Chapter 9 Identifications (The Late Middle Ages: Social and Political Breakdown (13001527)

1. Marsilius of Padua
Author of Defender of Peace
o Autonomy of secular governments
o No earthly punishment for spiritual crimes
o Challenge to popes authority in secular matters
Declared heretical in 1327
2. Lorenzo Valla
Fifteenth century Italian writer
o Challenged authenticity of the Apostles Creed
o Criticized medieval assumptions about Gods nature, humanity, and society
o Heretic?
3. William of Ockham
Criticisms of medieval assumptions
Similar ideas to Marsilius of Padua
o Secular autonomy of kings
4. Estates General
Representative council of townspeople and nobles
o Creation during Hundred Years war
o Purpose: secure funds for the king
Time in power
o After capture of French King John II the Good
o Rights similar to English privileged class
o Too weak to govern effectively
5. Edward III
English King
Starter of Hundred Years War
o Claim to French throne
o Vassal of French King
Peace of Brtigny under him
o End of vassalage
o Ransom of John the Good
o Renouncement of claim to the throne
6. Jacquerie/ simple jack
French peasant revolt
o During Hundred Years War
o Cause
Exploitation by nobility
Higher taxes to repair nobles war-ravaged land
Named after peasant
o Jacques Bonhomme/ simple jack
Atrocity-filled putdown by nobility
7. Joan of Arc
French savior
o Executor of Gods will
o Slew of victories starting with Orlans
o Inspiring
o Creator of national unity

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

Abandonment to Burgundians by Charles VII

o Execution for heresy
o Declaration of innocence (1456)
Sainthood (1920)
Black Death
Causes
o Weakened and vulnerable European population
o Rats from ships from Asia
Spread through air
Killed 40% of European population
Consequences
o Obsession with death
o Deep-rooted pessimism
o Increase in materialism
o Less power for nobles
o Growth of cities
o Increase in hatred of Jews (scapegoats)
o Increase in royal power
o Fall of agricultural prices
o Increase in wages for farm laborers and artisans
o Increase in prices for manufactured goods
Marguerite Datini
Infertile woman from near Florence
o Attempts to become fertile
Poultice for her belly
Change in her husbands diet
Belt inscribed with incantation and attached by praying male virgin
Demonstrative of wide range of treatments in medieval medicine
Giovanni Boccaccio/ Decameron
Author of Decameron (1353)
o Describes symptoms of the plague
Tumors of armpits or groin
Spread of tumors
Tumors turn black
o Contains various reactions to plague
Moderate life
Indulgence in passions
Fleeing plagued areas
o Demonstrative of wide range of reactions to plague due to lack of medical knowledge
Taille
Direct tax on French peasantry
Increase during plague
o Cause of Jacquerie
Avignon
Italian imperial city near border with France
Seat of papacy from 1309-1377
o Characterized by strong French influence
o Expansion of papal sources of revenue
Increase in papal taxes
Beginning of sale of indulgences

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

Later restriction of this expansion by secular governments in France,

England Rome
o Failed attempt to return to Rome by Pope John XXII
War with prominent Italian family, the Visconti
Emperor Louis IV with Visconti
Pope Innocent III
Creator of Plentitude of Power
Decree preventing taxation of clergy without papal consent
Use of decree by Boniface VIII
o French and English taxation of clergy in preparation for Hundred Years War
o Bonifaces refusal to consent
English response: Removal of clergy from kings protection
French response: Denial of papal revenue streams
Bonifaces retreat
Plentitude of Power
Creation of papal monarchy
o Clearly political
o Transformation of papacy into secular power
o Weakening of church spiritually
Distinction between pope and the Church
o Pope = papal monarchy
o Church = entire body of the faithful
Challenges to papal monarchy from reformers because of this
Benefices
Paid religious office
Expansion of papal power
o Papal determination of more benefices
o Innocent III
Rota Romana
Papacys law court
o Tighter and more centralized legal proceedings
Representative of expansion of secular papal power
College of Cardinals
Body of Cardinals (second highest church officials)
o In charge of electing pope
o Increasingly political starting in the 13th century
Boniface VIII
Pope from 1294-1303
Nobleman and skilled politician
Conflicts with France and England
o French and English taxation of clergy
Violation of Innocent IIIs decree
English response: Removal of clergy from kings protection
French response: Denial of papal revenue streams
Bonifaces retreat
o Champion of Scottish resistance
Angry response of Edward I and English parliament
o French imprisonment of those loyal to Boniface
Last ditch effort: Unam Sanctam
Fails

19. Unam Sanctam

Boniface VIIIs response to French imprisonment of those loyal to him
Declaration of papal rights in secular matters
Fails
French capture of Boniface
o Near execution of Boniface
20. Avignon Papacy
1309-1377
Characterized by strong French influence
New ways of papal revenue
o Increased clerical taxes
o Sale of indulgences
Monetary atonement for sins
Doctrine of purgatory
o Opposition
Secular governments in France, England, and Germany
Attempted return to Rome
o Pope John XXII
o Fails
21. Pope John XXII
Most powerful of Avignon popes
Attempt to return papacy to Rome
o War with Visconti
Emperor Louis IVs support for Visconti
o Support of royals from William of Ockham and Marsilius of Padua
Defender of Peace- autonomy of secular government
o Ultimately a failure
Papal transformation into something similar to secular government
22. Curia
The papal court
Adjusting papacy to emerging European monetary economy
o Criticism of such efforts
23. Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges
Part of resistance to Avignon papacys attempts to gain new revenue
Legal independence of French church as acknowledged by papacy
o Charles VII
o Election of own clergy
o Prohibition of some papal taxes
o Limit of appeals from French courts to Curia
24. John Wycliffe
Oxford theologian and philosopher
Anti-clerical policies of English government
Rights of royalty against papal interference
o Similar to William of Ockham and Marsilius of Padua
Clerical poverty
Necessity of personal merit for religious authority
Foresight of Protestant criticisms
o Papal infallibility
o Sale of indulgences

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

Inspirer of Lollards
Posthumous accusation of heresy
Lollards
Follows of John Wycliffes writings
Advocates of preaching in the local language
Champions of clerical poverty
Initially from all social classes
o Strong support from those who would gain from clerical poverty
Nobility
Gentry
o Strong support from those against church system
The poor
The lower clergy
Capital offense in 1401
o Alliance of Church and king
John Huss/ Jan Hus
Religious head of University of Prague
Bible in local languages
Questions about validity of sacraments
Influence from Wycliffe
Execution for heresy
Husstites
Followers of John Huss
Same Eucharist for common people and clergy (bread and wine)
Successes
o Council of Basel
o Significant religious reform
o Autonomy of Bohemian church
Donatism
Form of ancient heresy
Teaching that effectiveness of sacraments relied partially on personal merit of
administering clergyman
Use to attempt to discredit John Wycliffe
Great Schism
Cause
o French dislike of Italian pope, Urban VI
o Election of second pope, Clement VII, by group of 13 (mostly French cardinals)
The Sides
o Urban- England, the Holy Roman Empire, Hungary, Bohemia, and Poland
o Clement- France, Naples, Scotland, Castile, and Aragon
Attempted solutions
o Mutual cession
o Resignation of one
o Forced deposition of both
Third Pope
o Council of Pisa
o Pisan pope, Alexander V
End of Schism
o Council of Constance

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

o All 3 popes deposed

o New pope, Martin V
Conciliar Movement
Attempts to end Great Schism with church councils
Based on conciliar theory
Councils of Pisa, Constance, and Basel
End of movement
o Brief reunification of eastern and western churches
o Increased papal prestige
o Collapse of Council of Basel
Consequences
o Broad acceptance of idea that leader should provide for well-being of those he leads
o Increased secular control, especially of national and territorial churches
Conciliar Theory
Representative council of the whole church
o Whole church = all the faithful
o Purpose: keep pope in line
Council greater than the pope
Popes purpose: maintaining church unity
Popes failure to do that with Great Schism
Council of Pisa (1409)
Attempt to end Great Schism
Council made up of cardinals of both popes
Deposal of both popes
Election of new pope, Alexander V
Refusal of Roman and Avignon popes
Council of Constance (1414-1417)
Recognized by both Pisan and Roman popes
Declaration of power to elect new pope
Deposal of all three popes
Election of new pope, Martin V
End of Great Schism
Council of Basel (1431-1449)
Peak of conciliar government
Hussite demands
o Giving everyone bread and wine for Eucharist
o Free preaching
o Forbidding clergy from holding secular office or owning land
o Justice against clergy who commited mortal sins
o Acceptance of all but one concerning holding secular office or owning land
End of Hussite Wars
Self-jurisdiction for Bohemian church
Curtailing of papal power of appointment and taxation
Collapse of council and conciliar movement
Golden Horde
Governing body of Russia when it was a Mongol possession
o Russian cities = dependent, tribute-paying principalities
o Conscription into Mongol army
Increase in cultural divisions between Russia and the West

Slavery for resistance

Intermarriage and implementation of Islam
o Veils and more seclusion for Russian women
Lack of major changes to religious or political institutions
More stability for Russia

Chapter 10 Identification (Renaissance and Discovery):

1. City-State
A nation based in a large city that absorbs some of the surrounding area
2. Venice, Florence, Genoa, Milan
Four major Italian city states
Venice, Florence, Genoa = Republics
Milan = Duchy (ruled by a duke)
Expansion because imperial and papal forces were in conflict
o Merchant oligarchies
o Lots of political strife
Most ruled by despots by 15th century
Venice exception
3. Jacob Burckhardt
19th century historian
o Known for views on humanism
Italian Renaissance = birth of modernity
Renaissance characterized by un-Christian philosophy
4. Francisco Petrarch
Father of Humanism
o Previously a lawyer
o Avignon
o Celebration of ancient Rome
Personal letters to ancient Romans
Epic poem in tribute to Roman general Scipio Africanus
Biographies of famous ancient Romans
o Love poems
o Coexistence of Classical and Christian values
Petrarchs letters to Saint Augustine
Petrarchs defense of the personal immorality of the soul against Aristotelians
o Scholastics = Useless
5. Giovanni Boccaccio/ Decameron
Petrarchs student and friend
Pioneer of Humanism
Decameron
o 100 tales told by 3 men and 7 women who fled plague ridden Florence in 1348
o Social commentary
Expose of sexual and economic misconduct
o Sympathetic look at human behavior
6. Coluccio Salutati
Florentine chancellor
Leader of mature humanist movement
Helped spread humanism throughout Italy
7. Grandi
Nobles and some merchants
Traditional rulers
8. Popolo grosso/fat people
New rich
Capitalists and bankers
Challenge old rich for power

9. Middle-burgher
Guild masters, shop owners, and professionals
Side with new rich
10.Popolo minuto/little People
Lower economic classes
In 1457, 1/3 of Florence listed as paupers (have no money)
11.Ciompi Revolt
Revolt by poor
o Anger at social class system
Feuding between new and old rich
Social anarchy from Black Death
Collapse of Bardi and Peruzzi banking houses
o Successful
Four-year reign by lower classes
Undermines stability until rise of Medicis
12.Cosimo de Medici
Controlled Florence
o Wealthiest citizen
o Astute statesman
Manipulated Constitution
Influenced elections
o Kept Signoria loyal to him
13. de Medici family
Brought stability to Florence
Controlled Florence
o Subtle despotism
14.Signoria
Council that governed Florence
o Expansion from 6 to 8 members
o Members from most powerful guilds
o Basically controlled by the Medicis during 15th century
15.Lorenzo de Medici
Cosimos grandson
Near totalitarian style of rule
o Assassination of brother
By Pazzi family and Pope who disliked Medici control
Made Lorenzo cautious and determined
16.Podesta
Name for hired strongmen who ruled Italian city-states
o Despots
o Prevent internal social conflict and foreign intrigue from paralyzing city
o Purpose: Maintain law and order
o Executive, military, and judicial authority
o Ensure normal business
o Use of mercenary armies
17.Condottieri
Military brokers
Gave mercenary armies to podesta
18.Humanism
Scholarly study of Latin and Greek classics as well as ancient Church fathers

Dual purpose
For its own sake
Hope for rebirth of ancient norms and values
o Many different views
Birth of modernity characterized by un-Christian views
Champions of authentic Catholic Church
Form of scholarship meant to promote civic responsibility and political
liberty
19.Leonardo Bruni
Florentine
First to name humanism
Student of Manuel Chrysoloras (Byzantine who opened Italians to Greek writing)
20.Dante Alighieri
Early Italian humanist
Religious/ spiritual orientation
o Vita Nuova
o Divine Comedy
Epic poem
Travels through hell, purgatory, and heaven
o Cornerstones of Italian vernacular literaure
21.Giovanni Boccaccio
Petrarchs student and friend
Pioneer of Humanism
Decameron
o 100 tales told by 3 men and 7 women who fled plague ridden Florence in 1348
o Social commentary
Expose of sexual and economic misconduct
o Sympathetic look at human behavior
22.Pietro Paolo Vergerio
Humanist who wrote about education
o On the Morals that Befit a Free Man
Most influential Renaissance text on education
Importance of liberal studies
Virtue and Wisdom from education
Education ennobles men
23.Vittorino da Feltr
Exemplified ideals of humanist teaching
Physical education and games alongside liberal arts studies
24.Baldassare Castiglione/The Courtier
Practical guide for nobility at the court of Ubino
o Shows Humanist learning not confined to class room
Embodies highest ideals of Italian humanism
How to be a successful courtier
o Combine knowledge of ancient languages and history with athletic, military, and
musical skills
o Also have good manners and exhibit high moral character
25. Christine De Pisan
Italian
Physicians daughter
Astrologer at King Charles Vs court

