load situation and displacements. An extra
complication was that the building site could only be accessed
through a narrow entrance in the eastern part.
Eh
/L
tot
Damage class
m
%
Slight (minor
-0.0113
1:1605 0.066 0.0002 0.00088 aesthetic damage)
L/H = Ratio depth/height of the building
= Vertical deflection
= Relative angular distortion
h = Horizontal strain
tot = Total building strain
uv = vertical displacement
5
5.1
General
MONITORING
GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN
2598
Proceedings of the 18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Incident 1
5.3
Figure 9. Top view building pit (at the time of incident; Google)
Incident 2
2599
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
th
Proceedings of the 18 International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
5.4
Costs
COMPLETED WORKS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CONCLUSIONS
2600
ABSTRACT: The protection of environment and economical consideration demands giving the usage of internal soils preference over
external materials. Soil-stabilization with lime increase the bearing capacity and treats the properties of cohesive soils due to chemical
reactions. During a soil-stabilization with lime, the Ca2+ ions introduced into the soil attach to the surface of the clay particles,
replacing the cations located there previously. Due to the high charging of the Ca2+ ions, the clay particles coagulate. The coagulation
exerts a decisive effect on the soil structure, resulting the plasticity index in a shifting towards a certain zone. This effect leads to the
elimination of the silt and clay particles, resulting in an intensive reduction surface of the particle of the stabilizations. Due to the
coagulating particles, the friction angle increases, and also the value of cohesion becomes higher. The addition of lime results
consequently in a growth of the compression strength of the soil, leading to an increased load bearing capacity. In order to define the
internal friction angle () and the cohesion (c), triaxial compression test were done with ten different kind of soils. The soilstabilization with lime were made with 2 %, 4 %, and 6% additional lime, the temporal aspect has been investigated in ages of 1, 7,
and 28 days. In case of admixing an ideal quantity of lime, the soils are shifting towards the value of =40o. The extent of growth of
the cohesion did not show as clear tendency as the friction angle, but give back a significant increasing.Contrary to the literature, I
regard to remark that the positive impacts of soil-stabilization with lime is basically a result of the cation exchange, while the
puzzolan reaction playing only a secondary role. It is also important to remark that the lime stabilization of soils is not only suitable
for the drying up of soaked soils. With the application of a planned and properly executed stabilization, load bearing capacity of
ballast materials can be achieved with local soils regarded or qualified as unsuitable. Accordingly, the ballast and pavement layers can
be effectively reduced, and the quantity of delivered external materials minimized.
RSUM : Les considrations environnementales et conomiques font prfrer lutilisation des matriaux locaux aux matriaux
extrieurs transports sur place. Avec ses processus chimiques, la stabilisation des sols la chaux permet une augmentation de la
portance des sols argileux et une amliore de leurs proprits. Lors des processus de stabilisation, les ions Ca2+ remplacent les cations
qui sattachent la surface des grains dargile. Les grains dargile sagglomrent cause de la haute charge des ions Ca2+.
Lagglomration provoque un changement important dans la structure du sol et, en consquence, lindice de plasticit du sol se dcale
vers une certaine zone. Cet effet limine les grains dargile et de limon diminuant ainsi radicalement la surface des grains du sol
stabilis. cause de lagglomration des grains, les valeurs de langle de frottement interne et de la cohsion augmentent. En ajoutant
de la chaux, la compressibilit des sols diminue, en consquence la portance des sols augmente. Afin dtablir le changement des
valeurs de langle de frottement interne () et de la cohsion (c) nous avons effectu des essais triaxiaux sur diffrents sols. Nous
avons stabilis les sols en ajoutant 2%, 4% et 6% de chaux et nous avons mesur leffet du temps avec des essais effectus lge de
1 jour, 7 jours et 28 jours. Dans le cas dune addition de quantit optimale de chaux la valeur de langle de frottement interne est de
40. Dans le cas de la cohsion, il a t impossible de dmontrer une tendance, mais une augmentation importante a pu tre observe
dans tous les cas. Contrairement la bibliographie technique sur les essais lors de la stabilisation des sols la chaux, lagglomration
cause par lchange de cations a un rle dominant, tandis que les ractions pouzzolanes ont plutt un rle secondaire. Il est important
de souligner galement que la stabilisation des sols la chaux na pas pour seule application le schage des sols mouills ou
humidifis. En utilisant une formule bien tablie, une portance quivalente au gravier peut tre atteinte avec les sols locaux, ainsi les
sols locaux qualifis de non-utilisables peuvent tre finalement convenables pour la construction routire. En consquence lpaisseur
de lassises de chausse et celle de la structure de la chausse peuvent tre diminues efficacement, et la quantit des matriaux
extrieurs transports peut tre minimise.
KEYWORDS: soil stabilization with lime, cation exchange, bearing capacity
1
INTRODUCTION
2601
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
cation exchange-coagulation;
puzzolan reaction-cementation;
Figure 2. Red spots show the origin of the soils for laboratory
measurements, blue spots show in-situ bearing measurements
After the literature 2, 4, 6% quick lime was added for the soils.
The quantity of the lime is the percent of the dried soil. Some
measurements was done with hydrate lime as well, but the final
determinations are given in quick lime, because it contains only
the agent (CaO), which is the unit of necessary active agent
My laboratory and field work included soil mechanics
parameters (plasticity, grain size, permeability, Proctor-test,
swelling), bearing capacity measurements (triaxial compression
test, CBR test, durability test) and geological tests (X-ray,
derivatograph, pH).
The soils were dried to the laboratory air humidity, than
were determined their moisture content and were determined the
quantity of the added lime. The lime and the required water
were mixed during 15 minutes than left it rest 45 minutes. After
resting they were remixed and compacted with Proctormachine. After compaction the mixtures were left for curing in
waterproof package.
To measure the time effect of soil-stabilization with lime I
made measurements 1 hour, 1 day, 3 days, 7 days, 14 days and
31 days after compaction.
I can show only a part of my research because the compass
of the article.
4
DELINEATION OF MY RESEARCH
Alteration of plasticity
2602
with lime, the soil particles settled very rapidly. The settling
process took 5-15 minutes.
Plasticity
Grain size
index
< 0.1mm
[%]
[%]
Friction
angle
Cohesion
[kPa]
[]
T1
22,0
88,4
10.5
61.7
T2
18,5
76,6
22.4
88.3
T3
50,0
96,4
11.9
117
T4
12,3
87,6
25.6
72.9
T5
33,5
98,7
11.4
37.6
T6
61,5
99,3
18.2
123
T7
43,4
98,8
22.8
114.8
T8
22,9
90,5
T9
36,8
T10
69,2
99,5
T11
34,4
94,1
T12
47,5
T13
70,2
T14
41,2
T15
38,5
T16
26.9
124
14.5
104.5
34,8
92,8
20.9
82.5
T17
24,8
88,2
T18
8,8
76,1
T19
29,1
91,8
T20
6,4
74,2
T21
27,0
The analysis of the results shows that the liquid limit (wl) is
shifting towards the zone of wl = 35 45 %, irrespective of the
initial values. The high values of the liquid limit decrease
drastically, those situated near the zone practically stagnate, and
a slight increase was experienced at the low liquid limit values.
Similarly to the plastic limit (wp) a tendency of shifting towards
a certain zone can be experienced, similarly to the behavior of
the liquid limit. This zone is situated at wp = 25 35 %. The
plastic limit is generally increasing, however in case of fat clays
having high plasticity limit stagnation or decrease can be
experienced.
The alteration of Atterberg-limits in the value of the
plasticity index (Ip) also leads to shifting towards a zone (Figure
3). The value of plasticity index is shifting to the zone delimited
by Ip = 5 15 %, corresponding to very fine sand and silt type
soils, according to the description of the bound soils.
An investigation of the temporal aspects of the impact
shows that the above tendencies appear during the first hour
following mixing, however the most extreme alteration of the
parameters could be measured appr. on day 7. The following
period was characterized by stagnation, with slight shifts in case
of certain soils toward the properties of an untreated soil.
4.2.
2603
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
2604
RSUM : Le Deep Soil-Mixing consiste mlanger mcaniquement un liant hydraulique avec le sol en place en vue damliorer ses
proprits mcaniques. En France, de nouvelles exigences concernant la mthode et le matriau sont apparues mesure que son
champ dapplications sest tendu. Dans cette communication, le travail de recherche entrepris lIFSTTAR est prsent. Il a consist
mener en laboratoire une tude paramtrique, en ralisant des mlanges dits de rfrence. Trois sables et cinq sols fins ont t
traits ( ltat pur ou mlangs entre eux) en faisant varier chaque fois les quantits de ciment et deau, afin dobserver linfluence
de la granulomtrie, de largilosit et de la quantit deau prsente dans le mlange sur la rsistance. Les retombes de ce travail sont
la proposition dabaques reliant la rsistance au dosage en ciment et au rapport C/E, et des formules permettant pour les sols grenus de
prdire la rsistance 28 jours en fonction du pourcentage de fines dans le sol et du dosage en ciment.