 Expert in classical, French, and Italian languages and literature

Writer The Treasure of the City of Ladies Accomplishments of greatest women in history
Spousal encouragement of hard work, savvy business decisions
Wives stay at home
26. Florentine Platonic Academy
Patronage of Cosimo de Medici
Supervision of Marsilio Ficino and Pico della Mirandola
Synthesis of Paltonic philosophy and Christian teachings
Not formal school Informal gathering of humanists
27. Pico della Mirandola
Supervisor of Florentine Platonic Academy
o Patronage of Medicis
o Evolution during his rule
28. Platonism
Study of works of Plato
Appeal of Platonism
o View of human nature
Eternal sphere
Perishable world where humans live
Human reason in the eternal sphere
29. Oration on the Dignity of Man
Most famous Renaissance statement on human nature
Written by Pico
Platonic Influence
o Oration on the Dignity of Man
Collection of 900 theses
Basis for public debate on all of lifes important topics
Unique freedom of choice in humans
30. Lorenzo Valla
Apostolic secretary under Pope Nicholas V
Humanist and Greek influence in Europe
o Lorenzo Valla
Elegances of Latin Language- Standard Renaissance text on Latin philology
Defense of predestination
Refutation of Donation of Constantine- Simple textual analysis and historical logic
Loyal to the Church
Inadvertent help for Protestants
31. Civic Humanism
Examples of humanist leadership of the political and cultural life
o Based on ideals of humanism
Promotion of individual virtue and public service
o Three humanist chancellors of Florence
Coluccio Salutati
Leonardo Bruni
Poggio Bracciolini
Rhetorical skills to rally Florentines against aggression of Naples and
Milan
32. Chiaroscuro

 Use of shading to enhance naturalness

Special technique first used by Renaissance artists
33. Giotto
Father of Renaissance painting
Signaled new direction of Renaissance art
o Art filled with energy and life
o Art stood out from canvas in three dimensions
Admirer of Saint Francis of Assisi
His art
o Painted more of the natural world
Loved nature
o Still filled with religious seriousness
o No longer very abstract or unnatural
34. Leonardo da Vinci
Universal person
o Great painter
Great conveyer of inner moods through use of facial expression
o Military engineer for Ludovico il Moro in Milan, Cesare Borgia in Romagna, and
French king Francis I
Foresaw planes and submarines
o Advocate of scientific experimentation
Dissection of corpses to learn anatomy
Self-taught botanist
35. Raphael
Renaissance artist
o Best known for tender madonnas
Originally in monastery of San Sisto
o The School of Athens
Portrayal of masters of Western philosophy
Almost perfect example of Renaissance techniques
Loved and respected by his contemporaries
36. Michelangelo
Renaissance artist
o Known for harmony, symmetry, proportion, and glorification of human form
Sculpture of David
o Works commissioned by four different popes
Sistine Chapel for pope Julius II
o Insistence of doing own work
o Evolution of his art
Later works more complex (deep personal changes)
Passing of High Renaissance into mannerism
37. Mannerism
Dominant art form of 16th and 17th centuries
Pioneered by Michelangelo
Name from artists being able to express emotions (paint in mannered way)
Reaction against simplicity and symmetry of High Renaissance
o Made room for the strange and abnormal
o Freer reign of subjectivity for the artist
38. Black Death
Reduced supply of laborers

 Rise in demand after black death

o Importation from Africa, the Balkans, Constantinople, Cyprus, Crete, and Black Sea region
o Many races
39. Treaty of Lodi
Alliance between Milan, Naples and Florence
o Stood together against Venice and Papal States
o Brought peace between natural enemies Milan and Naples
End of alliance
o Rise of power of Milanese despot Ludovico il Moro
Representative of Italian states forming together for common defense
40. Charles VIII
French successor to King Louis XI
Invasion of Italy
o Response to Milanese call for French assistance
o Quickly conquered Florence
Attempt at appeasement by Medici ruler
Rise to power of pro-France Girolamo Savonarola
No resistance
o March through Papal States and Naples
Scared non-Italians (including Spanish)
Repulsion of French
o League of Venice
Spain, Venice, Papal states, Holy Roman Empire, and eventually Milan
41. Pope Alexander VI
Borgian Pope
Aided French return to Italy during his reign
Most corrupt pope ever
o Openly promoted political career of Borgias
o Used papal authority to aid Borgia attempts to secure a powerful base in
Romagna
Help for the French
o Wanted French help to reestablish control over Romagna
o Annulled Louis XIIs marriage to Charles VIIIs sister
Louis free to marry Charles widow
Keeps Brittany French
o Cardinalship for Louis favorite cleric
o Abandoned League of Venice
42. Borgia Family
Prominent Italian family
Led by Pope Alexander VI and his sons, Cesare and Lucrezia
Used French help and power of papacy to take Romagna
43. Pope Julius II/Warrior Pope
Succeeded Alexander VI
Enemy of Borgias
o Suppressed them
o Made their lands in Romagna papal lands
Warrior Pope
o Brought Renaissance papacy to peak of military prowess and diplomatic intrigue
o Drove Venetians out of Romagna

Drove French out of Italy with help of Spain, Venice, Holy Roman Empire, and
Switzerland
44. Concordat of Bologna
Result of third French invasion of Italy and victory at Marignano
French king control over French clergy
French recognition of papal superiority to church councils
Papal right to collect annates in France
Helped keep France Catholic during Reformation
Led to four major wars with Spain (French lost them all, of course)
45. Niccolo Machiavelli/The Prince
Humanist and student of ancient Rome
o Disliked contemporaries who lacked ancient Roman traits/ virtues
Convinced that political unity and independence for Italy were worth any costs
o Disliked internal feuding
Deep republican ideals
The Prince
o How to guide for despots
o May have been cynical satire
o Dedicated to a Medici
Held high hopes for Medici family
46. Gabelle
French monarchial tax on salt
Representative of new monarchial mean of revenue
o National tax on basic food
47. Taille
Direct tax on French peasantry
Another new mean of monarchial revenue
48. Charles VII
Creation of professional army
Defeat of English in Hundred Years War
Strong economy
Diplomatic corps
National administration
Centralized authority in France
49. Isabella and Ferdinand
Marriage and union of Castile and Aragon
Castiles lucrative sheep trade
Securing of lots of land
Christianizing of Spain
Military ventures
End of religious tolerance
Total control of Spanish church
Spanish inquisition (monitor converted Jews and Muslims)
Exile of Jews
Exile of Moors (Muslims)
Marriage unions against France
Promotion of overseas exploration
Sponsorship of Columbus
Centralization of authority of Spain
50. Mesta

Government-backed organization in Castile, Spain

o Ran sheep-farming industry
o Example of centralized economic planning
51. Hermandad
Powerful league of cities and towns in Spain
Allied with Isabella and Ferdinand
o Helped against landowners
o Helped Spain become centralized
52. Henry VII
AKA Henry Tudor
Defeated Richard III to end internal strife between House of Lancaster and House of
York
From House of Lancaster
Married Elizabeth of York to end strife
Started Tudor dynasty that would dominate 16th century
Centralized authority
Court of Star Chamber
Legal constructs that benefitted the king
Confiscation of nobles lands and fortunes
53. Golden Bull
Attempts to centralize
o Golden Bull (1356)
Seven-member electoral college (archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne, duke
of Saxony, margrave of Bradenburg, count of Palatine, and king of Bohemia)
Electoral college also administrative body
Election of emperor of Holy Roman Empire
Some transregional unity
Changed from ruler to ruler
Many more powerful than the one
Failure
54. Reichstag
Attempts to centralize
o Reichstag
National assembly (seven electors, nonelectoral princes, and representatives from 65
imperial free cities)
Weakness of cities
Imperial ban on private warfar
Creation of Supreme Court of Justice for internal peace
Council of Regency to coordinate imperial and internal German policy
Failure
55. Desiderus Erasmus
Most famous northern Humanist
Prince of Humanism
Previously a tutor
Strong dislike of Scholastics
Anger at letting doctrine and disputation for overshadowing Christian piety and practice
Coexistence of Classical and Christian values

Erasmus focus on study of both classics and Bible

o
o
o

Erasmus combination of classical humanity and civic virtue with Christian

ideals of love and piety

Other things
Erasmus Colloquies and Adages
Erasmuss anticlerical satires
Erasmus restoral of ancient works
Greek edition of New Testament (1516)
Latin translation of New Testament (1519)
Angry response of Church
o Use of Erasmus work by reformers
57. Adages
Collection of ancient and contemporary proverbs
o Over 5000 entries
o Popular modern expressions
To leave no stone unturned
Where there is smoke, there is fire
Written by Erasmus
58. Philosophia Christi
Erasmus personal beliefs on unification of Classical ideals and Christian values
A simple, ethical piety in imitation of Christ
Clashed with late Middle Ages religious fanaticism
59. Index of Forbidden Books
List of books banned by the Catholic Church
Contained all of Erasmus works at one point
60. Reuchlin Affair
Johann Reuchlin
o Foremost Christian authority on Hebrew and Jewish learning
o Wrote first reliable Hebrew grammar by a Christian scholar
o Attracted to Jewish mysticism
Christian convert from Judaism moved to suppress Jewish writings
o Attacked Reuchlin
German humanists to the defense (academic freedom)
Brought Ulrich von Hutten onto historical stage
o Wrote Letters of Obscure Men
Satire on monks and Scholastics
Unified reform minded German humanists
o Led them to defend Martin Luther
61. Thomas More/Utopia
Friend of Erasmus
Most well-known English humanist
Utopia
o Conservative criticism of contemporary society
o Imaginary society
Overcame social and political injustice
All property and goods shared
People earn bread with their own work
One of Henry VIIIs most trusted diplomats
Execution
o Repudiation of Act of Supremacy (1534)- made English king head of English
church

62. Francisco de Cisneros

Spanish enforcer of religious orthodoxy as Grand Inquisitor
Founding of University of Alcala
Printing of Greek edition of New Testament
Translation of religious tracts for reform of clerical life and better direct lay piety
Greatest work
o Complutesian Polygot Bible
Latin, Greek, and Hebrew versions of Bible in parallel columns
Helped keep Spain Catholic during Reformation
63. Black Legend
Stated that Spanish treatment of Native Americans was unprincipled and inhuman
Mostly true
Result of criticism from Spanish missionary Bartolome de Las Casas
64. Conquistadores
Spanish for conquerors
Early ones were interested only in gold
Hernan Corts
o Aztec Empire
Mexico City (Tenochtitln)
Belief that Corts was their god
Gifts and gold for Corts
o The Conquest
Corts alliances with subject peoples and Tlaxcala (enemies of the Aztecs)
Moctezumes welcome, capture and death
Spanish retreat
Siege of Tenochtitln
Aztec resistance under Cuauhtemoc
Aztec defeat
Razing of Tenochtitln
Francisco Pizzaro
o Incan Empire
Cuzco
Atahualpas (Incan ruler) conference with Pizzaro
o The Conquest
Murder of Atahualpas followers
Atahualpas failed self-ransom
Capture of Incan capital
Insurrections and disunity until 1560s
65. Hacienda
Major agricultural institution in Spanish colonies
Large landed estate owned by Peninsulares or Creoles
Workers in some form of formal servitude
Two major products
o Foodstuff for mining areas and urban centers
o Leather goods used in mining machinery
66. Peninsulares
Social class is Spanish colonies referring to people originally born in Spain
67. Creoles
Social class is Spanish colonies referring to people of Spanish descent born in the
Americas

68. Encomienda
A formal grant of the right to the labor of a specific number of Native Americans,
anywhere from hundreds to thousands, for a set amount of time
Social device meant to provide labor servitude in Spanish colonies
Declined in mid-1500s because Spanish monarchs feared that it would lead to a strong
nobility in the New World
69. Repartimiento
Required adult male Native Americans to devote a certain number of days annually to
Spanish labor
Often harsh and many didnt survive their terms
Replaced encomienda
Led to shortage of labor and royal pressure against extreme forms of forced labor
70. Debt Peonage
System requiring free Native American laborers to purchase goods from land/ mine
owned
Led to never-ending debt and basically servitude
Replaced repartimiento

Chapter 11 Identifications (The Age of Reformation):

1. The reformation
Attempt to reform Catholic Church
Ends up creating breakaway Christian churches (Protestant churches)
Causes
o Close identification with local rights
o Crises of medieval church
2. The Modern Devotion
Lay religious movement on eve of Reformation
Centered in Netherlands
Religious life outside traditional ways
o Common life of clerics and laity
o Importance of individual piety
Clerical activity in education
o Sponsorship of publications
o Schools for poor
Source of humanist, Protestant, and Catholic reform
Conservative
o More personal piety
o More informed religious life
Full religious life for lay people
3. Gerard Groote
Establisher of The Modern Devotion
4. The Imitation of Christ
Philosophy of The Modern Devotion
Guide to inner life
o Semimystical
o For monks and nuns
o Lay people too
5. Benefice System
Medieval system of filling religious offices
Ecclesiastical posts to the highest bidder
Lack of local religious life
o Lack of enforcement for residency requirements
o Local needs ignored
6. Martin Luther/Lutheranism
Leader in German Reformation
Son of a miner
Well-educated
o Influence of humanists
o Influence of The Modern Devotion
Monk and priest
7. Indulgences
Payment to absolve sin
Aid to fearful laity
Very easy to obtain by Luthers time
Jubilee Indulgence
o Popes Leo X and Julius II