ABSTRACT: The Soil-Mixing consists in mixing a hydraulic binder into the soil mechanically in order to improve its mechanical
properties. In France, these new applications imply new requirements on the method as well as on the material. In this paper, the
research work undertaken at IFSTTAR is presented: it consisted in carrying out a parametric study on reference mixtures. Three sands
and five fine soils were treated with different cement and water contents to observe the influence of particle size, clay content and the
amount of water present in the mixture on its strength. Benefits of this work is the proposal of abaci connecting the strength of the
material to its cement content and cement / water ratio (C / E), and formulas allowing the prediction, for granular soils, of the strength
of the material at 7 and 28 days depending on the percentage of fines in the soil and on the cement content.
MOTS-CLS: Deep Mixing, sol, ciment, rsistance, compression simple, abaque.
KEYWORDS: Deep Mixing, soil, cement, strength, unconfined compression, abacus.
1
INTRODUCTION
PROGRAMME EXPERIMENTAL
2.1 Matriaux
Les sols tests au cours de cette tude vont des sables purs aux
argiles pures, avec des limons et des sols artificiels reconstitus
partir de sable de Fontainebleau mlang avec de largile ou
du Silica Flour, afin de permettre ltude de l'impact de la
nature et de la quantit des fines sur la rsistance du matriau
Deep Mixing. Le tableau 1 prsente les principales
caractristiques des sols tests.
2605
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Tableau 1. Principales caractristiques granulomtriques et valeurs au bleu de mthylne (VBS) des sols utiliss
Soils
d60 (mm)
d10 (mm)
Percent passing
2 mm
100
Percent passing
80 m
0,1
0,22
0,18
0,15
0,38
0,23
0,13
89,2
2,33
Percent
passing 2 m
0
VBS
0,01
0,1
0,5
0,23
0,07
94,25
11,8
0,2
0,028
0,011
0,004
100
95,2
0,14
Silt TGV
100
98,9
19
2,3
Silt Vmars
96,8
82
30
100
100
82
1,25
kaolinite de Provins
100
100
92
6,67
illite du Puy
100
95,1
56
5,4
illite Arvel
100
100
76
5,9
100
100
53
28
Montmorillonite Arvel
12
qu (MPa)
9
Argile du Puy C 140 kg/m3 w 70
Fontainebleau 1 C 320 kg/m3
2 C 265 k / 3
20
40
60
Curing time (days)
100
80
bl
t i
2,0
15
1,6
12
1,2
0,8
6
Argile du Puy C 140 kg/m3 w80
mean Argile du Puy
SF75-SilicaF25 C 320 kg/m3
mean SF75-SilicaF25
0,4
0,0
0
6
8
specimen number
qu (MPa)
Frjus sand
d30 (mm)
0
10
12
14
RSULTATS ET ANALYSES
qu
2606
aCb
(1)
qu 28
wf
wi
0.544
64.032 C1.777 0.171 ln C 63 C63
(2)
qu c a C b
Optimized
domain of
workability
10
Argile du Puy
Silt TGV
SilicaF
kaolinite Soka
qU28 (MPa)
qu
(3)
Domain of workability
2
wL
wL
treated soil
woptimum
wf
0
0
100
200
C (kg/m3)
300
400
300
400
6000
4
w = 80%
w = 70%
4000
qu (kPa)
Artificial silt
qu (MPa)
Argile du Puy
2000
Illite Arvel
0
0
0,4
0,8
w/LL
1,2
1,6
0
0
100
200
C (%)
2607
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Triel
Frjus
kaolinite Soka
SF25-kaoS75
SF50-kaoS50
SF75-kaoS25
Fontainebleau
SF75-SilicaF25
SF50-SilicaF50
SilicaF
ADP
limon TGV
Vmars
Montmorillonite
Figure 4. Abaque rsistance dosage en ciment pour un matriau Deep Mixing auto-plaant.
CONCLUSION
2608
REFERENCES
Hajiesmaeilian S.
ABSTRACT: The paper includes discussions on the theory studies and numerical analysis as to stabilityof slopes reinforced with
geotextile encapsulated with lenses of sand. In this study, given the laboratory research conducted on clay reinforced with geotextile
encapsulated with lenses of sand, which showed in the high confining stresses due to the suitable interaction of clay and sand particles
with geotextile, significant improvement is obtained in shear strength. Considering these results, based on the stability importance of
slopesin the engineering projects and optimization, and increasing slopes stability, this technique is used as a reinforcement method in
the clay slopes using various methods of reinforcement and the effect of various conditions such as the number of layers of
reinforcement, confining pressures has been considered .In the study the numerical finite difference using software FLAC 2D has
been applied. The results showed that the slopes with higher height the Sandwich technique to typical reinforcement with geotextile
increases factor of stability safety under different studied scenarios because of improvement of intermediate behavior weakness by
thin sand layers and the amount of factor of stability safety has been also enhanced, increasing the number of reinforcement layers.
RSUM : Le document comprend des discussions sur les tudes thoriques et l'analyse numrique que les pentes stabilityof
renforcs par des gotextiles encapsuls avec des lentilles de sable. Dans cette tude, compte tenu de la recherche en laboratoire
menes sur de l'argile renforce avec gotextile encapsuls avec des lentilles de sable, qui a montr dans les fortes contraintes de
confinement en raison de l'interaction approprie d'argile et de sable avec gotextile, une amlioration significative est obtenue dans la
rsistance au cisaillement. Compte tenu de ces rsultats, bass sur l'importance de la stabilit des slopesin les projets d'ingnierie et
d'optimisation, et d'augmenter la stabilit des pentes, cette technique est utilise comme une mthode de renfort dans les pentes
argileuses en utilisant diverses mthodes de renforcement et de l'effet de diverses conditions telles que le nombre de couches de
renfort, des pressions de confinement a t pris en compte. Dans l'tude de la diffrence finie numrique l'aide du logiciel FLAC 2D
a t appliqu. Les rsultats ont montr que les pentes plus forte hauteur de la Technique du sandwich renfort typique avec un
facteur de scurit augmente gotextile stabilit sous diffrents scnarios tudis en raison de l'amlioration de la faiblesse
comportement intermdiaire par des couches de sable fin et la quantit de facteur de scurit de stabilit a t amliore galement,
l'augmentation du nombre de couches de consolidation.
KEYWORDS: sandwich technique, reinforced soil, factor of safety, stability
1
INTRODUCTION
2609
In the analysis,PROPERTIES
four types of slope
with different heights of 6, 9,
4 GEOMETRIC
OF SLOPES
12 and 15 m with the same slope of 56 degrees have been
considered.
geotextiles
arrangement
shown
In the
analysis,The
fourmethod
types ofofslope
with different
heightsisof
6, 9, in
sandwich
technique
for56
thedegrees
slope 12have
meters.
12 Figure
and 153 in
m the
with
the same
slope of
been
considered. The method of geotextiles arrangement is shown in
Figure 3 in the sandwich technique for the slope 12 meters.
2610
5 HOW TO MODEL
First defining the model geometry and thenrequired parameters
are considered for different scenarios of various materials.
Given the importance of the boundary conditions on the both
sidesthe slope is anchored inthe horizontal direction (x) and in
downwardslope horizontal and vertical directions (x, y) are
anchored. Then geotextiles with distances equal to 1.5 m with
the same length have been modeled. And following given the
characteristics of the geotextiles, the suitable interaction
parameters are involved between soil and geotextile. Then thin
layers of sand with equal 30 cm thickness are considered to
simulate the effect of sandwich technique inreinforcement
process on the border between the reinforcement element and
the clay soil (geotextile),given the different distances between
the layers.
stability safety.
2611
7 CONCLUSION
- Analyses showed that the sandwich technique is an effective
method of stabilizing clay slopes for engineers and results of the
numerical analysis carried out in vitro studies are consistent
with the sandwich technique.
- Sandwich techniqueis used in clay soils where have the poor
and weak interaction with the geotextiles.
- given the acceptable development of a factor of safety using
the sandwich technique we can make or design slopes with
more height and slope in the engineering projects.
- sandwich technique in the more heights has more impact in the
factor of safety increase , because of confining pressure increase
and consequently getting better interaction condition between
sand and geotextile .
- The factor of stability safety will be increased, increasing
noumber of reinforced layers in the sandwich technique.
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
At the end we thank sincerely for cooperation of dear friends
Mr. Amir Gharib and Mohsen Mosivand.
9 REFERENCES
Abiera H.O. 1991. Mechanically stabilized earth using tensar,bamboo
and steel grid reinforcements with weathered Bangkok clay as
backfill , M. Eng.Thesis,No.Gt-90-21 ,Asian institute of technology,
Bangkok,Thailand.
Bergado,D.T,
Sampaco,C.L,
Shivashankar,R,
Alfaro,M.C,
Anderson,L.R. and Balasubramaniam, A.S. 2008. Performance of a
welded wire wall with poor quality backfill on soft clay, In
proceedings of ASCE.
Zhenggui .W and Werner .R . 2002. A study of soil-reinforcement
interaction
friction
.,Journal
of
Geotechnical
and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, 128 (1),92-94.
Jewell. R.A. and Wroth, C.P. 1987. Direct shear test on reinforced
sand., Geotechnique 37 (1), 53-68.
2612
Kawasaki Geological Engineering Co., Ltd. (Formerly Public Works Research Institute), Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan
Inagaki, T. Sasaki, Y.
Oda K.
(1)
(2)
(3)
2613
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Water
content
(%)
2.623
0.0
Max.
50%
Min.
Soil
Fine
Max.
grain
diameter fraction
dry
suspension
dry
diameter
on the
pH
content density density
(mm)
grain
dmax dmin
(%)
size
(g/cm3) (g/cm3)
diagram
D50
(mm)
0.425
0.177
0.6
1.645
1.333
6.3
Added amount
3g
10 g
2.12 g
0.5 mol = 30.03 g
0.5 mol = 55.49 g
1L
Dr30
Dr60
Dr85
Added amount
0.13 mol = 15.75 g
20 g
10 g
1L
Frequency of
Specimen nutrient injection
No.
(Total injection
amount ml)
Dr30-N
Dr30-P1
2(400)
Dr30-P2
4(800)
Dr30-P3
8(1600)
Dr30-P4
12(2400)
Dr60-N
Dr60-P1
2(400)
Dr60-P2
4(800)
Dr60-P3
8(1600)
Dr60-P4
12(2400)
Dr85-N
Dr85-P1
2(400)
Dr85-P2
4(800)
Dr85-P3
8(1600)
Dr85-P4
12(2400)
Curing
time
(hours)
24
48
96
144
24
48
96
144
24
48
96
144
Initial dry
density
3
d (g/cm )
1.423
1.428
1.414
1.416
1.414
1.513
1.504
1.504
1.504
1.504
1.589
1.589
1.589
1.589
1.589
Initial
relative
density
Dr (%)
33.2
35.2
30.2
30.8
30.4
62.6
59.9
60.0
59.9
60.0
84.9
85.0
85.0
84.9
85.0
CaCO3
Precipitation
3
(kg/m )
32.24
63.72
141.92
225.53
28.11
51.77
130.61
212.11
27.12
57.38
117.13
198.55
2614
250
CaCO3 precipitation (kg/m3)
Dr60-N
1000
Dr85-N
Dr30-P2
800
Dr60-P2
600
Dr85-P2
400
200
0
-9
10
15
-6
-3
0
0
5
10
15
Axial strain (%)
Figure 3. Relationships among axial strain, principal stress difference,
and volumetric strain (c = 100 kPa)
Dr = 30 %
200
Dr30-N
1200
1400
Dr = 60 %
Dr = 85 %
150
100
50
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Total amounts of nutrient injection (ml)
3000
3.2
Relationships among axial strain, principal stress
difference, and volumetric strain
Figure 3 shows the principal stress differenceaxial strain
curves and volumetric strainaxial strain curves. Toyoura sands
of each relative density saturated only with distilled water
(unsolidified) and those injected with 800 ml of the nutrient
mixture and CaCO3 precipitation of 51.863.7 kg/m3 are shown
in Fig. 3. Photo 2 shows the solidified test specimen after shear.
It can be confirmed that the solidification caused by the
CaCO3 precipitation leads to an increase in the maximum
principal stress. In specimens with about the same CaCO3
precipitation, the higher relative density of the soil, the increase
in the maximum principal stress difference is the greater. Strain
softening behavior is observed when the principal stress
difference reaches the maximum in the solidified test specimen.
A residual state occurs when axial stress reaches 5% or more;
then, the principal stress difference is constant at every relative
density, and its value shows no difference at each relative
density. It is thought that the principal stress difference becomes
equality in the residual domain because the test specimen is
sheared along the sliding surface. Photo 2 also shows a shearing
plane along the sliding surface. The increase in the volumetric
strain on the expansion side is confirmed clearly in the
solidified test specimens when the axial strain is small at each
relative density in comparison with the unsolidified test
specimens, and the ratio of increase becomes small around an
axial strain over 5%.
2615
10000
Dr = 30 %
8000
Dr = 60 %
Dr = 85 %
6000
4000
1000
Dr = 30 %
2000
0
50
100
150
200
CaCO3 precipitation (kg/m3)
250
Dr = 60 %
1000
Dr = 60 %
Dr = 85 %
600
400
200
50
100
150
200
CaCO3 precipitation (kg/m 3)
250
Dr = 85 %
800
600
4 CONCLUSION
400
200
0
50
100
150
200
CaCO3 precipitation (kg/m3)
250
800
Dr = 30 %
1200
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
10.0
Dr = 30 %
8.0
Dr = 60 %
Dr = 85 %
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
50
100
150
200
CaCO3 precipitation (kg/m3)
250
2616
5 REFERENCES
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh PA, USA
Caicedo B.
Departamento de Ingenieria Civil & Ambiental, Universidad de los Andes, Bogota, Colombia
ABSTRACT: Soils containing dispersed large particles (greater than # 4 sieve) form part of many engineered fills, glacial tills, debris
flows, and residual soil deposits. Very little is known about the effect that the large particles have on the shear strength of the soillarge particles mixtures. In this study, the influence of the large particles on the shear strength of the mixtures was evaluated
experimentally and numerically. The experimental analysis used direct shear tests on simulated granular materials containing large
dispersed particles. The numerical analysis used the Discrete Element Method (DEM). The laboratory and the DEM simulation
results indicated that the shear strength of the mixtures increased with the concentration (Ca) of the simulated large particles in the
mixtures. Also, this study established that the shear strength of the simulated granular materials with dispersed large particles, Sc, can
be obtained if one uses the following relationship: Sc = Sm (1 + M Ca). In this relationship, Sm is the shear strength of the simulated
soil matrix in which the large particles are dispersed, and M is a constant that varied between 1 and 2 for the numerical and laboratory
analyses.
RSUM :Les sols contenant des particules disperses de grande taille (suprieure tamis # 4) constituent la majorit des remblais,
argiles glacires blocs, des coules dboulis et des dpts rsiduels de sol utiliss dans la construction. Peu de travaux existent sur
l'effet que les grosses particules ont sur la rsistance au cisaillement des mlanges de particules de sol de grande taille. Dans cette
tude, l'influence des grosses particules sur la rsistance au cisaillement des mlanges a t valu exprimentalement et
numriquement. L'analyse exprimentale utilise essais de cisaillement direct sur simules matriaux granulaires contenant de grandes
particules disperses. L'analyse numrique utilis la mthode des lments discrets (DEM). Les essais en laboratoire et les rsultats
des simulations ont indiqu que la rsistance au cisaillement des mlanges augmente avec la concentration (Ca) des particules de
grandes tailles simules. En outre, cette tude a tabli que la rsistance au cisaillement des matriaux granulaires simules avec des
grosses particules disperses, Sc, peut tre obtenu si l'on utilise la relation suivante: Sc = Sm (1 + M Ca). Dans cette relation, Sm c'est
la rsistance au cisaillement de la matrice du sol simul dans lequel les grosses particules sont disperses, et M est constante qui varie
entre 1 et 2 pour les analyses numriques et de laboratoire.
was used (Fig. 2) This apparatus is called the Plane stress Direct
Shear Apparatus (PSDSA) (Vallejo, 1991). The granular matrix
will be simulated by a mixture of wooden sticks. Wooden sticks
are strong and can be easily shaved into polygons as their cross
sectionalareas. These polygons resemble the profiles of actual
2617
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
(c)
Matrix (99.6kPa)
One oversized particle (99.6kPa)
Matrix
Two (99.6kPa)
oversized particles (99.6 kPa)
One
oversized
particle
Matrix
(199.3
kPa) (99.6kPa)
Two
oversized
particles
(99.6
kPa)
One
oversized
particle
(199.3
kPa)
Matrix
kPa)particles (199.3kPa)
Two (199.3
oversized
One oversized particle (199.3 kPa)
Two oversized particles (199.3kPa)
350
350
300
300
250
Shear stress (kPa)
Shear stress (kPa)
250
Figure
The
Plane
Stress
Direct
Shear
Apparatus
(PSDSA)
Figure
2. 2.The
Plane
Stress
Direct
Shear
Apparatus
(PSDSA)
(Vallejo,
1991)
(Vallejo,
1991)
200
200
(a)(a)
150
150
100
100
50
50
0
0
0
0
(b)(b)
0.02
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.04
0.06
0.08 (cm) 0.1
Horizontal
displacement
0.12
0.12
The peak values of the shear stress plots of Fig. 4 have been
used
to plot
theofshear
versus
theofarea
The
peak
values
the strength
shear stress
plots
Fig.concentration
4 have beenof
the tolarge
the sample.
areaconcentration
concentrationof is
used
plot cylinders
the shear in
strength
versus This
the area
the cross insectional
area of
thearea
largeconcentration
cylinders in isthe
theequal
largetocylinders
the sample.