Rebuild St. Peters Basilica

Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz
Debt
Support for indulgence
o Fuggers
o Proceeds
Half to Pope
Half to Archbishop
Luthers response
o 95 Theses
o Cant buy salvation
8. Fuggers
Augsburg banking house
Part of venture to sell Jubilee Indulgences
Election of Charles V
o 16th century superPAC
9. Justification by Faith
Luthers thinking on righteousness that God demands
How to obtain it
o Not from religious works or ceremonies
o Belief and trust in Jesus
10. Johann Tetzel
Indulgence Preacher
Preaching of Jubilee Indulgence for Archbishop
o Guilt of relatives of deceased
11. 95-Theses
Luthers view on indulgences
o 95 things wrong with indulgences
o Indulgences go beyond traditional practice
o Make it possible to buy salvation
Accepted by humanists and reformers
12. Charles V
Emperor of Holy Roman Empire
Elected in midst of punishment for Martin Luther
Election
o Help of Fugger
o New concessions
Revival of Imperial Supreme Court and Council of Regency
Promise to consult with diet of empire on major affairs
o Help for Reformation
Prevention of unilateral imperial action
13. Papal Infallibility
Catholic idea that pope cannot commit errors
Challenged by Luther
o Debate with John Eck
o Appeal to authority of scriptures
14. Address to the Christian Nobility
Luther
o Signal of new direction
To German princes
o
o

o Force reforms on Catholic Church

o Curtail its economic and political power in Germany
15. Babylonian Captivity of the Church
Luther
o Signal of new direction
Attack on seven sacraments
o Only two have basis in scripture
Baptism and Eucharist
Power of Scriptures, church councils, and secular princes over pope
16. Diet of Worms
Luthers presentation of his views
o Ordered to recant
Refusal
Secular outlaw as well
Charles V presided
17. Edict of Worms
Result of Diet of Worms
o Luther = secular outlaw
Hiding
Translation of Erasmus Bible into German
18. Habsburg Dynasty
Spanish dynasty
o Charles V (also Holy Roman Emperor)
Conflict with French
Need of Germans
Religious sovereignty for German territories
Allows Reformation to take root
19. Valois Dynasty
French Dynasty
o Conflict with Habsburgs
Four major wars
Disputed territories in Italy
Along borders
Allows Reformation to take root in Germany
20. Peasants Revolt
Inspiration
o Close alignment of Lutheran and peasant views
o Anger at territorial princes
Revolt in 1524
o Condemned by Luther
Un- Christian
Freedom of Christian = inner release from guilt and anxiety, not right to
revolt
Call on princes to mercilessly put it down
Ensures reforms last past 1520s
Ends chance of social reform during Reformation
o Put down
Per Luthers call
70,000- 100,000 dead
21. Karsthans

Burly, honest peasants

o Earned bread through work
o Sacrificed own comfort for well-being of others
Support of Lutherans
Symbol of simple life that God wanted people to live
22. Swiss Reformation
Swiss confederacy
Preconditions to reformation
o Growth of national sentiment
Popular opposition to foreign mercenary service
o Desire for church reforms dating back to conciliar days
Zwingli and Bullinger
23. Ulrich Zwingli
Ulrich Zwingli and the Swiss Reformation
o Growth of national sentiment
Popular opposition to foreign mercenary service
o Desire for church reforms dating back to conciliar days
o Personal history
Humanist education
Influence of Erasmus
Chaplain to Swiss mercenaries
Threat of foreign mercenary service
Opposition to indulgences and religious superstition
o Views of clerical celibacy
Right of priests to marry
Major Protestant difference
o Engineer of Swiss Reformation
Breaking of Lenten fast
Nothing outside the scriptures
Death during Swiss Civil Wars
24. The Marburg Colloquy
Attempt to unite Swiss and German Protestants in mutual defense pact
o Philip of Hesse
Luther and Zwingli
o Agreement on most issues
o Disagreement over Eucharist
Zwinglis spiritual interpretation
Luthers view that Christ could be physically present in Eucharist
Causes split between two movement
Failure
25. Philip of Hesse
German territorial ruler
Attempt to united Swiss and German Protestants in mutual defense pact
o Luther and Zwinglis disagreement
o Luther and Zwinglis meeting in his castle
Fails
Causes alliance to never materialize
26. Swiss Civil Wars
Conflicts between Catholics and Protestants
First Major Battle

o
o
o

At Kappel
June 1529
Protestant Victory
End of Catholic foreign alliances
Recognition of rights of Swiss Protestants
Second Major Battle
o Also at Kappel
o October 1531
o Zwinglis execution
o Rights of cantons to choose own religion
27. Anabaptists/Anabaptism
Breakaway from Zwingli
Conrad Grebel
Views as embodied by Schleitheim Confession
o Practice of adult baptism
Conformed to Scripture
More respectful of human freedom
o Refusal to go to war
o Refusal to swear oaths
o Refusal to hold secular office
Persecution by Protestants and Catholics
o Capital offense to rebaptize adults
o Shift to more rural followers
Rule of Munster
o Two Dutch emigrants
Baker Jan Matthys
Tailor Jan Beukelsz
o Lutherans and Catholics leave to avoid conversion
o Old Testament Theocracy
Charismatic leaders
Polygamy
o Crushed by Protestants and Catholics
28. Schleitheim Confession
Views of Anabaptists
Views as embodied by Schleitheim Confession
o Practice of adult baptism
Conformed to Scripture
More respectful of human freedom
o Refusal to go to war
o Refusal to swear oaths
o Refusal to hold secular office
29. Menno Simons
Moderate Anabaptist leader
o Pacifist
o Representative of Anabaptists after Munster
Example for future
Founder of the Mennonites
30. Spiritualists
Radical Protestant movement
Isolated individuals

Characterized by disdain of traditions and institutions

Only religious authority = Gods spirit
Former Lutherans
o Thomas Muntzer
Died during Peasants revolt
o Sebastian Franck
Critic of dogmatic religion
Religious autonomy of every soul
o Caspar Schwenckfeld
31. Antitrinitarians
More radical Protestants
Commonsense, rational, and ethical religion
Socinianism
o Michael Servetus
Blasphemies against Holy Trinity
o Lelio and Faustus Sozzini = founders
o Strongest opponents of Calvinism
Original sin
Predestination
o Defenders of religious tolerance
32. Socinianism
Michael Servetus
o Blasphemies against Holy Trinity
Lelio and Faustus Sozzini = founders
Strongest opponents of Calvinism
o Original sin
o Predestination
Defenders of religious tolerance
33. John Calvin/Calvinism
Calvanisms Replacement of Lutheranism
o Popularity in France, the Netherlands, and Scotland
Inspiration of or accompaniment of political resistance
o Views
Predestination
Individual responsibility to reorder society into Gods plan
Sovereignty of God over all creation
o John Calvins Personal History
Well-off family
Church benefices for good education
Conversion to Protestantism
Application of personal experience to Geneva
Surrender of benefices
34. The elect/Predestination
Idea that it is predecided where people will end up for eternity
o Decided at time of birth
o Doesnt matter what type of life one leads
o No one alive knows anyones fate
Calvinist/ Protestant idea
35. Max Weber
German sociologist

Views of Calvinism
o Work ethic
Combination of religious confidence and self-discipline
Reinforced capitalism
o Close association with Puritanism
36. Diet of Augsburg
Meeting of Catholic and Protestant representatives
o Purpose: Impose a settlement of the religious divisions
o Attended by Catholic Emperor (Charles V)
o Result
Order for Protestants to revert to Catholicism
Charles V
Firm establishment of Reformation
37. Augsburg Confession
Protestant statement at Diet of Augsburg
o Moderate
o Protestant beliefs
o Spurned by Charles V
38. Schmalkaldic League/Articles
Lutheran defensive alliance
o Response to Diet of Augsburg
o Augsburg Confession as banner
o Stalemate with emperor
Articles
o By Luther
o More strongly worded confession
39. Christian II
Ruler of Denmark
Introduced Protestantism
o Lutheranism
o Thriving under Frederick I
o Membership in Schmalkaldic League
o Official religion under Christian III
40. King Gustavas Vasa
Brought Lutheranism to Sweden
o Greed
Nobles
Want of Church land
Confiscation of Church land
Clergy subject to royal authority
41. Peace of Augsburg
Permanent division of Christendom
Ruler of land determines religion of land
o Practice into formal law
o Migration for religious reasons
Lutherans retain all Church land seized before 1552
Restrictions of High Catholics
o Ecclesiastical reservation
o Cant take lands, titles, privileges with them
No official recognition for Calvanism, Anabaptism

o
o

Anabaptists already separatists

Calvanist resistance
Organized revolution throughout northern Europe during second half of
16th century
42. Peace of Passau
Peace between Protestants and Catholics in Germany
o Charles V tired of fighting
Three decades of war
Protestantism too entrenched
o Reinstatement of Protestant leaders
o Guarantee of religious freedom for Lutherans
43. English Reformation
Englands initial opposition to Protestantism
Henry VIIIs need for annulment of marriage to Catherine
o Solution: Have king be spiritual leader
44. Statutes of Provisors and Praemunire
First passed by Parliament in mid-14th century
Curtailed power of pope in England
o Payments and judicial appeals to Rome
o Papal appointments in England
45. William Tyndale
Future Protestant reformer
Translation of New Testament into English
o Circulation in England
46. Henry VIII /Defender of the Faith
Original opposition to Luther
o Defense of seven sacraments
o Defender of the Faith
Given by Pope Leo X
47. Sir Thomas More
Chief minister for Henry VIII
Guide to royal opposition to first stage of English Protestantism
Defended Luthers response to Henrys attacks
o Response to Luther (1523)
48. Catherine of Aragon
Henry VIIIs First Wife
Relations
o Daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella
o Aunt of Charles V
No male heir
o Only one female heir (Mary)
Unnatural for women to rule over men
Could lead to political turmoil
Requirement of Pope Julius IIs permission
o Married brothers widow
o Viewed marriage as cursed
Want to marry Anne Boleyn
49. Anne Boleyn
Catherines lady-in-waiting
Henry VIIIs desire to marry her

Need for papal annulment

Charles V has pope hostage
Not likely anyways
o Failure of Cardinal Wosley
o New advisors
Thomas Carnmer and Thomas Cromwell
Lutheran sympathies
Solution: Make king head of English church
50. Reformation Parliament
Seven years of parliamentary convention
Changes to English church
o Measures to harass and reign in clergy
End of payments to Rome by clergy and laity
Submission of clergy (clergy under royal jurisdiction)
o King as head of English Church
o Complaints against Church
Indifference to needs of laity
Excessive number of religious holidays
o King as highest court of appeal
o Marriage changes
Annulment of Catherines marriage
Marriage to Anne Boleyn
o Act of Succession
o Act of Supremacy
o Dissolution of Englands monasteries and nunneries
o Precedent for religious change
Major changes require consent of Parliament
51. Thomas Cranmer
Henry VIIIs new advisor after Cardinal Wosley
Lutheran sympathies
Officiated Henrys marriage to Anne Boleyn
Archbishop of Canterbury
Annulment of Henrys marriage to Catherine
52. Act of Succession
Passed by Reformation Parliament
Anne Boleyns children as legitimate heirs to the throne
Execution of Thomas More and John Fisher
53. Act of Supremacy
Passed by Reformation Parliament
Henry as only supreme head of English Church
54. Six Articles of 1539
Henry VIII
Reaffirmation of transubstantiation
Denial of Eucharistic cup to laity
Celibate vows inviolable
Private masses
Oral confession
Shows lack of real change from Catholic doctrines
55. Edward VI

Henry VIIIs successor

Completed English Reformation
o Henrys Six Articles repealed
o Laws against heresy repealed
o Clerical Marriage
o Communion with cup
o Act of Uniformity and Book of Common Prayer
o Removal of images and altars
o Refuge for German Protestant leaders
o Thomas Cranmers confession of faith
Moderate Protestant doctrine
Justification by faith
Supremacy of Scriptures
Denial of Transubstantiation
Only two sacraments
56. Book of Common Prayer
Thomas Cranmer
Use in all English churches
o First Act of Uniformity
57. Acts of Uniformity
Impose Protestant changes in England
Book of Common Prayer
o Revised edition for second act
58. Theatines
Meant to lead broad revival of piety within Church
Groom devote and reform-minded leaders in higher levels of Church
Co-founded by Pope Paul IV (Bishop Gian Pietro Carafa)
59. Capuchins
Another reform minded group within Church
Return to original ascetic and charitable ideals of Saint Francis
Popular among ordinary people
60. Ursulines
For women
Convents in Italy and France
o Religious education for all social classes
o Very influential
61. Oratorians
Elite group of secular clerics
o Devotion to promotion of religious literature and church music
o Giovanni Perluigi da Palestrina
62. Counter Reformation
Reform of Catholic Church from inside
63. Jesuits
Members of the Society of Jesus
Missionaries who spread the word of God
64. Society of Jesus
Order founded by Ignatius of Loyola
Very successful
o Force in Counter Reformation

Growth
15000 members after one century
Thriving missionaries in Far East
65. Ignatius of Loyola
Founder of Society of Jesus
Religious conversion
o Courtier
o Seriously wounded during a battle with the French
o Recuperation
Spent time reading Christian classics
Impressed and inspired by self-sacrifice and resilience of Churchs saints
Spiritual Exercise
o Program of religious and moral self-discipline
o Absolute spiritual mastery over ones feelings
Discipline
Self-control
Lack of this in Protestants
Won back some Protestants
66. The Council of Trent
General council to reassert church doctrine
Meeting times
o 1545-7
o 1551-2
o 1562-3
Strict papal control
Mostly Italian
Important reforms = internal Church discipline
o Curtail sale of religious offices and goods
o Bishops forced to move to place of authority
o More power for local bishops
o Bishops needed to preach regularly and be highly visible
o Rules for priests
More neatly dressed
Better educated
Strictly celibate
Active among parishioners
o Seminary in every diocese
No concessions to Protestants
Reaffirmation of ideals challenged by Protestants
o Scholastic education of clergy
Dispute between Saint Thomas Aquinass way and Augustinian way
In favor of Aquinass way
o Role of good works in salvation
o Seven sacraments
o Transubstantiation
o Purgatory
o Veneration of saints, relics, and sacred images
o Indulgences
Initial resistance
o Rulers feared losing power to the pope

o Ended by passage of time and popes assurance otherwise

67. Genevan Academy
School founded by John Calvin and Theodore Beza (Calvins successor)
Training of Calvinist ministers
Way of education
o Being able to read primary sources
o Theologians had to defend doctrines using Bible
o Study of Greek and Hebrew
Spread of Protestant educational reforms
o France
o Britain
o New World
o Greek and Hebrew became commonplace for the educated
68. Battle of Lepanto
Battle that Cervantes fought in
o Decorated for gallantry
Cervantes
o Don Quixote
Satire of romantic chivalry
Juxtaposition of earthly realism and religious idealism
Both attitudes necessary for happy life
69. William Shakespeare
The great English Bard (and playwright)
Political conservative
o Accepting of social ranks of his time
o View of government through individual personality of ruler
Representative of Elizabethian dramas blending of different types of plays
Understood how people thought
Struck universal human themes
o Deep roots in contemporary religious tradition
70. Christopher Marlowe
Shakespeares contemporary
Influence on Shakespeare
o Model for character, poetry, and style
71. Somaschi and Barnabites
Repair damage done to people in war-torn Italy
o Moral, spiritual, and physical damage