This
mixture
divided
the area
of of
thethe
whole
(7.62
equal
to the
cross by
sectional
area
largemixture
cylinders
in cm
the x
7.62 cm)
(Fig. by
3).the
Thearea
resulting
is shown
Fig. 5.
mixture
divided
of the plot
whole
mixturein(7.62
cmThis
x
figure
the shear
strength
the mixture
increases
7.62
cm)shows
(Fig. that
3). The
resulting
plot of
is shown
in Fig.
5. Thisas
the number
of the
large
cylinders
in theincreases
mixture. asAn
figure
shows that
shear
strengthincreases
of the mixture
this increase
is of in
thethe
form:
theequation
numberthat
of represents
large cylinders
increases
mixture. An
Sc =represents
Sm (1 + 2Cthis
equation that
increase is of the form: (1)
a)
(c)
2618
Sc = Sm (1 + 2Ca)
(1)
340
300
260
220
180
140
100
60
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
Area concentration, Ca
Figure 6. Simulated samples using DEM that contained zero, one, and
two large dispersed particles.
3.2
The DEM simulations of the direct shear tests were carried out
on mixtures having zero, one, and two oversized particles. Figs
7 shows typical DEM results for the samples with zero, one and
three oversized particles. These figures shows the force chains
and their intensity (the thicker the force chains, the bigger are
the force chain value, their maximum values are shown on top
of the figures) for the samples with 3.5 mm of horizontal
displacement.
An analysis of Fig. 7 indicates that the larger force chains which
were compressive in nature were directed toward the large
particles and were transmitted to them by the smaller
surrounding particles. When the horizontal displacement in the
simulated test reached a 3.5 mm value, the force chains were
inclined at about 45 and 135 degrees with respect to the
horizontal axis of the cross sectional area of the large particles.
It is usually assumed that when samples of granular materials
with oversized particles are subjected to either compressive or
direct shear stress conditions, the smaller particles in the
mixture distribute the loads uniformly around the perimeter of
the bigger particles. This uniform load distribution produces
low compressive stresses on the bigger particles which allows
them to survive without breakage (Fragaszy et al., 1992). The
results shown by Fig.7 indicate that this is not the case. Under
direct shear, the smaller particles concentrate on the oversized
particles, large compressive forces that are exerted on a small
section of the perimeter of the large particles. These high
concentrated compressive forces exerted by the smaller particles
2619
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
on the large particles have also been found by Cheng and Minh
(2009) to be effective in granular mixtures.
The peak shear stress values obtained during the shearing of the
mixtures shown in Figs. 6 and 7 were plotted against the area
concentration
ofof
thethe
large
cylinders
in in
thethe
mixture.
The
result
ofof
concentration
large
cylinders
mixture.
The
result
thethe
plot
is is
shown
in in
Fig.
8. 8.
plot
shown
Fig.
Figure
7. 7.Force
chains
in in
thethe
samples
with
zero,
oneone
andand
two
large
Figure
Force
chains
samples
with
zero,
two
large
particles
at aathorizontal
shear
displacement
equal
to to
3.53.5
mm.
particles
a horizontal
shear
displacement
equal
mm.
Figure
Figure8. 8.Shear
Shearstrength
strengthversus
versusthethearea
areaconcentration
concentrationof ofthethelarge
large
cylinders
in in
thethe
simulated
mixture.
cylinders
simulatedgranular
granular
mixture.
AnAnanalysis
analysisof ofFig.
Fig.8 8indicates
indicatesthat
thatthethepresence
presenceofofthethelarge
large
cylinders
in in
thethe
mixture
hashas
a reinforcing
effect.
That
is,is,
as as
thethe
cylinders
mixture
a reinforcing
effect.
That
number
numberofoflarge
largecylinders
cylindersincrease
increasein inthethemixture,
mixture,itsitsshear
shear
strength
also
increases.
The
best
fitfit
line
shown
in in
Fig.
8 has
anan
strength
also
increases.
The
best
line
shown
Fig.
8 has
equation
ofof
thethe
form:
equation
form:
+C)
ScS=c S
=mS(1
m (1 + aCa)
Budiman,
J.S.,
Mohamadi,
J., J.,
andand
Bandi,
S. S.
(1995).
Effect
of of
large
Budiman,
J.S.,
Mohamadi,
Bandi,
(1995).
Effect
large
inclusions
onon
liquefaction
of of
sands.
In:In:
Static
andand
Dynamic
inclusions
liquefaction
sands.
Static
Dynamic
Properties
of of
gravelly
Soils,
Evans,
M.D.,
andand
Fragaszy,
R.J.
(eds),
Properties
gravelly
Soils,
Evans,
M.D.,
Fragaszy,
R.J.
(eds),
ASCEs
Geotechnical
Special
Publication
No.No.
56:56:
48-63.
ASCEs
Geotechnical
Special
Publication
48-63.
Cheng,
Y.P.
Minh,
N.H.
(2009).DEM
investigation
of of
particle
size
Cheng,
Y.P.
Minh,
N.H.
(2009).DEM
investigation
particle
size
distribution
effect
onon
direct
shear
behavior
of of
granular
distribution
effect
direct
shear
behavior
granular
agglomerates.Powders
andand
Grains
2009,
M.M.
Nakagawa
agglomerates.Powders
Grains
2009,
Nakagawa
(Editor),
American
Institute
of of
Physics,
New
York,
401-404.
(Editor),
American
Institute
Physics,
New
York,
401-404.
Fragaszy,
R.J.,
Su,Su,
J., J.,
Sidiqqi,
F.H.,
andand
Ho,Ho,
C.L.
(1992).Modeling
Fragaszy,
R.J.,
Sidiqqi,
F.H.,
C.L.
(1992).Modeling
strength
of of
sandy
gravel.Journal
of of
Geotechnical
Engineering,
strength
sandy
gravel.Journal
Geotechnical
Engineering,
ASCE,
118(6):920-935.
ASCE,
118(6):920-935.
Itasca
Consulting
Group,
Inc.
(2002).PFC2D(Particle
Flow
Code
in in
Itasca
Consulting
Group,
Inc.
(2002).PFC2D(Particle
Flow
Code
Two
Dimensions)
version
3.0.
Minneapolis.
Two
Dimensions)
version
3.0.
Minneapolis.
Magier,
J. and
Ravina,
I. (1982).Rock
fragments
andand
soilsoil
depth
as as
Magier,
J. and
Ravina,
I. (1982).Rock
fragments
depth
factors
in in
land
evaluation
of of
Terra
Rossa.Soil
Science
Society
of of
factors
land
evaluation
Terra
Rossa.Soil
Science
Society
America
(SSSA)
Special
Publication
No.No.
13:13:
13-30.
America
(SSSA)
Special
Publication
13-30.
Poesen,
J., J.,
andand
Lavee,
H. H.
(1994).Rock
fragments
onon
toptop
soil:
Poesen,
Lavee,
(1994).Rock
fragments
soil:
significance
andand
processes.
Catena,
23(1-2):
1-28.
significance
processes.
Catena,
23(1-2):
1-28.
Vallejo,
L.E.
(1989).
AnAn
extension
of of
thethe
particulate
model
of of
stability
Vallejo,
L.E.
(1989).
extension
particulate
model
stability
analysis
forfor
mudflows.
Soils
and
Foundations,
2929
(3):1-13.
analysis
mudflows.
Soils
and
Foundations,
(3):1-13.
Vallejo,
L.E.
(1991).
A plane
stress
direct
shear
apparatus
forfor
testing
Vallejo,
L.E.
(1991).
A plane
stress
direct
shear
apparatus
testing
clays.ASCE
Geotechnical
Special
Publication
No.27
(II):
851clays.ASCE
Geotechnical
Special
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No.27
(II):
851862.
862.
Vallejo,
L.E.
(2001).
Interpretation
of of
thethe
limits
in in
shear
strength
in in
Vallejo,
L.E.
(2001).
Interpretation
limits
shear
strength
binary
granular
mixtures.
Geotechnical
Journal,
binary
granular
mixtures.Canadian
Canadian
Geotechnical
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38:1097-1104.
38:1097-1104.
(2)(2)
Madhav M.R.
ABSTRACT: Granular piles (GP) offer most effective and economical solution for ground improvement due to their drainage,
densification and reinforcement actions, GPs mitigate liquefaction induced damages. An anchor placed at the base of the granular pile
and attached to the footing by a cable or rod transfers the applied pullout force to the bottom of the GP termed as Granular Pile
Anchor (GPA). The effective stresses in a normally consolidated saturated soil increase linearly with depth. Consequently, the
undrained strength and the deformation modulus of the soil increase linearly with depth. Analysis of the displacements of granular
pile anchor is presented considering the influence of the linearly increasing undrained modulus of soil and of the GPA with depth on
the load displacement response of the GPA. A parametric study quantifies effects of the length to diameter ratio of GPA, and the
relative stiffness of the GP with respect to that of in situ soil at ground level, on the variations of tip and top displacements of GPA
with applied load, variation of shear stresses and pullout load with depth, etc.
RSUM : Pieux granulaires (GP) offrent une solution plus efficace et conomique pour amlioration des sols en raison de leur
drainage, la densification et des actions de renforcement, les mdecins gnralistes attnuer les dommages induits par liqufaction. Un
point d'ancrage plac la base du pieu granulaire et fixe la semelle par un cble ou une tige transfre la force de traction applique
sur le fond de la GP qualifi de mouillage pieu granulaire (GPA). Les contraintes effectives dans un sol normalement consolid satur
augmente linairement avec la profondeur. Par consquent, la rsistance non draine et le module de dformation du sol augmente
linairement avec la profondeur. L'analyse des dplacements de l'ancre empilement granulaire est prsente compte tenu de l'influence
de plus en plus le module linaire non draine du sol et de l'GPA avec la profondeur de la rponse force - dplacement du GPA. Une
tude paramtrique de quantifier les effets de la longueur par rapport au diamtre de l'GPA, et la rigidit relative du GP par rapport
celle du sol in situ au niveau du sol, sur les variations de pointe et des dplacements suprieurs de GPA avec la charge applique, la
variation de cisaillement contraintes et la charge de retrait avec la profondeur, etc
KEYWORDS: Granular pile anchor, modulus of deformation, homogenous ground, displacements, load transfer.
1
INTRODUCTION.
PROBLEM DEFINITION
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2 Forces and Stresses acting
on GPA and Soil.
2621
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
1 s . L
d
Es0
S ,i
I S ,ij
z
j 1
1 s . i L
(4)
d z 4
0
dz d
(5)
where z is the normal stress in to the GPA. The stressstrain relationship for GPA material, is
(2)
Egp z Egpo. 1 gp . z
dgp
Egp. z
z
Egp.
(6)
dz
d '
IS
Eso
(3)
are
I S' , ij
IS,
ij
1 .z
s
non-dimensional
soil
displacement
'
Es/Eso
z/L
z d
z Egp. z Egpo1 gp . . gp
L dz
(7)
0.5
dz
z d
Egpo. gp gp Egpo.1gp. . gp
dz
L dz
L dz
2
2
1
s=0
0.25
0.5
(8)
Egp/Egpo
2
gp d gp
d z
z d gp
Egpo
1 gp . .
.
dz
L dz
L dz
(9)
z/L
0.5
2
1
gp=0
1
0.25
0.5
z d gp 4
(10)
0
1 gp . .
L dz d
2622
2.(z)
(z)2
L
Egpo.d
I Ed I .{ } E 4..Ln .d .1.{ } 0
'
gp
'
S
so
n2 gp
4
'
i
0
(gp,i 1 gp,i 1) (1 gp.zi ).(gp,i 1 2gp,i gp,i 1)
L2 2.n
E
d
.
gpo
Eq. 12 is written as
a .
i
gp,i 1
4L2
i 0
n .Egpo.d
gp
.zi'
bi 1 gp
ai 1 gp .zi'
ci
2
.
n
where
(13)
1 gp . z i' gp
2.n
gp ,1 gp ,1 '
(15)
(16)
4L2
1 0
n2 .Egpo.d
s=0
s=0.5
0.5
1
z/L
c1. gp, 2
gp=0
gp,1
(20)
Eq. 15 reduces to
a . 2.b .
gpo
0.5
I E 4..nL .d . 0
'
gp
where
gp
(17)
gp
'
.
0
c3
2b4
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.. .
0 .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. an 1
.
.
c4
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
2bn 1
0
0
0
0
.
.
..
.
cn 1
(18)
0.5
1
s=0
s=0.5
0.5
S gp
gp=0
z/L
gp
c1
( a1 2b1 )
a
2b2
2
0
a3
0
0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
(a)
(19)
2623
(b)
Fig. 6 Normalized shear stress, * vs. Depth, z/L for L/d = 10,
K=50 & s=0.5 (a) Effect of s & gp.(b) Enlarged at top.
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
*
4
0
0
1.95
1
z/L
z/L
s=0
IU
1.35
0.75
0
gp=0
gp=0.5
0.5
1
0.5
gp=0
0.5
s=0
s=0.5
0.5
(a)
0
z/L
0.5
1
z/L
s=0
IU
1.3
0.65
0
gp=0
gp=0.5
1
0.5
0.5
s=0
gp=0
gp=0.5
(b)
Fig. 7 Normalized shear stress, * vs. Depth, z/L for L/d = 10,
K=50 & s=0.5 (a) Effect of s & gp.(b) Enlarged at top.
0.5
1.95
CONCLUSION
Analysis of the GPA under the influence of the nonhomogeneities of the deformation moduli of the soil and
granular material is presented in this paper. The shear stresses
near the top of GPA are significantly less for s increasing with
depth. Displacements reduce for the deformation moduli
parameters of soil and granular material increasing linearly with
depth (s=0.5 & gp=0.5). The displacements reduce by 30%
with depth for s=0.5 and 6% for gp=0.5 in comparison to
those for s=0 and gp=0 respectively.
2624
REFERENCES
Kumar P., Ranjan G. & Saran S. (2004). Granular Pile System for
Strengthening of Weak Sub-Soils A Field Study. International
Conf. on Geosynthetics and Geoenv. Engg, Bombay, 217-222.
Lillis, C., Lutenegger, A.J & Adams, M. (2004). Compression and
Uplift of Rammed Aggregate Piers in Clay. Geosupport:
ASCE/GEO Geotechnical Special Publication no. 14, 497-507.
Madhav, M.R., Vidyaranya, B. & Sivakumar, V. (2008). Linear
Analysis and Comparison of Displacements Granular Pile Anchors.
J. Ground Improvement, Issue 161, 31- 41.
Phanikumar, Sharma, R.S., Srirama Rao, A. & Madhav M.R. (2004).
Granular Pile Anchor Foundation (GPAF) System for Improving
the Engineering Behavior of Expansive Clay Beds. Geotechnical
Testing J., ASTM, Vol.27(3), 1-9.
Poulos, H.G. & Davis, E.H. (1980). Pile Foundation Analysis and
Design. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 397.
White, D., Wissmann, K., & Lawton, E. (2001). Geopier Reinforcement
for Transportation Application. Geotechnical News : 63-68.
Bridge foundation on very soft alluvia with stone column ground improvement
Fondation de pont sur alluvions trs mous et amlioration du sol avec des colonnes ballastes
Vlavianos G.J., Marinelli A.K.
Andrianopoulos K.
Foti S.
Geosynolo Ltd.
ABSTRACT: The present paper proposes technical solutions for a road design project comprising both bridges and high
embankments in the Region of Western Greece, where major geotechnical issues had to be dealt with. The very low P-y reaction of
the soft silty clays and the eventual liquefaction of the silty sand layers embedded within the foundation soil, the high ground water
table and the high seismicity of the area, led to the decision to improve the top part of the natural soil given the necessity for an
acceptable solution in terms of both dimensions and cost. Among other possible methods of soil improvement, the application of stone
columns followed by preloading was selected. A comparative parametric stability analysis of the bridge embankments and the pile
foundations for bridge piers, with or without the presence of stone columns, quantified the benefits from the proposed ground
improvement method and verified that the completion of this project is feasible within acceptable performance, safety and cost limits.
RSUM : La communication propose des solutions techniques pour llaboration dun projet de route qui comprend des ponts et des
remblais de grande hauteur dans la rgion de la Grce occidentale o il a fallu faire face des problmes gotechniques importants.
La trs faible rsistance des argiles limoneuses molles aux sollicitations horizontales et la liqufaction ventuelle des couches du
terrain formes de sables limoneux qui sont contenues dans le sol de la fondation, la nappe phratique leve et la haute sismicit de
la rgion, ont conduit la dcision damliorer la partie suprieure du sol naturel en prenant en considration la ncessit de trouver
une solution acceptable en ce qui concerne les dimensions et le cot. Parmi dautres mthodes damlioration du sol, il a t choisie
lutilisation des colonnes ballastes suivie dun prchargement du sol. Une analyse paramtrique comparative de stabilit des remblais
des ponts et des fondations des piliers des ponts avec ou sans la prsence des colonnes ballastes, quantifient les bnfices obtenus par
lutilisation de la mthode damlioration du sol propose et vrifie que lachvement de ce projet est ralisable avec une performance
acceptable en termes de scurit et de cots
KEYWORDS: road project, bridge foundation, soft alluvia, liquefaction, ground improvement, stone column, preloading.
INTRODUCTION
PROJECT OVERVIEW
GEOTECHNICAL CONDITIONS
2625
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2626
DESIGN CONCEPT
2627
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
CONCLUSION
2628
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES (TNR 8)
Subgrade improvement measures for the main rescue roads in the urban
redevelopment area HafenCity in Hamburg
Mesures damlioration du sol de fondation des principales routes de secours dans la zone du
ramnagement urbaine de la HafenCity Hamburg
Weihrauch S., Oehrlein S.
Grundbauingenieure Steinfeld und Partner GbR, Hamburg
Vollmert L.