Chapter 12 Identification (The Age of Religious Wars):

1. Baroque
Successor to mannerism
Artistic traits
o Grandiose
o 3-D displays of life and energy
Liked by Catholic Counter Reformation
o Shows how widespread opposition of two religions was
2. Peter Paul Rubens
Great baroque artist
Also a Catholic
3. Gianlorenzo Bernini
Great baroque artist
Also a Catholic
4. Christopher Wren
Protestant favored artist
o Art style seen in English churches
Artistic style
o Simple and restrained
5. Rembrandt van Rijn
Protestant favored artist
o Dutch Mennonite
Artistic style
o Simple and restrained
o Gentle portraits
6. Michel de Montaigne
French essayist
Scorned the dogmatic mind
o Shows intellectuals understanding the need of religious pluralism
o Shows acceptance of new skepticism, relativism, and individualism in religion
7. Valentin Weigel
German Lutheran commentator on half-century of religious strife in Germany
Advised people to look within themselves for religious truth not to churches and
creeds
o Shows intellectuals understanding the need of religious pluralism
o Shows acceptance of new skepticism, relativism, and individualism in religion
8. Politiques
Term to describe some of the rulers in Europe
o Subordination of theological doctrine to political unity
o Urged tolerance, moderation, compromise, and even indifference on religious
matters
o Held religious strife and civil war in check
9. Huguenots
Term for French Protestants
o Derived from Besancon Hugues, leader of Genevas political revolt that preluded
Calvanism
Persecuted by French government
o Under surveillance in 1520s
o Crackdown after capture of French king
o Retaliation for Protestants putting up anti-Catholic placards in Paris

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

Edict of Fontainebleau
French Protestants subjected to Inquisition
o Edict of Chateaubriand
More measures against Protestants
Many joined for political reasons
Edict of Fontainebleau
Subjected French Protestants to the Inquisition
Shows French government crackdown on Protestants
Habsburg-Valois War
Wars between Spanish and French dynasties
Peace with the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis
The Guises
Powerful family from eastern France that took advantage of weak monarchy
o Weakened monarchy
Henry II accidental died in jousting tournament
Son Francis II took power
Francis II easily influenced
o Strongest family
Easily seized power
Name became synonymous with militant, reactionary Catholicism
Gaspar de Coligny
Montmorency- Chatillon admiral
Wanted to take advantage of weak monarchy under Francis II
o Sympathized with French Huguenots for this reason
Political leader in French Protestant resistance
o Conspiracy of Amboise
Attempt to kidnap King Francis II with help of Protestant resistance and
Bourbon family
Condemned by Calvin for disgracing Reformation
Theodore Beza
Prominent French Protestant
Helped merge French Protestant religious resistance with people of political power
o Trying to convert powerful aristocrats
Jeanna dAlbert mother of future Henry IV
Prince of Conde
Catherine de Medici
Regent for Charles IX while he was a minor
Attempt to reconcile Protestant and Catholic factions
Colloquy in Poissy
Unsuccessful
Fear of Guise power
Want to preserve monarchy
Sought Protestant allies
o Edict of January- Protestants can worship publically outside of towns
Firm Guise control
Massacre of Huguenots
Indecision of Protestants
Charles IX
Son of Catherine de Medici

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

Under her regency at start of French religious wars

French King
The Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye
Ended third French religious war
Crown acknowledgement of power of Protestant nobility
Huguenot religious freedom in their territories
Huguenot right to fortify cities
Saint Bartholomews Day Massacre
Catherines fears
Huguenot Henry of Navarre married kings sister
Attempt to assassinate Coligny
Convinced Charles XI that Huguenot coup was underway
Massacre
Coligny and 3000 followers in Paris
20000 total in France\Changes nature of conflict from political struggle to struggle to
live
Pope Gregory XIII
Pope at time of Saint Bartholomews Day Massacre
Responded with special religious celebration
Philip II of Spain
King of Spain at time of Saint Bartholomews Day Massacre
o Responded with special religious celebration
o Also ensures French wont interfere with his efforts to put down Protestant rebels
in the Netherlands
John Knox
Exiled Scottish reformer
Groundwork for Calvinist resistance
First Protestant to not condemn political revolt against lawfully constituted
government
First Blast of the Trumpet against the Terrible Regiment of Women
Written by John Knox
Removal of a heathen tyrant
o Not just permissible
o A Christian duty
Franco-Gallia
Huguenot theory of resistance
o Humanist argument about historical supremacy of Estates General over king
Written by Francois Hotman
On the Right of Magistrates over Their Subjects
Huguenot theory of resistance
o Justification for correction and overthrowing of tyrannical rulers by lower
authorities
Written by Theodore Beza
Defense of Liberty Against Tyrants
Huguenot theory of resistance
o Princes, nobles, and magistrates beneath the king as guardians of the rights of the
body politic
o Those forces should take up arms against foreign tyranny
Written by Philippe de Plessis Mornay

26. Henry of Navarre

Heir to French throne during Henry IIIs rule because of his marriage to Henrys
sister
o Ascension to throne
Henry III stabbed by radical friar during attack on Paris
Leader of Protestants
Widely liked
o Informal dress
o Witty and Charming
Politique
o Political peace above religious unity
o Royal policy of tolerant Catholicism to achieve peace
Despite fact that he was Protestant
Publically became Catholic
o Successful
French church rallied to his side
Catholic league dispersed
End of French religious wars
27. Catholic League
French league formed by Henry of Guise
Dominant in Paris in 1580s
o Support of Spain
o King forced to flee after failed surprise attack against league
Reaction to assassinations by kings forces
o Assassinations of duke and cardinal of Guise
o Responded with intense fury
o Forces king into alliance with Henry of Navarre
Besieged by forces of the two Henrys
o Support of Spanish troops after Henry of Navarre ascends to the throne
28. Edict of Nantes
Henry IV (Henry of Navarre)
Edict of Nantes
o Religious freedom for French Huguenots
Freedom of public worship
Freedom of assembly
Admission to public offices and universities
Permission to maintain fortified towns
o Causes religious truce in France
29. Don John
Philips half-brother
o Illegitimate son of Charles V
Spanish champion against Islam
o Suppression of Moors in Grenada
o Command of Holy League of Spain, Venice, and papacy
Check Turkish navy in Mediterranean
Don Johns command
Annihilation of Ottoman navy
30. Cardinal Granvelle
Antoine Perrenot
Philip Habsburgs trusted lieutenant in the Netherlands

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

Internal church reforms

Prevent more Protestant gains
o Centralization
Take away traditional autonomy of provinces
Centralized monarchy ruled from Madrid
Politically docile and religiously unified country
Prince of Orange the Silent/William of Orange
Resistance to Cardinal Granvelle
o Politique
Lutheran, Calvin, and Catholic at certain points
o Unification of Dutch nobility
o Removal of Granvelle from office
Known as the Silent because of small group of confidants
The Compromise
National covenant against decrees of Council of Trent and the Spanish Inquisition
o Fusion of religious and political opposition to Habsburg government
Support from Calvinist-inclined less nobility and townspeople
Loud and persistent voicing of grievances
Rebellion imminent
Stadholder
Dutch word for governor
William of Oranges role in three Dutch provinces
Northern provinces with Calvinist leanings
o Merging of political resistance with Calvinism
Base for war for independence from Spain
Sea Beggars
International group of anti-Spanish exiles and criminals
o Lots of Englishmen
o Help for William of Orange
Capture of sea ports
Sparking of rebellions in towns they passed through
o Disassociation from England
o Helped force Alba to cede power
The Spanish Fury
Cause: Fall of Albas replacements
o Spanish mercenaries went unpaid
o No leader for Spanish mercenaries
Massacre of 7,000 in Antwerp
Pacification of Ghent
Unification of 7 northern Protestant provinces with 10 southern Catholic provinces
o Result of Spanish Fury
Internal regional sovereignty in all religious matters
Political cooperation permitted despite religious differences
Wins the war
Perpetual Edict
Perpetual Edict
Removal of all Spanish troops from Netherlands within 20 days
Signed by Don John
William of Orange controlled Netherlands

 Philip II lost staging ground for invasion of England

38. Union of Arras
Union of Arras
o Union of 10 Catholic southern provinces
Fear of Calvinist extremism
o Peace with Spain
o Helped Counter-Reformation
39. Union of Utrecht
Union of Utrecht
o Union of 7 Protestant northern provinces
Response to Union of Arras
o Declare Philip II wasnt their sovereign
Briefly place French duke of Alencon in charge
40. Duke of Alencon (French)
Youngest son of Catherine de Medicis
Brief role as sovereign of Dutch northern provinces
o Attempt to take actual power
Never intended by Dutch
Deposed
41. Treaty of Joinville
Philip IIs treaty with Guises
o Shows meddling with French affairs
Shifted focus away from Netherlands allowing Northern provinces to
eventually get independence
42. Mary I
Catholic daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon
Protestant worst nightmare
o Married Philip II of Spain
Militant Catholicism
o Reversion to Catholicism
Repeal of Protestant statutes
Execution of Protestants, especially their leader
43. Elizabeth I
Daughter of Anne Boleyn and Henry VIII
Succeeded Mary I
Politique
o Religious settlement in Parliament
Merged episcopal system with Protestant doctrine and Catholic ritual
Intolerance of inflexible religious extremes
Prevented religious conflict
Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity
Thirty-Nine Articles
44. Act of Supremacy
Elizabeth I
Repealed all anti-Protestant legislation from Mary Is time
Elizabeths supreme power over spiritual and worldly affairs
45. Act of Uniformity
Elizabeth I
Mandate of second Book of Common Prayer for every English parish
46. Thirty-Nine articles

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

Elizabeth I
Moderate Protestantism
o Revision of Cranmers original 42
o Official religion within the Church of England
Mary, Queen of Scots
Daughter of Scottish King James V and Mary of Guise
Catholic
Returned to Scotland after death of her husband, the French king
Establishment of French-style court in Scotland
Elizabeth I and Scottish reformer John Knoxs alliance for political advantages of
never letting Scotland become Catholic
Mary of Scots had more direct lineage claim to English throne, so she left open
possibility of Catholic England
Babington plot collaborator
Execution by Elizabeth I
Caused Spain to prepare its armada to invade England
Presbyterians
Puritans who wanted to purify English church
Alternative national church
o Worked through Parliament
o Semi-autonomous congregations governed by presbyteries
Following Calvin, Genevan model
o Subtle rejection of any gains
Congregationalists
Puritans who wanted to purify English church
More radical than Presbyterians
Autonomous congregations
o No tolerance
o Threats of execution or exile
The Thirty Years War
Last and most destructive of religious wars
o Long standing tensions
Catholics and Protestants
Calvinists and Lutherans
Causes
o Fragmented Germany
o Germanys central location in Europe
o Suspicion between religions in Holy Roman Empire
o Conflict between Catholic League and Protestant alliance headed by Palatinate
Frederick III
Elected ruler of Palatinate
Devout Calvinist
o Allowed Calvinism to become powerful
Not recognized by the Peace of Augsburg
Made it official religion
Once publically denounced transubstantiation
Palatinate
Became Calvinist stronghold under Frederick III
Protestant defensive alliances

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

Lutherans viewed it as threat to Peace of Augsburg

o Calvin missionary forays into Catholic areas
o Defamation of Reformation
Open denial of transubstantiation
Bohemian Period
Beginning of war
o Ascension of Habsburg Ferdinand to throne of Bohemia
Also in line for imperial throne
Takes away Protestant religious freedoms
Protestants respond with defenestration
o Expansion of Conflict
Ascension to imperial throne
Deposed as king of Bohemia
Spanish troops supported Ferdinand
Lutheran elector helped Ferdinand for political and territorial gain
o Results
Ferdinand subdued and re-Catholicized Bohemia
Ferdinand conquered Palatinate
Duke of Bavaria pressed into northwest Germany
Defenestration of Prague
Protestant anger at Ferdinands revocation of their rights
o Regents out the window (literally defenestrated)
Fell 50 feet into dry moat
Manure softened landing and saved their lives
The Danish Period
Fears of Danish king Christian IV
o Re-Catholicization of all of Germany
Was Ferdinands goal
o Held territory in Germany
Duke of Holstein
o Encouraged by Dutch, French, and English and picked up banner of Protestant
resistance
Results
o Danish king routed by Maximilian
o Ferdinands fear of Maximilians growing power
Turned to Albrecht of Wallenstein, a powerful Lutheran mercenary
Albrecht wanted land and so he crushed Protestant resistance
o Edict of Restitution
Albrecht of Wallenstein
Powerful mercenary
o Ferdinand turned to him over fears of Maximilians growing power
o Crushed Danes and other Protestants militarily
Opportunistic Protestant
o Lutheran
o Wanted land and power
Edict of Restitution
Reasserted Catholic safeguards of Peace of Augsburg
Reaffirmed illegality of Calvinism
Ordered return of all Lutheran lands acquired after 1552
Unrealistic at that point

 Panic for Protestants and Habsburg enemies

58. The Swedish Period
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden
o Deeply pious king of Lutheran nation
o New leader of Protestant forces
o Victory at Breitenfeld
More mobile forces
o Death at hands of Wallensteins forces
Bankrolling
o French
Wanted Habsburg armies to be occupied
o Dutch
Didnt forgot religious wars in the Netherlands
Results
o Some Protestant victories
o Ferdinand had Wallenstein assassinated
Had served his purpose
Started selling services to Protestants for political gain
o Protestant states other than Sweden made peace in Peace of Prague
59. Gustavus Adolphus
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden
o Deeply pious king of Lutheran nation
o New leader of Protestant forces
o Victory at Breitenfeld
More mobile forces
o Death at hands of Wallensteins forces
60. The Swedish-French Period
French entered war
Most devastating period
o War continued to drag on
o Germans couldnt push out foreign armies
o Lots of looting and war for sake of war
61. The Treaty of Westphalia
Brought all hostilities within Holy Roman Empire to an end
Religious Settlement
o Rescinded Ferdinands Edict of Restitution
o Religious settlement based on Peace of Augsburg
o Recognition of Calvinism
Political Settlement
o Gave legal recognition of Swiss Confederacy and United Provinces of Holland
o Territorial gains for French and Prussians
o End to Habsburg domination
o Confirmed territorial sovereignty of Germany
Kept Germany in state of disunity