BBG Bauberatung Geokunststoffe GmbH & Co. KG, Espelkamp
ABSTRACT: The level of many streets in Hamburg's HafenCity is being raised by around 3 m to ensure safety from flooding. The
marshy soils in this area mainly clay (a soft clay) and peat necessitate the use of different foundation-soil improvement concepts for
the limitation of settlement; these have to take account of the surrounding infrastructure (buildings, river-bank structures, services). The
Honkongstrasse serves as a good example of such concepts. Stress and deformation measurements were carried out on the site, in which
the concept of a "pile-supported, geogrid-reinforced sand sub-base layer" was used; this paper reports on the results.
RSUM: Dans le quartier dHafenCity Hambourg, la plupart des routes seront surleves jusqu 3 mtres pour atteindre le niveau de
protection contre les eaux. Les sols en place, dorigine marcageuse, sont constitus dargile et de tourbe. Du fait de lhtrognit des
sols, et en fonction des ouvrages existants (btiments, murs de rive, tuyaux enterrs), diffrentes approches ont t appliques pour
amliorer les sols et limiter les tassements. Dans cette communication, le cas dtude de la rue Hongkong sera prsent. Dans ce
projet, des gogrilles sont utilises en renforcement dune couche de forme sableuse pour la rpartition des contraintes. Une
instrumentation complte a t mise en place. Des mesures de contraintes et de dformation ont t effectues. Les rsultats de cette
instrumentation sont prsents dans cette communication.
KEYWORDS: urban redevelopment, soil improvement, geogrid, piled embankment, expanded clay, pre-loading
1.
INTRODUCTION
2.
2.1
2629
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
reinforced-concrete
0.6
filled
old sewer
2.3.1
MSL +4.8 m
0.5mgeogridreinforcedsandlayer
2.2
Detail A
1:1.5
weak layers
2630
reinforcementincrossdirection,
Secugrid200/40R6
2.3.2
3.
3.1
Accompanying measurement
3.2
Settlements [cm]
2.3.4
Below the level at which the sand was laid, settlementmeasuring rods, each adjustable in length and with a base plate
(1 m x 1 m) were installed, and these were continuously monitored
while the pre-load was in place. A plot of settlement against time
is shown in Figure 4.
3.3
3.2.1
Construction
For the required design working load of 500 kN, partialdisplacement bored columns with a diameter of 420 mm and an
unreinforced, fresh-in-fresh tapered cast cap C25/30 with a cap
diameter of 600 mm were installed by GKT Spezialtiefbau GmbH
working for Eggers Umwelttechnik GmbH.
High-strength, high-modulus geogrids Secugrid 200/40 R6 and
Secugrid 400/40 R6 were used to reinforce the sand base-layer.
The construction of the geogrid-reinforced sand layer had to be
carried out with overlap. A length of grid from the lower layer,
which was laid across the width of the base layer, was rolled and
stored at the edge of the fill. After the lengthwise reinforcement
and the fill had been placed, the stored roll was pulled up,
wrapped round the fill, and overlapped by the length required in
the design calculations (Figure 6). For a workmanlike placing it is
therefore necessary to ensure that the roll overlaps are arranged in
a staggered pattern in order to avoid distortion and twisting of the
geogrids.
The results of the measurements have been published by
Weihrauch et al. (2010) indicating the expected performance as
well as meeting the deformation requirements as given by the
design.
2631
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
such as pipes is not a problem. Perforation of the geogridreinforced base, e.g. by anchor layers, is possible in principle.
The sandfill material can be assumed to incur the lowest cost as
regards the pure construction costs of the structure. Under the
conditions applying at the HafenCity, the pile-supported, geogridreinforced method is usually somewhat cheaper to construct than
an expanded-clay fill layer. Absolute costs must be ascertained
taking into account project-specific reconstruction, protection and
follow-on measures. In addition to the cost aspect, the time
flexibility for individual measures, and their technical feasibility
under local conditions, are decisive criteria.
The authors wish to thank HafenCity Hamburg, Eggers
Umwelttechnik GmbH and Tilman Kaden Landschaftsbau, Bad
Segeberg for their support and permission for publication.
Thanks are due to NAUE GmbH & Co. KG for providing the
instrumented geogrids and technical support.
Figure 5: Placing of expanded clay
5. REFERENCES
EBGEO Empfehlungen fr den Entwurf und die Berechnung von
Erdkrpern mit Bewehrungseinlagen aus Geokunststoffen.
(Recommendations for Design and Analysis of Earth Structures using
Geosynthetic Reinforcements) 2. Auflage 2010. Hrsg. DGGT. Verlag
Ernst & Sohn, Berlin.
Kempfert, H.-G., Stadel, M. &Zaeske, D. (1997): Berechnung geokunststoffbewehrter Tragschichten ber Pfahlelementen. Bau-technik 74
(1997), Heft 12
Vollmert, L., Kahl, M., Giegerich, G. & Meyer, N. (2007): In-situ
verification of an extended calculation method for geogrid reinforced
load distribution platforms on piled foundations. XIV European
Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering
(ECSMGE), Madrid, September 2007
Weihrauch, S., Oehrlein, Vollmert, L. (2010): Baugrundverbesserungsmanahmen in der HafenCity Hamburg am Beispiel des
Stellvertreterprojektes
Hongkongstrae.
Vortragsband
zur
31. Baugrundtagung der DGGT, Mnchen, 3. 6. November 2010
Axis of road
4.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
2632
ABSTRACT: Cement-treated soil has been used widely in ground improvement for several decades. However, its behavior, especially
at high cement content, is highly brittle. Previous studies have shown that addition of both fibers and cement in soil improvement
seems to be more efficient and attractive than adding fibers or cement alone. This paper presents an experimental study on fiberreinforced cement-treated marine clay. Two different types of fibers and fiber lengths as well as different fiber contents (0.0%-0.32%)
will be investigated with cement content ranging from 20%-50% and water content ranging from 100%-167%. The experiment results
indicate that the strength and ductility of cement-admixed marine clay improve significantly with increasing fiber content until an
optimum fiber content is reached. It was found that the factors affecting the behavior of fiber-reinforced cement-treated marine clay,
such as fiber content, type and cut length and cement soil mix ratio, are not independent. In general, for water content not higher than
100% and cement content higher than 20%, using 12-mm polyvinyl alcohol fiber was found to give higher strength and better
ductility than polypropylene or shorter fibers.
RSUM : Des tudes prcdentes ont dmontr que lincorporation de fibres et du ciment dans l'amlioration de sol semble tre plus
efficace et attrayante qu'en ajoutant seulement les fibres ou le ciment. Cet crit prsente une tude exprimentale de l'argile marine
traite au ciment et renforce avec fibres. Deux diffrents types et longueurs de fibres de mme que des teneurs en fibre diffrentes
(0.0%-0.32%) seront examins avec une teneur en ciment qui stend de 20%-50% et deau qui stend de 100%-167%. Les rsultats
de lexprience indiquent que la rsistance et la ductilit du ciment-sol sont amliores de manire significative avec le contenu
croissant de fibres jusqu' ce qu'une teneur en fibre optimale soit atteinte. Il a t trouv que les facteurs qui affectent le comportement
de l'argile marine traite au ciment et renforce avec fibres, tel que la teneur en fibres, la longueur et le type de fibre et la proportion
du mlange du sol-ciment, ne sont pas indpendants. En gnral, pour une teneur en eau ne dpassant pas les 100% et une teneur en
ciment de plus de 20%, il a t constat que lutilisation de la fibre d'alcool de polyvinyl de 12mm offre une plus haute rsistance et
une meilleure ductilit que le polypropylne ou des fibres plus courtes.
KEYWORDS: fiber reinforcement, cement treated soil, brittleness index, compressive strength
1
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENT INVESTIGATIONS
Length
Type
(mm)
Diameter
(micron)
Aspect
ratio
Tensile
strength
(MPa)
Elastic
modulus
(GPa)
Density
(kg/m3)
PP6
26
231
540
910
PP12
12
26
462
540
910
PVA6
26
231
1600
40
1300
PVA12
12
38
316
1500
40
1300
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
1000
300
fiber content
no fiber
0.08%
0.16%
0.24%
0.32%
500
0
0
0.25
(a)
qu (kPa)
450
qu (kPa)
1500
fiber content
no fiber
0.08%
0.16%
0.24%
0.32%
150
0
0
0.25
(b)
no fiber
PVA
PP
250
0.32
(a)
(b)
2.7
2% of axial strain
5% of axial strain
10% of axial strain
20% of axial strain
2.6
2.4
2.2
2
2% of axial strain
5% of axial strain
10% of axial strain
15% of axial strain
2.4
2.1
1.8
1.5
1.4
1.2
1.2
0.9
1
0
0.32
(a)
3
2% of axial strain
4% of axial strain
8% of axial strain
15% of axial strain
2.7
2.4
2.1
0.32
2.7
2% of axial strain
5% of axial strain
10% of axial strain
15% of axial strain
2.4
2.1
1.8
1.8
1.5
1.5
1.2
0.9
0.9
0
(c)
(b)
1.2
0.08 0.16 0.24
PVA fiber content (%)
0.32
0.32
(d)
2634
0.32
300
200
0
1.8
1.6
Figure 1. Stress strain behavior for FRCT soil specimens with 6mm
long fiber. (a) 50% cement content and 100% water content; (b) 50%
cement content and 167% water content.
3.2
500
350
Brittleness index
3.1
no fiber
PVA
PP
400
Brittleness index
1000
Brittleness index
450
1500
Brittleness index
The natural marine clay was first mixed with the prescribed
amount of water to achieve 100% moisture content and
remoulded. Cement slurry with the water-cement ratio needed
to achieve the desired mix ratio was then added to marine clay
in a Hobart Mixer and mixed at a rotational speed of 125rpm for
around 5 minutes. The fiber was finally added to cement soil
mixing and mixed for another 10 minutes. For mixtures with
water content of 100%, the superplasticizer was used to improve
their workability. The dosage of the superplasticizer was 1.132.27l/100kg soil+cement solids. The mixture was placed into a
50mm (diameter) by 100mm (height) cylindrical polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) split-mould. No compaction was applied during
placement. Specimens were then submerged in distilled water
within their split-moulds without loading for curing. The
specimens were then taken out after 7 days for unconfined
compression testing. The test procedure followed those
prescribed in ISO/TS 17892 (2004). The strain rate used for the
unconfined compression test was 1.32%/min.
3.3
0.08%PVA12
0.16%PVA12
0.08%PP12
0.16%PP12
Brittleness index
1.75
1.55
1.35
1.15
2:1:3
2:1:4
2:1:5
20:7:27
5:1:6
Aw (%)
50
50
50
35
20
Cw (%)
100
133
167
100
100
catogery
high Aw,
low Cw
(HL)
high Aw,
mid Cw
(HM)
high
Aw &
Cw
(HH)
mid Aw,
low Cw
(ML)
low Aw
& Cw
(LL)
1494
752
386
1053
455
(PVA),
(PVA),
(PVA),
(PVA),
1240
632
405
874
471
(PP)
(PP)
(PP)
(PP)
(PP)
1445
761
403
NA
NA
(PVA),
(PVA),
(PVA),
1354
628
313
(PP)
(PP)
(PP)
SF
PVA>PP
PVA=PP
PVA=PP
PVA=PP
PVA<PP
LF
PVA>PP
PVA=PP
PVA>PP
NA
NA
PVA>PP
PVA>PP
PVA
PVA>PP
PVA<PP
0.95
0
5
Axial strain (%)
10
Figure 4. Ductility of RFCT soil with 0.08% and 0.16% 12mm long
fiber (50% cement and 100% water content).
1600
PVA12
PVA6
PP12
PP6
1400
1200
Peak
stren
-gth
qu
LF
(kPa
)
1000
Ductility
800
600
Perfor-
400
Specimen type
200
HL
HL
HM
HM
HH
2.1
(short)
(long)
Note: SF and LF denotes short and long fiber respectively
1600
1400
Brittleness index
1.7
1200
1.3
1.1
800
600
400
200
0.9
5
10
15
20
Axial strain (%)
PVA6
PP6
PVA12
PP12
1000
1.5
PP
PVA>PP
HH
2:1:3-PVA12
2:1:3-PVA6
2:1:4-PVA12
2:1:4-PVA6
2:1:5-PVA12
2:1:5-PVA6
1.9
(PVA),
mance
25
Specimen type
HL HL HM HM HH HH ML LL
(b) Brittleness versus strain for specimens with different mix ratio and
0.16% of 12mm or 6mm long fiber.
Figure 5. Effect of fiber length on strength and ductility for RFCT soil
specimens.
3.4
SF
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
1.35
Brittleness index
1.25
1.15
1.05
0.95
10
15
20
Axial strain (%)
25
(a) Brittleness index versus strain for 12mm long fiber reinforcement
(fiber content, 0.16%).
1.18
2:1:3-PVA6
2:1:3-PP6
20:7:27-PVA6
20:7:27-PP6
5:1:6-PVA6
Brittleness index
1.14
1.1
5:1:6-PP6
1.06
1.02
0.98
0
5
10
Axial strain (%)
15
(b) Brittleness index versus strain for 6mm long fiber reinforcement
(low water content, 100%; cement content, 20%-50%; fiber content
0.24-0.32%).
Brittleness index
1.02
1
2:1:4-PVA6
2:1:4-PP6
2:1:5-PVA6
2:1:5-PP6
0.98
0.96
0.94
0.92
0
5
10
15
Axial strain (%)
20
(c) Brittleness index versus strain for 6mm long fiber reinforcement
(mid to high water content, 133%-167%; high cement content, 50%;
fiber content, 0.24%).
Figure 7. Effect of fiber type on ductility for RFCT soil specimens with
20%-50% cement content, 100%-167% water content, fiber cut length
6-12mm and 0.16-0.32% fiber.
2636
CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
2:1:5-PVA12
REFERENCES
Large-scale Piled Raft with Grid-Form Deep Mixing Walls on Soft Ground
Comportement en vraie grandeur dune fondation mixte radier-pieux tablie dans un sol meuble
amlior par quadrillage de mlange profond de sol
Yamashita K., Wakai S., Hamada J.
ABSTRACT: This paper offers a case history of a large-scale piled raft supporting a twelve-story building founded on liquefiable
sand underlain by soft cohesive soil in Tokyo. The building, 55.7 m in height above the ground surface and measuring 120 m by 100
m in plan, is a steel-framed structure with a base isolation system of laminated rubber bearings. An assessment of a potential of
liquefaction during earthquakes indicated that the loose clayey sand between depths of 5 and 15 m had a potential of liquefaction
during earthquakes with the peak horizontal ground acceleration of 3.0 m/s2. Therefore, a piled raft combined with grid-form deep
cement mixing walls was employed to cope with the liquefiable sand and also to reduce settlements of the soft cohesive soil below the
sand. To confirm the validity of the foundation design, field measurements were carried out on the foundation settlements, the axial
loads of the piles, the contact pressures between raft and soil and the pore-water pressure beneath the raft from the beginning of
construction to 11 months after the end of construction.
RSUM : Cet article prsente une tude de cas en vraie grandeur d'une fondation mixte radier-pieux dun btiment douze niveaux
construit Tokyo. Cette fondation est tablie dans une couche de sable liqufiable reposant sur une couche de sol cohrent et meuble.
Le btiment, qui fait 120 m par 100 m dans le plan et 55.7 m en hauteur au-dessus du sol, a une structure mtallique en portiques. Il
est isol sa base par un systme dappareils d'appui en lastomre frett. Le potentiel de liqufaction estim du sable argileux entre 5
et 15 m de profondeur serait atteint sous une acceleration horizontale maximum de 3.0 m/s2. Pour pallier ce phnomne et reduire le
tassement de la couche sous-jacente de sol cohrent et meuble, une fondation mixte radier-pieux a t adopte en combinaison avec
lamlioration, en forme de quadrillage, de la couche de sable par mlange profond. Larticle discute le comportement de cette
fondation sur la base dune srie de mesures sur site, qui se sont poursuivies depuis le dbut jusqu onze mois aprs la fin de la
construction du btiment. Le dimensionnement de cette fondation est estim convenable considrant les mesures de tassement, des
forces axiales sur pieux, des contraintes sur le sol et de la pression de leau interstitielle sous le radier.
KEYWORDS: piled raft foundation, deep cement mixing wall, soft ground, field measurements, settlement, load sharing
INTRODUCTION
and the load sharing between the raft and the piles are also
discussed.