Chapter 13 Identifications (Paths to Constitutionalism and Absolutism: England and

France in the Seventeenth Century:
1. Absolutism
One model of 17th century government
France
2. Parliamentary Monarchy
Another model of 17th century government
England
3. Louis XIV
King of France
Consolidated power
o Nobles reliance on his patronage
Supported them in return
o Crushed Protestant resistance
o Had strong advisors
4. Parlements
Organizations of nobles in France
Had to register royal decrees before they became law
o Showed Louis XIV didnt have total control
Also had regional ones
o Allowed by Louis XIV
Considerable power over local administration and taxation
5. Puritanism/Puritans
Strong Protestant religious movement
Actively opposed Stuart monarchy
o First sought to limit monarchy
o Then sought to overthrow it
o One reason why England didnt become an absolute monarchy
6. James I
Son of Mary, Queen of Scots
Succeeded Elizabeth I as monarch
o Unified Scotland and England
Faced many problems
o Unpopular outside
o Large royal debt
o Divided church
Supported divine right of kings
7. Impositions
New customs duties in England
o Version of old customs duties tonnage and poundage
o New source of independent revenue
Independent of Parliament
Angered Parliament
Only amounted to negotiations
8. Millenary Petition
List of Puritan grievances to King James I
o James I concerned and offended
o Intention to maintain and enhance Anglican system
In line with Elizabeth Is policy

 Wanted to limit existing religious strife

9. King James Bible
Hampton Court
o Commission for new translation of the Bible
Result: King James Bible
10. Book of Sports
James I
Permitted games on Sunday for those who attended Church of England
o Meant to get Roman Catholic converts
o Angered many
Puritans
Clergy who refused to read it from pulpit
Forced to rescind it
11. Charles I
King of England following James I
Continued extraparliamentary means of revenue
o New taxes
o Quartering of troops in private homes
o For war with Spain
12. Petition of Right
Parliaments declaration of constitutional freedom
o No forced loans or taxes with Parliaments consent
o No freeman imprisoned without just cause
o No troops quartered in private homes
o Response to monarchial intrusion into local areas
Signed by Charles I
o Little hope for adherence
13. popery
Parliaments term to condemn Charless high-church policies
o Policies that favored powerful bishops, elaborate liturgy, and personal religious
observance over Puritan ideals
o Above acts were treasonous
o Charless dissolution of Parliament in response
14. Arminians
Group within Anglican Church
o Rejected many Puritan ideals
Many elaborate, almost Catholic, practices
o Supported by Charles
Fear that he was too friendly towards Catholics
15. Thomas Wentworth (Earl of Strafford)
Charless chief minister
Creator of Thorough
16. Thorough
Meant to allow Charles to rule without needing Parliaments funding
Efficient and centralized government
Goal of absolute royal control
17. William Laud (Archbishop of Canterbury)
Charless first religious advisor
Strong Anglican
o Denied Puritans right to publish and preach

Imposed episcopal system and Anglican Book of Common Prayer on Scots

Scottish rebellion and Charless need to call Parliament

18. John Pym

Leader of Short Parliament
o Refusal to consider funding to put down rebellion until kings redress of political and
religious grievances
o Parliament dissolved
19. Short Parliament
Funding to put down Scottish rebellion
o Refusal to consider funding to put down rebellion until kings redress of political and
religious grievances
o Dissolved
20. Long Parliament
Charless need for funding to put down rebellion
Take some power
o Execution of Wentworth and Laud
o Destruction of instruments of royal thorough
o Illegal to change taxation without Parliaments consent
o Must convene at least once every three years
o Cannot be dissolved without its consent
Divided on religious matters
21. Presbyterians
Moderate Puritans in Parliament
o Abolition of Anglican system
o Presbyteries
22. Presbyteries
Calvinist way of church organization
Local congregations subject to higher, representative governing bodies (Presbyteries)
23. English Civil War/Causes
Disputes between the king and Parliament
o Grand remonstrance
o Charless attempt to arrest leaders
Charles I ruling without consent of Parliament
Parliamentary radicals
o Parliament as Commander-in-Chief
Questions to be settled
o Absolutism or Constitutionalism?
o Episcopal or Presbyteries
24. Cavaliers
Charless supporters
Northwestern part of England
25. Roundheads
Parliaments supporters
o Lots of Puritans
Southeastern part of England
26. Oliver Cromwell
Squire with Independent religious sentiments
o Any system that allows dissenters
Leader of Parliamentarian army
o New Model Army

Led Rump Parliament and Puritan Republic

o Creation of Great Britain
o Ruled as Lord Protector (military dictator)
As hated as Charles
Led to restoration of Stuart monarchy
27. New Model Army
Cromwells Parliamentarian army
Disciplined fanaticism
28. Thomas Pride
Colonel in New Model Army
Prevention of Presbyterians from taking seats
o Worry that Charles would try to win them over to royalist side
29. Prides Purge
Prevention of Presbyterians from taking seats
30. Rump Parliament
Parliament that remained after Prides Purge
Assumed power
o Charless execution
o Abolition of the monarchy, the House of Lords, and the Anglican church
31. Charles II
Son of Charles I
Restored to English throne in 1660
Returned England to pre-1642 status quo
o Hereditary monarch on the throne
o No legal requirement to summon Parliament
o Supremacy of Anglican Church
Had Catholic sympathies
o Favored religious tolerance
32. John Milton
Puritan concerned with tyranny from monarchy and Parliament
Wrote Areopagitica in defense of a free press
Also wrote Paradise Lost
33. Clarendon Code
Series of laws passed by Parliament between 1661 and 1665
Exclusion of Roman Catholics, Presbyterians, and Independents from religious and political life
Penalties for non-Anglican worship
Requirement of strict following of Book of Common Prayer and 39 Articles
Oaths of allegiance to Church of England for service in local government
34. Restoration Monarchy
Monarchy set-up with restoration of Stuart monarch (Charles II) to the throne
Returned England to pre-1642 status quo
o Hereditary monarch on the throne
o No legal requirement to summon Parliament
o Supremacy of Anglican Church
35. Declaration of Indulgence
Charles II
Suspended all laws against Roman Catholics and non-Anglican Protestants
Two Goals
o Unite English people against Holland

Show good faith with Louis XIV

Charles IIs agreement to secretly convert to Catholicism
Ally against Holland
Forced to repeal by Parliament in order to get war funding
36. Test Act
Passed by Parliament in response to Declaration of Indulgence
Require all crown, civil, and military officials to swear an oath against transubstantiation
o Impossible for Roman Catholics
o Targeted Charles IIs Catholic brother and heir James
38. Whigs
Opposition in Parliament during Charles IIs reign
Tried to enact a bill excluding James from succession
o In response to Popish plot
Liar Titus Oates
James plotting to kill Charles II and make Britain Catholic
o Charles II crushed Whigs in response
39. James II
Charles IIs brother and successor
Catholic
Entered with a royalist Parliament
o Alienated them by demanding repeal of Test Act
o Dissolved Parliament and openly appointed Catholics and removed any candidates
against freedom of religion
40. Tories
Royalist conservatives
Did not support James IIs attempt at absolutism
o Meant England was united against him
41. William III of Orange
Great-grandson of original William of Orange
Ruler of Netherlands
Husband of Mary of England, James IIs eldest, Protestant daughter
Invited to invade England after James II had Catholic male heir
42. Glorious Revolution
William III of Orange invaded England
o English people accepted him
o James II fled to protection of Louis XIV
o Parliament declared throne vacant and appointed William and his English wife Mary as
monarchs
43. William and Mary
William III of Orange and Mary of England, James IIs Protestant daughter
Put on throne by Glorious Revolution
o Recognized English Bill of Rights in return
44. English Bill of Rights
o Accepted by William and Mary as condition of being put on throne
o Limited powers of monarchy
Subject to rule of law
Had to have consent of Parliament, which was to be called into session every
three years
o Guaranteed rights of English privileged classes
o Prohibited Catholics from English throne

45. Toleration Act

1689 act of Parliament
Permitted worship by all Protestants
Outlawed Catholics and anti-Trinitarians
46. Act of Settlement
1701
Allowed English throne to go to German Protestant House of Hanover if Queen Anne, second
daughter of James II, had no children alive at her death
o Last Stuart Queen
o Elector of Hanover became King George I of England
47. John Locke
English political theorist
Wrote Second Treatise of Government in 1690
48. Second Treatise of Government
John Locke
Social Contract
o Bilateral contract between king and people
Privileged people had right to depose monarch for breaking the contract
o Government by and for the governed
Seen as justification for Glorious Revolution despite being written before
49. Intendants
French royal civil servants
Subjected privileged groups to stricter supervision
o Prevent abuses from sale of royal offices
Conferred right to collect revenues, sell licenses, or carry out other remunerative
forms of administration
o Led to economy more open to government regulation
50. Duke of Sully
Henry IVs finance minister
Helped government to increase its regulation on the economy
o Monopolies on gunpowder, mines, and salt
o Paved way for mercantilism
o Introduced royal corvee
Started canal system to link Atlantic and Mediterranean
Dreamed of organizing all of Europe politically and economically into common market
(EU!!!!!!!!!!!!!!)
51. Corve
Duke of Sully
National force of drafted workers to improve roads and facilitate internal travel
52. Louis XIII
Son of Henry IV
Nine at time of his fathers assassination
o Mother, Marie de Medici, was regent
Treaty of Fountainbleau with Spain
Mutual defense pact
Louis to marry Spanish princess
o Cardinal Richelieu
53. Cardinal Richelieu
Louis XIIIs chief advisor

o Marie de Medicis protection against French nobility

Sought to make France the supreme European power
o Responsible for French success in first half of 1600s
Strongly anti-Habsburg policy
Catholic France that would use Protestants against Habsburgs
o Success seen in French gains in Treaty of Westphalia
Centralized internal policies
o More focus on campaign against provincial governors and parlements
o No one above the king
Imprisonment and executions of disobedient nobility
o One faith and campaign against Huguenots
Took away rights to fortified cities and political autonomy
o Arts and printing press for propaganda
Raison detat (reason of the state)
o Legacy of strong noble resentment of monarchy
54. Cardinal Mazarin
Controlled government when Louis XIV was too young to yet rule
Continued policy of centralization
o Backlash rebellions (Fronde)
Segments of nobility and townspeople
Wanted to preserve local autonomy over absolute monarchy
Taught Louis XVI that heavy-handed tactics werent effective
55. Fronde
Backlash rebellions of nobility and townspeople
o Wanted to preserve local autonomy over absolute monarchy
o Parlement of Paris
Briefly led to exile of Louis XVI and Cardinal Mazarin
Taught French that centralization was better than local interests that constantly competed
Taught Louis that heavy-handed tactics werent effective
56. Jaques-Bnigne Bousset
Catholic Bishop
o Strong supporter of rights of French monarchy and church against pope in matters related
to taxation and ecclesiastical appointments
Brought Divine Right of Kings to France
57. Divine Right of Kings
Bishop Jacques-Benigne Bousset
Rulers appointed by and answerable only to God
o Precedent of rulers of Old Testament
o King free from influence of earthly nobles and parlements
Allowed for absolutism
58. Jansenism/Jansenists
Arose out of Catholic opposition to Jesuits
Followed teachings of St. Augustine
o Basis of many Protestant doctrines
o Particular opposition to Jesuits teaching of free will
Political element because of Arnaulds
Driven underground and later eliminated by Louis XIV
o Ended any chance of Huguenots becoming Catholic under Jansenist doctrines
59. The Arnaulds
Prominent Parisian family

Supporters of Jansenism
o On Frequent Communion
Condemned easiness of Jesuits confessions
o Lost prominence when Jansenism fell to Louis XIV
60. Blaise Pascal/Provincial Letters
Pascal was friend of Arnaulds and a Jansenist
Provincial Letters in defense of Jansenism
o Attempt to reconcile reasons of the heart with reverence for clear and distinct ideals of
the mind
o Condemned Jesuits for having lax and shallow theology
61. Jean-Baptiste Colbert
Louis XIVs financial minister
Created economic system that allowed Louis to fund his war machine
Centralization of French economy
o State supervision of economic activity
Tariffs
Regulations of imports and exports
o New industries
o Simplified bureaucracy
o Abolish unnecessary positions
o Reduce number of tax-exempt nobles
o System known as mercantilism
62. Mercantilism
Frances centralized economic policy
o State supervision of economic activities
Maximize foreign exports and internal bullion reserves
63. War of Devolution
Causes
o Louiss claim to Spanish Belgian provinces through his marriage
Treaty of Pyrenees had said his wife would give up her claim if a large dowry
was paid within 18 months, but it wasnt
o Louiss invasion into Flanders
Called War of Devolution in reference to property inheritance rule
o In some of the Spanish Belgian provinces it went to child from first marriage even if that
child was female
Triple Alliance of England, Sweden, and United Provinces of Holland
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)
o Control of some border towns for Louis XIV
64. War of Spanish Succession
Causes
o Competing claims to Spanish throne after Charles IIs death
Louis through his marriage to Marie Therese
Emperor Leopold of Austria through his marriage to Maries younger sister
Margaret
o Problem seen beforehand but negotiations made problematic by Charles II giving land to
Louis XIVs grandson
Louis sent French troops into Flanders to remove Dutch troops from new Spanish
territory
Louis declared Spanish America to French ships
Triple Alliance of England, Holland, and Holy Roman Empire

o Flanders as neutral barrier between Netherlands and France

o Fair share for Leopold
English advantages
o Better technologies and tactics than France
o Internal French disunity as war dragged on
Treaty of Utrecht with England
Treaty of Rastatt with Holland and Leopold
65. Nine Years War
France v. League of Augsburg
o League of Augsburg
England, Spain, Sweden, United Provinces of Holland, and electorates of Bavaria,
Saxony, and palatinate
Worried about possible French expansion into Germany
Cause: Louiss invasion of palatinate through weak claim of his sister-in-law
War in Europe and between France and England in New World (King Williams War)
Stalemate from exhaustion
Peace of Ryswick
66. Peace of Ryswick
Ended Nine Years War
Victory for William of Orange (King of England), and Emperor Leopold
o Secure borders for Holland
o Stopped Louiss expansion into Germany
67. Treaty of Utrecht
French and English treaty to end War of Spanish Succession
Philip, Louiss Grandson as king of Spain
Gibraltar and Minorace to England
o English became Mediterranean power
House of Hanover had succession rights in England
68. Treaty of Rastatt
French treaty with Dutch and Leopold to end War of Spanish Succession
Philip, Louiss Grandson as king of Spain
Gibraltar and Minorace to England
o English became Mediterranean power
House of Hanover had succession rights in England=
69. Constitutionalism
System of government with a constitution and limits of powers of sovereign or division of
sovereign powers
17th century England, especially after the Glorious Revolution

Chapter 14 Identification (New Direcions in Thought and Culture in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth
Centuries):
1. Nicholas Copernicus
o Earth not center of universe
o Challenged dominant view and thus provided way for others to challenge dominant view
2. Copernican System/Copernicanism
o Challenged Ptolemaic model
o Challenged was conservative
o Kept everything but made Sun center
o Epicycles were smaller
o Just as wrong as Ptolemy but did have some improvement
o Inspired others to also challenge model
3. On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
o Copernicus
o Challenged Ptolemaic model
o Challenged was conservative
o Kept everything but made Sun center
o Epicycles were smaller
o Just as wrong as Ptolemy but did have some improvement
o Challenge confronted difficulties inherent in Ptolemaic model and inspired others to do the same
4. Ptolemaic System
View of Earth as center of universe
o Based on Almagest by Ptolemy
o Series of concentric circles around the Earth
o One has moon
o Another Sun
o More with other planets and stars
o Outer region is heaven
Had some problems
o Planets moving backwards
o Accounted for by epicycles
Based on observations and math
Only usable to show where planets would be
5. Geocentric
Having the earth as the center of the universe
Major flaw with Ptolemaic System
6. Epicycle
Feature of Ptolemaic system
A small circle that a planet moved uniformly about
It then moved uniformly around a larger circle
Meant to explain why sometimes planets seemed to move backwards
7. Heliocentric
o Having Sun as center
o Only update major Copernicus had to Ptolemaic model
8. Tycho Brahe
o Followed Copernicus
o Believed in earth-centered system
Moon and Sun orbited earth
Other planets orbited Sun

o Undertook scientific experiments and got more astronomical data than anyone before
o Upon death, his work passed to his assistant, Kepler
9. Johannes Kepler
Assistant and successor to Brahe
Believed in heliocentric model
Influenced by Renaissances Neoplatonism, which highly valued Sun
Tried to find way to make Brahes math work for such a model
Elliptical motion of planets
Set forth first orbits
The New Astronomy
10. The New Astronomy
Kepler
Combined Copernicus heliocentric model with Brahes mathematical observations
Heliocentrism
Elliptical orbits
o New question of why the system was why it was
11. Galileo Galilei
o Italian mathematician
o Used telescope to discover many complexities that no one ever knew
Mountains on the Moon, Sun spots, Jupiters moons
Fit more easily into Copernican model
Starry Messenger and Letters on Sunspots
Representative of new science based on presentation of arguments and evidence
o Popularized Copernican model
o Idea that universe is subject to mathematical laws
Shift from world of qualities to world of quantities
Grand Duke of Tuscany as Patron
o Patron provided financing, which represented the direction of science at the time
o Medicis got moons of Jupiter named after them
o Advocacy for Copernicanism got him in trouble with Catholic Church
12. Starry Messenger
Galileo
New findings on heavens
Telescope to discover new complexities
Discoveries required Copernican novel
Use of rhetoric to convince people of Copernican model, particularly would-be patrons
13. Isaac Newton
Englishman who took up question of planetary motion
Established basis of physics for next 200+ years
The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
14. The Mathematical Principles
Of Natural philosophy
o Newton
o Principia Mathematica in Latin
o Galileos mathematical view was seen throughout
o Physics
Inertia on objects at rest and in motion
Gravity
Explained why planets moved in an orderly motion
Great mathematician, but also had his flaws

Upheld empirical data and observation as highly important

Rejected rationalism of French philosopher Descartes as having insufficient guards against
error
15. Francis Bacon
Accomplished Englishman
Lawyer
High royal official
Author of histories, moral essays, philosophical discourses
Seen as father of empiricism and scientific experimentation
o Not really earned
Set tone and climate for scientific advancement
o Attacked scholastics for relying too much on past knowledge
o Encouraged contemporaries to be innovative and have confidence in such innovation
o Human knowledge should produce useful results
Improve human condition
o Link between governments and science
Novum Organum, The Advancement of Learning, New Atlantis
16. Empiricism
Credited to Bacon, but not actually his
Practice of relying on observation in scientific experiments
17. Novum Organum
Bacon
Set tone and climate for scientific advancement
o Attacked scholastics for relying too much on past knowledge
o Encouraged contemporaries to be innovative and have confidence in such innovation
o Human knowledge should produce useful results
Improve human condition
18. The Advancement of Learning
Bacon
Set tone and climate for scientific advancement
o Attacked scholastics for relying too much on past knowledge
o Encouraged contemporaries to be innovative and have confidence in such innovation
o Human knowledge should produce useful results
Improve human condition
19. Rene Descartes
Mathematician who developed analytical geometry
New scientific method
Relied on deduction
Didnt rely as much on empirical observation and induction
o Discourse on Method
Rejection of scholasticism
Body and Mind
o Meditations
Exploration of deduction, rational speculation, and internal reflection
Broad philosophical influence
20. Discourse on Method
o Descartes
o Rejected scholastic philosophy and education
o Advocated for thought based on a mathematical model
Doubt everything except his own reason

Tried to deduce the existence of God

Human reason could completely understand the world
Two divisions of things
Thinking Things
Defining quality of the mind
Defining characteristic of material bodies
Things occupying space
o Body
World has no place for spirits, divinity, or anything non-material
21. Scientific Induction
Scientists draw generalizations from testing hypotheses against empirical observations
Eventually won favor over Descartes scientific deduction
22. Thomas Hobbes (again)
17th century British political philosopher
Leviathan as result of English Civil War
How could strong centralized political authority receive philosophical justification
23. William Harvey
Man whose works Hobbes had special interest in
Discovered circulation of blood through the body
24. Leviathan (again)
Hobbes
Result of English Civil War
View of human nature
Material and mechanical portrayal
All psychological processes as a result of pure sensation
o Increase pleasure; reduce pain
o No higher moral purpose for humans
o Myth of humans as beings inclined to always try to get power
o Human beings in nature were constantly in fear of death
Humans must enter into a contract with commonwealth and recognized sovereign to check selfserving purposes
Required all people to set aside personal liberties
Sovereign could use force to compel compliance
o Sovereign should be absolute
o Meant to prevent anarchy
Critics
o Monarchists disliked that sovereign power could be legislature
o Republicans didnt like the absolutist idea
o Those who supported divine right of kings saw this as too materialistic
o Religious peoples said sovereign should be below God
25. Saint Thomas Aquinas
Christian thinker
Believed humans were naturally sociable
Contradictory to Hobbes view
26. John Locke (again)
o British political philosopher
o Critic of absolutism and proponent of liberal political philosophy
o Involvement in Restoration politics forced him to flee to Holland
o Treatises on Government

 Rejected arguments of political authority based on patriarchal authority

Argument that a government must be both responsible and responsive to will of the governed
27. Second Treatise on Government
(again)
o Locke
o New political theory about government
Argument that a government must be both responsible and responsive to will of the governed
Based on natural human state where there was perfect freedom and equality
o Contrary to Hobbes
o Humans are rational and good willed
o Enter into a contract to preserve rights, liberty, and property
o Rebellion is allowable if government breaks the contract
Resemblance to St. Thomas Aquinas
28. Letter Concerning Toleration
o Locke
o Used premise of Second Treatise on Government to defend widespread religious toleration
o Answer to last two centuries of destructive religious conflict
o Citizens should be free to choose religion because that was not job of the government
o Not extended to Catholics (thought they followed the pope) or atheists
Foundation of religious liberty, toleration, and separation of church and state
29. Essay Concerning Human Understanding
Locke
Set forth basic structures of human thought
Mind blank at birth and ready to be filled
Comparable to early behaviorism
Improvement in psychology possible by changing the environment
Reason and revelation compatible, but not original sin
30. Projectors
Members of institutions of sharing who presented science as an enterprise to aid the
government and the economy
Ex. Mathematicians could help with engineering problems
Seen as people who wanted to sell improbable ideas to highest bidder
Brought new science and tech to a wider audience
31. Queen Christina
Swedish queen
Exception to women not being involved with patronage of natural philosophers
Got Descartes to make regulations for a new science academy
32. Grand Duchess Christina
o Grand Duchess of Tuscany
o Granddaughter of Catherine de Medici, Queen of France
Caused Medicis to realign with France
As regent passed a law preventing an Tuscan from being educated outside grand duchy
32. Margaret Cavendish
o Noblewoman who made significant contributions to contemporary science
Well-education
Marriage to Duke of Newcastle got her into correct social circle
o Argued with Hobbes and Descartes
o Criticized Royal Society of London for not being practical enough
Only 17th century woman to ever visit one of their meetings
Grounds of Natural Philosophy

33. Grounds of Natural Philosophy

Margaret Cavendishs major work
Talks about purity of substances
34. Maria Cunitz
German artisan-woman
Worked with her husband on astronomy
Published a book that people believed her husband had written until he said
otherwise
35. Maria Winkelmann
Another woman who teamed up with her husband to do astronomical work
Discovered a comet in 1702
Attributed to her husband until 1930
Contemporary philosophers recognized her ability
o Forced to abandon astronomy
Had her application to continue her husbands work denied after he died because
she was a woman
Kicked out when she came back with her astronomer son
36. Emilie du Chatelet
o Woman who aided Voltaire in his composition of a French popularization of Newton
Her knowledge of math was crucially better
37. Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina
o Galileo
o Views about how scriptures should be interpreted to accommodate science
Some Catholic authorities saw this as Protestant
God reviled truth in both Bible and physical nature and there was no contradiction if Bible was
understood properly
38. Pope Urban VIII
Florentine elected pope in 1623
Acquaintance of Galileo
Allowed Galileo permission to discuss Copernicanism
Galileo did and advocated for it, which was in opposition to the pope
Pope felt betrayed and ordered a trial
Galileo forced to be under house arrest for last nine years of his life
39. Blaise Pascal
French mathematician and physical scientist
Gave up wealth to devote himself to austere, self-disciplined life
Wanted to reject dogmatism and skepticism
Dogmatic Jesuits had arguments designed to minimize and excuse sinful acts
Skeptics were bad also
Atheists used it to deny religion completely
Deists used it only when it confirmed to reason
Allied with Jansenists
Views on matters of religion
Only reasons of heart and leap of faith could prevail
Religion not the domain of science and reason
Two essential Christian truths
A loving God exists
Humans are unworthy of such as God
40. Dogmatism (look up)
o Presenting principles as absolutely true without considering the evidence or opinion of others

o Pascal saw Jesuits as this

41. Skepticism (look up)
An attitude of doubt or a disposition to incredulity either in general or towards a particular object
Pascal saw this in both atheists and deists
42. Physico-Theology
Religious thought associated with deducing of religious conclusions from nature
Reconciliation of faith and science as mutually supportive
A way for a view of God to lead away from wars
43. John Ray
English Writer
The Wisdom of God Manifested in His Works of Creation
44. The Wisdom of God Manifested in His Works of Creation
John Ray
Evident that God placed humans in world to understand it and to use rationality to be practically
productive
Scientific advancement and economic enterprise were part of Gods plan
Religious justification for economic improvement
45. Malificium
o Harmful magic used by witches
o 70-100K executed for this between 1400 and 1700
o Showed that people still believed in magic despite scientific advances
46. Sabbats
Mass meetings of witches why they supposedly flew
o Also said to have sexual orgies with devil in animal form
o Said to be cannibals and be ritualistically disrespectful of Christian beliefs and practices
Showed that people still believed in magic despite scientific advances
47. The Hammer of Witches
Jacob Sprenger and Heinrich Kramer
Commission by Pope Innocent VIII as official Church guide to detection and punishment of witches
Used misogyny to explain why most witches were women
48. Jacob Sprenger
Dominican monk
Wrote The Hammer of Witches
49. Heinrich Kramer
Dominican monk
Wrote The Hammer of Witches
50. Midwivery/Midwives
Oversaw the delivery of children into the 18th century
Known as wise women because of their medical skills and knowledge
Among few women who carried out independent economic and public roles
o Mostly older, widowed women of lower social classes who had apprenticed for a long
time
o Couldnt join guilds to protect their profession because male sanctioning authorities
wouldnt allow it
o Required personal respectability and respecting the mothers privacy
o Given lots of legal and religious power
Could baptize sickly newborns
Registered births and had power to attest to legitimacy or illegitimacy of the child
Required to discourage abortion and infanticide and report those actions
Men took it over in the 18th century

Chapter 15 (Successful and Unsuccessful Paths to Power):