2
2637
FOUNDATION DESIGN
55.7m
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
SPT
N-Value
GL0
10
Depthm
20
30
40
Fill:
Clayey
sand,
Sandy clay,
R bbl
Effective
overburden
pressure
3.6m
8.5m
8.5m
14m
20m
20m
Silty clay
Clayey silt
Clayey silt
Sand
60
Silt
Sand and
gravel
7.2m
20m
Grid-form deep
cement mixing walls
35m
Silty clay
50
70
0 10 20 30 40
Shear
Undrained Consolidatio
wave
shear
n
strength
yield stress velocity
Vs
qu/2 (kPa)
Py
0 100 200 300 0 500 1000 15000 200 400 600
47m
Settlement gauges
Sand
9.6m
50m
60m
49.7m
PHC pile
115.2m
9.6m
21
23
25
Figure 1. Schematic view of the building and foundation with soil profile
Penetration
Improved soil
columns
3.1
Ground improvement
1,000mm
800mm
Liquefiable layer
Improved soil
columns
Tributary area
INSTRUMENTATION
Withdrawing
Tip treatment
Discharge of soildified
material
Stirring and mixing
Pile diameter
1.2m
1.1m, 1.0m
0.9m, 0.8m
0.7m, 0.6m
2638
9.6m
9.6m
9.6m
E2
9.6m
5
D2
P2
Monitoring devices
:Settlement gauges
:Instrumented pile
:Earth pressure cell
:Piezometer
9.6m
7
9.6m
9
11
End of construction
Nov.3,2012
- 10
Depth
8. 5m
14m
20m
35m
50m
- 20
- 30
200
400
Ti me ( days)
600
800
1000
Street
Set t l ement ( mm)
Foundation settlement
D1
S1
W
1
E3
Foundation slab
10
-10
P3
P1
RESULTS OF MEASUREMENTS
E1
D3
- 10
- 20
- 30
A
Mar.11,2011
Nov.3,2012
End of construction
P1
P2
P3
P4
10
5.1
P4
-5
200
400
Ti me ( days)
600
800
1000
Foundation slab
15
End of construction
Nov.3,2012
Depth
8. 5m
10
Tributary area
20m
47m
-5
200
400
600
Ti me ( days)
2639
800
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Dept h ( m)
15
20
Just after
casting slab
20
30
40
40
50
50
Mar.11,2011
200
Pr essur e ( kPa)
End of construction
Nov.3,2012
D1
D2
D3
150
100
50
Pore-water pressure
0
- 50
200
400
Ti me ( days)
600
800
1000
Foundation slab
200
End of construction
Nov.3,2012
E1
E2
E3
150
100
50
Pore-water pressure
0
- 50
200
400
Ti me ( days)
600
800
1000
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Mar.11,2011
80
End of construction
70
Nov.3,2012
60
Load ( MN)
REFERENCES
Foundation slab
50
Piles
40
30
20
Soil
10
0
Buoyancy
200
400
600
Ti me ( days)
800
1000
Figure 10. Time-dependent load sharing between raft and piles in tributary area
Mar.11,2011
Foundation slab
30
CONCLUSIONS
0
10
20
0 10 20 30 40 50
10
Pr essur e ( kPa)
5.4
SPT N-Value
Depthm
by the piles to the effective load and that to the total load in the
tributary area versus time. The ratio of the load carried by the
piles to the effective load was estimated to be 0.70 just before
the end of construction and increased only slightly to 0.71 in
November, 2012. Meanwhile, the ratio of the effective load
carried by the deep mixing walls to the effective load was 0.14
and the ratio of that carried by the intact soil to the effective
load was 0.15 in November, 2012.
1. 0
End of construction
Nov.3,2012
Effective load
0. 8
0. 6
Total load
0. 4
0. 2
0. 0
200
400
Ti me ( days)
600
800
Figure 11. Ratios of pile load to effective load and total load in tributary area
2640
1000
Institute of Geotechnical Engineering, Southeast University, China, and Department of Engineering, University of
Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
ABSTRACT: While Portland cement (PC) is the most widely used binder for soil stabilisation, there are significant environmental
impacts associated with its production in terms of high energy consumption and CO2 emission. Hence, the development of new low
carbon foot-print alternative cements has been encouraged. In this paper, reactive magnesia (MgO) was used as a soil stabilisation
binder and the MgO-stabilised soils were carbonated by gaseous CO 2 to improve the mechanical properties of the soil and reduce the
CO2 emission. The mechanical and microstructural properties of the carbonated MgO stabilised soils were investigated by using
unconfined compressive testing, x-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results showed that the
strength development rates of carbonated MgO-stabilised soils were much faster than those PC- and MgO-stabilised soils, and the
unconfined compressive strength of highly carbonated MgO-stabilised soils was close to that of 28-day ambient cured PC-stabilised
soils. The XRD and SEM results indicated that nesquehonite (MgCO33H2O) was the main product of the carbonated MgO-stabilised
soils and responsible for the significant strength development.
RSUM : Alors que le ciment Portland est le liant le plus utilis pour la stabilisation des sols, il y a d'importants impacts
environnementaux associs sa production en termes de consommation d'nergie leve et d'mission de CO2. Par consquent, le
dveloppement de nouveaux ciments alternatifs basse teneur en carbone a t encourag. Dans cet article, la magnsie ractive
(MgO) a t utilise comme liant pour la stabilisation des sols et les sols stabiliss la magnsie ont t carbonats par du CO2 gazeux
afin d'amliorer les proprits mcaniques des sols et de rduire les missions de CO2. Les proprits mcaniques et microstructurelles
des sols stabiliss la magnsie et carbonats ont t tudies en utilisant des essais de compression simples, la diffractomtrie de
rayons X (DRX), et la microscopie lectronique balayage (MEB). Les rsultats montrent que le dveloppement de la rsistance des
sols stabiliss la magnsie et carbonats tait beaucoup plus rapide que celui du ciment Portland avec prise l'air ambiant et celui
des sols stabiliss la magnsie. Ils ont galement montr que la rsistance la compression uniaxiale des sols stabiliss la
magnsie et carbonats tait proche de celle des sols stabiliss au ciment Portland avec prise l'air ambiant pendant 28 jours. Les
rsultats des DRX et MEB ont indiqus que la nesquehonite (MgCO33H2O) tait le produit principal des sols stabiliss la magnsie
et carbonats, et responsable de la forte augmentation de la rsistance.
KEYWORDS: soil stabilisation, reactive MgO, carbonation, unconfined compressive strength, microstructure.
1
INTRODUCTION
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
2.1
12
10
0
1
10
100
Figure 3 presents the UCS of uncarbonated MgO- and PCstabilised soils and carbonated MgO-stabilised soils cured under
ambient conditions. It is evident that the UCS values of the
uncarbonated MgO-stabilised soil are much lower than those
PC-stabilised soils, and both of the two mixes took ~28 days to
finish most of their strength development. Comparing of Figure
2 and Figure 3 indicates that the carbonation significantly
increased the UCS of MgO-stabilised soils in a very short time,
and the UCS of highly carbonated MgO-stabilised soils was
close to that of the 28-day PC-stabilised soils, which was ~10
times that of 28-day uncarbonated MgO-stabilised soils.
However, the ambient curing period did not affect the strength
of carbonated MgO-stabilised soil significantly, indicating the
carbonated MgO-stabilised soil could be used to support a
structure just after the completion of the carbonation procedure.
2642
12
10
(b)
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
(c)
Figure 4.XRD diffractograms of MgO-stabilised soils: (a) ambient
cured for 28 days and carbonated in incubator; (b)carbonated in triaxial
cell with 20 kPa CO2 flow through; and (c) carbonated in triaxial cell
with 200 kPaCO2 stationary. The abbreviations stand for: B-Brucite, CCalcite, Mg-MgO, N-Nesquehonite, Q-Quartz.
(a)
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 5.Scanning electron micrographs of the MgO-stabilised soils: (a)
ambient cured for 28 days (uncarbonated); carbonated in triaxial cell
with 200 kPa CO2 pressure for (b) 0.75 hours and (c) 4 days; (d)
carbonated in incubator for 7 days.
REFERENCES
2644
Shokarev V.
Poizner M.
ABSTRACT: This paper contains the research findings of reinforced soil cement properties manufactured by drilling mixing method.
Application of soil cement for solution of specific geotechnical problems is considered herein in terms of specific examples In the
field of coastal geotechnical engineering the hybrid coastal hydraulic engineering structures and sheet pilings using reinforced
concrete semi-shells have been developed. Full-scale physical simulation of pressing-in and removal of steel piles is carried out using
a modular coordination pile-pressing system.
RSUM : Cet article prsente les rsultats de ltude des caractristiques de matriau renforc sol-ciment fabriqu par forage et
mlange en place. Lutilisation de mlange sol-ciment pour la rsolution de certains problmes gotechniques est considr partir
dexemples prcis. Dans le domaine de la gotechnique ctire, des ouvrages mixtes ctiers et maritimes ont t construits, ainsi que
des pieux rainures, fabriqus en utilisant des demies coques en bton arm. La simulation physique grande chelle des processus
denfoncement et dextraction des pieux en acier est ralise par application dun systme de coordination modulaire denfoncement
des pieux.
KEYWORDS: soil cement, drilled pile, roll displacement of buildings, pile-pressing system.
1
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
Figure 1 Composite pile diagram: 1 soil cement shell, 2 cast-inplace reinforced concrete pile, 3 reinforcement cage.
Table 1. Test piles installation indices
,
D,
, %
D, mm
mPa
mm
1
3.4
801
22
512
h, m
0.1
3.7
786
21.4
524
3.2
790
20
518
0.05
-
3.5
793
20.6
510
0.1
2646
N ( Rb A Rsc As ,tot ),
(1)
R ( K U )
NU Ab ARbU b U
,
1 ( K 2)U
(2)
u
K
Nu, kN
N, kN,
Nos.
full-scale piles
1
0
1
1.70
11.20
179
2
1.54
1.40
1.70
32.20
635
3
2.73
1.60
1.70
52.41
1033
4
4.27
1.79
1.70
81.68
1616
S d t,
1 d /
(4)
tg
,
V
(5)
tg
(3)
S S1
,
nt / t1
(6)
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Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris 2013
The basic research for full-scale physical modeling on pressin and extraction equipment was based on the Modular Piling
System. This multifunctional equipment has been developed
with the intended purpose of implanting prefabricated
construction elements using the press-in method. The piling
system is equipped with the original hydraulic piling machine
(Fig. 6) with wedge-operated clamps (testing devise) and a
modular coordinating skidding system (MKS).
2648