1. William III, the Stadtholder:
Stadholder of Holland (the most important province of the Netherlands)
Lead the European coalition against France.
Netherland at this time was a republic with several provinces all working together.
2. Rachel Ruysch:
Dutch artist who specialized in painting elaborate arrangements of flowers
3. Stadtholder :
Dutch governor who has the ability to unite all the provinces in times of need.
4. John Law:
Scottish mathematician and gambler
Duke of Orleans made him financial manager of France.
Believed in issuing paper money.
5. Mississippi Company:
Company that held a monopoly over trading privileges with the French colony of Louisiana.
Took over management of the national debt in France
6. Mississippi Bubble :
Mississippi Company sold stock in place of government bonds.
People sold stocks for paper money that they then turned in for gold.
France lacked enough gold to pay off all the paper money.
France had to halt all payments of gold.
7. Parlements:
Courts dominated by the French nobility
Tried to use their power to limit the monarchy.
Couldnt legislate but could choose whether or not to recognize the legality of an act.
Duke of Orleans gave them ability to allow or disallow laws
8. Louis XV:
King of France from 1715-1774
Tried to maintain absolute power but failed to put in the work to do so
Had a scandalous personal life
Failed to choose many wise advisors.
9. Cardinal Fleury:
Chief Minister of the French court from 1653-1743.
Tried to reduce Frances debt.
Blocked the nobility every chance he got.
Failed to train Louis XV to be an effective monarch.
10. Hanoverians (Dynasty):
British dynasty that came to power after the Act of Settlement in 1701
Began with George I.
11. George I:
British king from 1714-1727

 Battled James Edward (son of James II) for the British throne.
12. Whigs:
British political party
Didnt want peace with France.
George I favored the Whigs.
Supported monarchy but wanted parliament to retain final sovereignty
Supported religious tolerance.
13. Tories:
British political party
Wanted to end hostilities with the French.
Emphasized strong monarchy, low taxes for landowners, and firm support of the Anglican
Church.
14. Robert Walpole:
British politician in the House of Commons
Developed a method for paying off the national debt.
George I gave him his full confidence.
Often regarded as the first prime minister of Britain.
Founder of the cabinet system.
Had an ironfisted control over the House of Commons.
15. Let sleeping dogs lie:
Walpoles motto
Means some things are better left alone.
Supported peace abroad and status quo at home.
16. British House of Commons:
Each county in Britain elected 2 representatives.
If more powerful landed families in a county decided on candidates there was no contest.
Wealthy nobles served as representatives
Chose to serve their own interests rather than public opinion in their counties.
17. George II:
King of England after George I
Supported Walpole.
18. Boroughs:
Subsections of counties
Served as units in elections for representative to the House of Commons.
19. Mary Wortley Montagu:
Noble woman
Advised her husband on how to win election in his county.
Suggested knowing the right people and having large amounts of money to spend on voters.
20. Bank of England:
English financial administration
Forced everyone to pay taxes (virtually no exceptions).
Smart finances based of Dutch practices.
Founded in 1693.
21. Gustavus Adolphus II:
Swedish monarch from 1611-1632
Allowed Sweden to control the Baltic Sea.
22. Charles XII:
Swedish ruler after Adolphus II

 From 1697-1718 who went to war with Russia in the Great Northern War.
Possibly insane.
23. Great Northern War:
War between Sweden and Russia from 1700-1721
Ended in Swedish defeat
24. Ottoman Empire:
Largest and most stable political entity in or around Europe after collapse of Roman Empire.
Consisted of a diverse collection of people.
Ranged from Baghdad to Arabian Peninsula, Anatolia, the Balkan Peninsula, and North Africa
from Egypt to Algiers.
Very tolerant of other religions.
Muslim pilgrimages to holy land
25. Millets:
Officially recognized religious communities that the Ottomans had.
Laws applied based off the millet you are in, not a particular administrative territory.
26. Dhimmis:
Non-Islamic people who lived in the Ottoman Empire.
They were tolerated but were considered second class citizens.
Couldnt serve in military or wear certain colors.
27. Jizyah:
Poll tax paid by dhimmis.
28. Devshirme:
Ottoman practice
Took young Christian boys and converting them to Islam to serve in government positions and
become Janissaries.
29. Janissaries:
Elite Ottoman military unit
Extremely loyal to the Sultan.
Only Islamic people could be one.
Elite families tended to get in.
30. Sharia (what is it?):
Islamic law
Advises its followers on social, economic, and political issues.
Provided a basis for how to live ones life.
Ottoman Empire saw itself as a protector of this.
31. Ulama:
Islamic scholars.
Dominate Ottoman religious institutions, schools, and courts of law.
32. the circle of equity:
Sultan and his administrators consult Ulama for advice on policy and behavior of subjects
accorded with Islamic law and the Quran.
Ulama support Ottoman Empire and Ottoman Empire defers to their judgments.
Ulama tend to support traditional life even as world around them modernizes.
33. King John III Sobieski:
Ruler of Poland from 1674-1696
Lead a Polish army to try to rescue Vienna from Turkish siege.
Poland had a hard time choosing a king and aristocratic independence hurt them politically.
34. Sejm:

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

Central Polish legislative body

Included the nobles but specifically excluded representatives from corporate bodies (such as the
towns)
Liberum veto:
Polish practice
Staunch opposition of any single member could require the Sejm to disband.
Termed exploding the diet.
Treaty of Carlowitz:
Treaty between Ottomans and Habsburgs.
Ottomans gave up much of their European holdings.
Gave up Hungary, Poland, and Venice.
Magyar:
Largely Calvinist nobility of Hungary.
Habsburgs had to bargain with them in order to maintain Hungary in their empire.
Rebelled from 1703-1711.
Pragmatic Sanction:
Document by Charles VI
Provided the legal basis for a single line of inheritance within the Habsburg dynasty through
Charles VIs daughter Maria Theresa.
Members of Habsburg family and other noble families recognized her as heir.
Prussian:
Became synonymous with administrative rigor and military discipline.
Worked towards the single goal of strengthening the army.
Hohenzollerns:
Family from Brandenburg Prussia.
Ruled Brandenburg since 1417.
Held a lot of land inside the Holy Roman Empire (second only to the Habsburgs)
Frederick William, The Great Elector:
Ruler of Brandenburg from 1640-1688.
Broke local noble estates
Organized the royal bureaucracy
Established a strong army.
One of the princes who elected the Holy Roman Emperor.
Junkers:
Nobility in Prussia.
In exchange for obedience to electors they received the right to demand obedience from their
serfs.
Frederick William I, King of Prussia:
King of Prussia from 1713-1740.
Established bureaucracy
Established a larger army.
Kabinett:
Prussian policy
Lower officials submitted all relevant documents to the king in his office.
King alone then examined papers, made decisions, and issued orders.
Skirted the influence of ministers and ruled alone.
General Directory:
All of Prussias departments of government united along military lines.
Forced nobles to pay taxes.


46.

47.

48.
49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

Encouraged nobles to be absolutely loyal to the king by making them preform duties for whole
monarchal system rather than a single person.
Frederick II:
Later known as The Great.
Ruled Prussia from 1740-1786.
Used the army to invade Silesia and started the Austrian-Prussian rivalry for control of Germany.
Time of Troubles:
Russian period of anarchy and civil war.
Followed Ivan the Terribles reign.
Ended with the Romanov dynasty
Boyars:
Old Russian nobility from before the Romanov dynasty.
Streltsy:
Guards of the Moscow garrison.
Government and tsars feared a mutiny by them.
Peter The Great:
Ruler of Russia from 1682-1725.
Came to power along with his brother Ivan V.
Came to power on the back of the streltsy.
Overthrew his sister Sophia (she was regent).
Expanded Russias army and navy.
Reduced power of Russia nobles.
Expanded Russian territory to warm water ports as part of the Great Northern War.
Founded St. Petersburg.
Created a Senate to run the government while he was away.
His son Alexsei was accused of treason by Peter.
Secularly controlled the church.
Romanov Dynasty:
Began after the reign of Ivan the Terrible.
Began with Michael Romanov and lasted from 1613-1917.
Centralized Russia.
Brought Bureaucracy.
Table of Ranks:
Created by Peter the Great
Equated a persons social position and privileges with their rank in the bureaucracy or military.
Ignored lineage.
Made social status of nobles based off their service rather than family rank.
Old Believers:
Russian Orthodox Christians.
Believed in the old ways.
Didnt like changes made to church text and rituals
Holy Synod:
Russian government department.
Consisted of several bishops headed by the procurator general.
Governed the church in accordance with Peters beliefs.
Procurator General:
Head of the Holy Synod. A layman.

Chapter 16 (Society and Economy Under the Old Regime in the Eighteenth Century):
1. Old Regime/Ancien Regime
Major Features
o Aristocratic elites had inherited legal privileges
o Churches intimately related to the state and the aristocracy
o Urban labor force usually transformed to guilds
o A rural peasantry subject to high taxes and feudal dues
Most nobles and peasants were against changing
o The hierarchical structure became more rigid
o A person enjoyed rights based on the particular group that he or she was a part of
2. Sumptuary Laws
Regulated the dress of different classes
3. Nobles of the sword
French nobles were divided into two groups of nobles
o Nobles of the sword were nobles who derived their nobility from military service
4. Nobles of the robe
Nobles who acquired titles by serving the bureaucracy or by buying themselves into nobility
Both groups used to fight but started to work with one another during the eighteenth to
defend their common privileges
5. Hobereau
The French nobles also divided in groups that did or did not favor the royal court of
Versailles
o The court nobilities took advantage of Versailles and grew extremely wealthy
o The others who did not support Versailles or the Hobereau were a little bit better of
than wealthy peasants.
6. Taille
Aristocrats were exempt from many taxes
o One of them was the Taille or the land tax that was a part of the Ancient Regime
7. Vingtime
French for the twentieth

 Is an income tax that the nobility were technically supposed to pay

8. Corves
Nobles were exempt from paying this tax
Tax for forced labor for public works which fell on the peasants
o Lord would require a certain number of days each year for labor
9. Szlachta
The eastern European nobility was even more repressive
o The Polish nobles, or the Szlachta, did not have to pay taxes
o They possessed the right to life or death of serfs
o Most were poor; some were wealthy, held estates, and participated in government
10. aristocratic resurgence
Charter of Nobility encouraged this
o Catherine the Great listed the privileges of noble women and men in exchange for
voluntary state service
It was their reaction to the threat posed by monarchies towards their social position and their
privileges
o First tried to make it difficult to become a noble to preserve exclusiveness
o They also tried to preserve appointments to the officer corps of armies, the
bureaucracies, the government ministers and the church exclusively for nobles
1. Hoped to resist the power of monarchies
o Used authority of existing aristocratically controlled institutions against the
monarchies
1. Examples: diets, parlement, British Parliament
o Tried to improve financial positions by gaining further exemption from taxation and
collecting long forgotten feudal taxes from the peasants\
It was a big challenge to the monarchies
11. Banalits
All French peasants were subject to certain Feudal dues which are known as banalities
o This included payment to the lord in order to use the lords mill to grind grain and his
oven to bake
12. Seigneur
Another name for a lord
Peasants would rent land from the lords because they could not own enough land to live by
themselves and they had to pay the feudal dues that were attached to the plot
13. Robot
Many of the Hapsburg lands required serfs by law and custom to provide service or robot to
the lords
14. Pugachevs Rebellion
Peter the Great gave whole villages to favored nobles and Catherine the Great confirmed the
authority of nobles in exchange for political cooperation.
o Culminated the Rebellion
Emelyan Pugachev promised the serfs land and freedom from the lords
o The rebellion was brutally stopped
15. English Game Laws
English landowners had the right to hunt game
o By law only people with a particular amount of property would be allowed to hunt
certain game.
o Examples: hares partridges, pheasants, and moor fowl
o Any unauthorized person who would hunt deer would receive the capital offence

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.
21.
22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

o The merchants and the serfs were not allowed to hunt

1. This allowed the landowners to put commercial wealth behind land wealth
2. Serfs were not allowed because it would disrupt their work
This showed laws representing the economic and social status
Higglers
People who started poaching for food and for profit
Worked with the coachmen to smuggle game into the city, where it would be sold for a high
price
Family Economy
The household was the basic unit of production and consummation
o The household mode of organization predominated on farms, in artisans workshops
and in small merchants shops
Employed people from the family in most cases
o Cities had a few exceptions
Neolocalism
It was assumed that families lived in and extended settings.
This is not true; they would go to other settings to enter the workforce
o They would form and independent household which is neolocalism
Usually only one child would be trained as an artisan because they were needed for the work
force
Servant
A person who was hired usually under a contract to work for the head of the household in
exchange for room, board, and wages
Person was usually young and was not lower than the employer
Became servants because their labor was not needed in the household or could earn more
money
Gave them skills to run their own household
economy of expedients
Puerperal Fever
This fever killed many women after childbirth
Foundling Hospitals
The Founding hospitals took care for abandoned children
They grew in number
The most famous were the Paris Foundling Hospital and the London Foundling Hospital
Jethro Tull (not the band)
Experimented on land to find better methods to raise crops
His idea for using iron plows to turn the earth more deeply was helpful
Charles Turnip Townsend
Taught the Dutch how to cultivate sandy soil using fertilizers
Also instituted crop rotation
o This allowed nutrients to reenter the soil and supplied animal fodder
o Livestock could be raised, which increased the amount of manure needed for crops
Robert Bakewell
Started a new method of animal breeding that produced more or better animals and more milk
and meat
Arthur Young
Edited Annals of Agriculture and became the secretary of the British Board of Agriculture
Traveled across Europe and wrote many books
Enclosure Farming (Enclosures)

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.
34.

35.

Land would be enclosed to achieve greater commercial profits

Block fielding was used and the unproductive land was rejuvenated
Caused turmoil and riot because they disrupted small traditional communities, and forced off
individual farmers, and poor cottage dwellers who lived in the waste land
It actually increased population contrary to popular beliefs
Open-Field Method
Most of the land was farmed
Tilled unconnected strips
The rotation of only two or three field systems still left a large portion of land unproductive
Though there was more manure for fertilizers, the production was too slow for the increasing
demand
Industrial Revolution
Industrialization of the economy and the economic growth
o Economy expanded at an uninterrupted pace
o It made mass production of goods possible
o Called for new skills, new discipline in work, and a large labor force
o Met consumers demand
o Raised the standard of living and overcame poverty
Industrialization had a social cost
Domestic System (putting-out system)
Many farmers manufactured goods in the winter
o The agents merchants would take raw materials to peasants who would make the
finish product
o The merchants then paid the peasants and sold the product
This could not always work because the machines became too large to keep at home, and the
factor system was developed in a way that would not allow for the domestic system to
continue
James Kay (flying shuttle)
The weavers could make textiles, but the spinners did not have the equipment to produce as
much thread as the weavers needed
The flying shuttle increased the productivity of the weavers
Richard Arkwright (water frame)
The invention of the water frame allowed for the textile manufacture to move out of the
house and into a factory
It is a water-powered device designed to permit the production of a purely cotton fabric,
rather than a cotton fabric containing linen fiber for durability
Edmund Cartwright
Invented the power loom for machine weaving
James Watt
The mills were located in in the country did not employ more than two dozen workers
The invention of the steam engine allowed factories to be located in or near urban centers
o Increased and regularized the available energy
o Allowed for industrialization and urbanization
Thomas Newcomen
The first practical use of steam power in an engine
o The piston of the device moved when the steam condensed into the cylinder, causing
the piston to fall
o It was large and inefficient in its use of energy because both the condenser and the
cylinder were heated making it impossible to move

36. Frederick The Great

Frederick the Great gave special privileges to those who worked to create iron
o They were exempt from quartering troops, taxes and services
o They are allowed to purchase anything that they desire and will receive the best
quality
o They will be paid wages promptly in cash
o Receiving free lodging and firing
o They can leave with their property
37. Priscilla Wakefield
She was a writer demanded for more occupations for women
She was concerned that women found themselves able to persue only occupations that paid
poorly
Women should receive equal rights and privleges
38. Bourgeoisie
They was the middle class
They were not rising to challenge nobility
o Both were seeking to add new dimensions to their existing political power and social
prestige
o The tensions were involving issues of power sharing or access to political influence
rather than the values or goals associated with the class
39. Artisans
They were servants and they were highly vulnerable
Many lived in a shop and their primary institutions were guilds
o Preserve jobs and skills of their members
o Also provided a framework for social and economic advancement
40. Lord George Gordon
The Protestant spirit came into the Gordon riots
Lord Gordon raised the specter of and imaginary Catholic plot after the government relieved
military recruits from having to take specifically anti-Catholic oaths
o This was a way that people can express themselves
41. Ghettos
Jews of Europe lived apart in separate communities from non-Jewish Europeans
They lived under discriminatory legislation
Couldnt pay their loans
Lived in poverty
42. Samuel Oppenheimer
Some Jews had helped finance the wars of major rulers and were known as court Jews
Helped the Habsburg finance their struggle against the Turks and the defense of Vienna
43. Catherine the Great
Annexed Belorussia, bringing a new Jewish minority under her imperial government
Jews tried to petition to protect certain rights

Chapter 17 (The Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars, and Colonial Rebellion):

TERMS:
1 2nd Hundred Years War
The second era of the period largely concerned a colonial trade rivalry amoung France, Spain,
and Great Britain
Commercial goals and trade lead to intense rivalry and conflict in key imperial trouble spots
Because countries wanted control they built up their navies and fostered a series of major naval
wars the conflicts in turn became linked t conflict on European land
Anglo-French side of war compared to a 2nd hundred years war
2. Treaty of Utrecht (1713) (throughout chapter)
Established boundaries of empire during the first half of the century
Replaced the Spanish Habsburgs with the Bourbons of France on the Spanish Throne
Gave two special privileges to Great Britain:
o Brits received a 30 yr asiento (contract) to furnish slaves to the Spanish
o Gained the right to send one ship a year to the trading fair at Portobello (see 16)
3. Mercantilism/Mercantile System
Terms were invented by later opponent sand critics of the system whereby governments heavily
regulated trade and commerce with the hope of increasing national wealth
Many believed it necessary for a nation to gain a favorable trade balance of gold and silver
bullion nation was truly wealthy if it had more than other countries
Mercantilist statesmen and traders regarded the world as an arena of scarce resources and
economic limitation

Colonies used to provide markets and natural resources for the industries of the home country,
home country would protect its colonies both sides assumed the colonies were the inferior
partner in the relationship
Mercantile empires:
o Spain:
Controlled all of mainland South America (except for brazil which was
controlled by Portugal)
Ruled Florida, Mexico, California, and the Southwest
Governed Central America, islands of Cuba, Puerto Rico and half of Hispaniola
o Great Britain:
Colonies along North Atlantic seaboard, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Jamaica
and Barbados
Also had a few trading stations on the Indian subcontinent
o France:
Controlled Saint Lawrence River valley and Ohio and Mississippi River valley
West Indian islands of Saint Domigue (Hispaniola), Guadeloupe, and Martinique
and some stations in India.
o United Netherlands:
Controlled Surinam (Dutch Guiana) in South America and various trading
stations in Ceylon ad Bengal
Important: the controlled trade with Java (now Indonesia)
Opened these markets largely in the 17th century created a vast trading empire
far larger in extent, wealth, and importance than one would expect from the size
of the United Netherlands
o All:
Had smaller islands in the Caribbean
Major rivalries existed between France, Spain and Britain

4. Golden age of smugglers

The governments could not control the activities of all their subjects (colonies)
In the 18th century colonies tried to trade with one another (it was cheaper for them)
5. Factories
The original European footholds in India (trading posts)
They existed through privilegesgranted by various indian governments
6. Joseph Dupleix
French (1697-1763)
Saw the lack of a strong government in India as an opportunity for expanding the control of his
respective companies
To maintain their own security and to expand privileges, both Dupleixs and Clives companies
began to take over the government of some regions
Different European groups wanted to dominate each other
7. Robert Clive
British (1725-1774)
See Joseph Dupleix
8. Isabella of Castile
Queen (r. 1474-1504) who comissioned Columbus
Link between the New World and Spain was because of that technicallity (it was the Crown of
Castile)
Very powerful both at home and abroad
9. Audiencas

Viceroyalties (the chief executives in the New World who carried out the laws promulgated by
the Council of the Indies) were divided into several subordinate judicial councils called audiencas
10. Corregidores
The most important local officers who presided over municipal councils
Self government scarecely existed
11. Casa de Contratacin
The Hous of Trade in Seville regulated all trade with the New World
12. Cdiz
The only port authorized for sue in the American Trade
13. Casa
The most infuential institution of the Spanish Emire
Its mercants worked clsely with the Consulado (Merchant Guild)
14. Consulado
The Merchant Guild of Sevilla and other groups involved with American commerce in Cadiz
15. Flota
Fleet of commercial vessels controlled by Seville merchants and escorted by warships carried
merchandise from Spain to a few specialized ports in America (including Portobello, Veracruz,
and Cartagena on the Atlantic Coast)
16. Portobello fair
The chief means of facilitating trade between the western coast of Siuth American and Spain
Way to restrict trade in Latin American Empire to a few ports
17. Ferdinand VI (r. 1746-1759)
During his reign, the midcentury wars exposed the vulnerability of the empire to naval attack and
economic penetration Spain emerged as a defeated power in 1763
Gov circles believed that further changes in the colonial system had to occur
18. Charles III (r. 1759-1788)
Most important of the royal imperial reformers attempted to reassert Spains control of the
empire
Emphasized royal ministers instead of councils
Role of Council of the Indies (est with Castile) and the Casa de Contratacion lessened
After 1765, abolished monopolies of Seville and Cadiz permitted other Spanish cities to trade
with America
Opened more South American and Caribbean ports to trade and Authorize some commerce
between Spanish ports in America
1776, organized a fourth viceroyalty in Rio de la Plata (included much of present-day Argentina,
Uruguay, Paraguay, and Bolivia)
Attempted to increase the efficiency of tax collection and to end bureaucratic corruption
19. Intendant
Loyal royal bureaucrats that Charles III introduced to Spain
20. Peninsulares
Persons born in Spain
Had some of the best jobs in the New World
21. Creoles
Persons of European descent born in Spanish Colonies
Felt like second class citizens
22. Bight of Benin
Major source for slaves slave market here
23. Bight of Biafra
Major source for slaves slave market here

24. Euro-African phenomenon

Africans became a major social presence on the islands o f the West Indies and in major cities of
Spanish and Portuguese South America
African labor and African immigrant slave communities were the most prominent social feature
of these regions
25. Olaudah Equiano
One of the most popular and influential slave narratives of the late 18th century and early 19th
Original from Nigeria, was captured and brought to America as a slave
Was able to become free and then traveled the Caribbean, Atlantic, Mediterranean and the Arctic
Ocean
His life was an argument against slavery as many slave owners believed that slaves were not
smart enough to live on their own and be free
26. Seasoning
Occurred in America with plantation owners
The process newly arrived Africans would go through to prepare them for the laborious discipline
of slavery and made to understand that they were not free.
Sometimes included a new name, acquiring new work skills, and somewhat learning local
European language
Sometimes new slaves would work as older slaves apprentice
27. Asiento
contract
28. Robert Jenkins
In 1731 this English captain had his ear cut off by Spaniards while they were searching his ship
(making sure they were not taking more goods than allowed)
He carried this ear around in a jar of brandy
Not a big deal until 1738 when he went in front of the English parliament and showed them his
ear and said it was an example of the Spanish atrocities to the British merchants in the West
Indies
Ultimately GB and Spain went to war
29. Maria Theresa
Greatest achievement: the preservation of the Habsburg Empire as a major political power
Was 23 and had succeed to the Habsburgs realms only two moths before the invasion (Frederick
II invaded the Austrian province of Silesia in eastern Germany in 1740)
She recognized Hungary as the most important of her crowns promised Magyars some local
autonomy
Preserved the Habsburg state, but at a cost to the power of the central monarchy
30. Treaty of Aix-la Chapelle
Ended the war that started with the Austrian succession (included France, GB, Germany, Prussia
and Austria) in 1748
Results:
o Prussia retained Silesia
o Spain renewed asiento agreement (contract) with GB
More of a truce than a permanent peace
31. Wenzel Anton Kaunitz
Maria Theresas foreign minister (1711-1794)
He always wanted an alliance with France to help dismember Prussia
May 1756. France and Austria signed a defensive alliance
He reversed the direction that French policy had gone in since the 16th century
32. Frederick The Great

He began the Seven Years War in 1756

Believed invading Saxony would be a preemptive strike against a conspiracy that included
Saxony, Austria, and France to destroy Prussian power
Thought the invasion was defensive
He was a very stubborn leader
Was able to make peace with Prussia which allowed him to hold off Austria and France
Treaty of Hubertusburg of 1763 ended the conflict no real changes to borders
After Seven Years War, he got the nickname Fredrick the Great
33. William Pitt the Elder (1708-1778)
Created Britains greatest victories
Secretary of State, in charge of the war in 1757
Prime Minister
North America was his major concern not regional European conflicts
Sent 40,000 regular English and colonial troops against the French and Canada
He also wanted the major islands of the French West Indies
Because of Pitt, between 1755 and 1760, France colonial trade value fell by 80%
34. Battle of Plassey
Britain (Robert Clive) defeated the French in 1757 opened the way for eventual conquest of
Bengal and later all of India
35. Treaty of Paris (1763)
Reflected less of a victory than what Britain had actually won
Pitt was no longer in office
France lost all claims to Canada, gave Louisiana to Spain
Britain received Spanish Florida, Upper Canada, and some French holdings overseas.
The treaty ensured the colonial and maritime supremacy of Britain
Strengthened the 13 American colonies by removing their European rivals to the north and the
south.
36. George III (r. 1760-1820)
Argued with Pitt over policy
Ruled during the American Revolution and French revolution
37. Earl of Bute (1713-1792)
Favorite of George III
Responsible for the peace settlement of the seven years war
Britain received all of Canada, the Ohio River Valley, and eastern half of the Mississippi River
Valley
Britain returned Pondicherry and Chandernagore in India and the West Indian sugar islands of
Guadeloupe and Martinique to the French
38. Seven Years War (okay everyone, this was really confusing in the book so this is some info from
history.com)
France and Britain struggled unofficially mainly in the Ohio River Valley
1756 British suffered defeats against the French and Native American alliances.
1757 British Prime Minister William Pitt borrowed heavily for the war. Pitt financed Prussia
who was against France and her allies in Europe and reimbursed the colonies for the raising of
armies in North America.
By 1760, the French were no longer in Canada by 1763 all of France's allies in Europe had
either made a separate peace with Prussia or had been defeated.
Spanish attempts to aid France in the Americas had failed, and France also suffered defeats
against British forces in India.

1762 Empress Elizabeth of Russia dies Tsar Peter III succeeds and he's basically obsessed
with Frederick so he immediately makes peace with prussia
Ended with the signing of the treaties of Hubertusburg and Paris in February 1763.
39. Sugar Act
Britain wanted more revenue 1764
Attempted to produce more revenue from imports into the colonies by the rigorous collection of
what was actually a lower tax
Smugglers caught avoiding the tax would be tried in courts without juries
40. George Grenville
Sugar act passed under his ministry
41. Stamp Act
Year after the Sugar act, stamp act was passed
Put a tax on legal documents and some other items like newspapers
Repealed in 1766
42. Charles Townshend (1725-1767)
Chancellor of the Exchequer British finance minister
Led parliament to pass a series of revenue acts relating to colonial imports
Colonists resisted
The resulting tensions escalated and eventually brought about the Boston massacre in March
1770 5 civilians killed
1770 all Townshend duties except for the one on tea were repealed
43. Lord North (1732-1792)
The ministry under him was determined to assert the authority of Parliament over resistant
colonies
44. Intolerable Acts
1774 the series of laws that parliament passed in 1774
These measures closed the port of Boston, reorganized the government of Massachusetts, allowed
troops to be quartered in private homes, and removed the trials of royal custom officials to
England
45. Conciliation
Not found between US and GB
First Continental Congress (sept 1774) hoped to persuade Parliament to restore self-government
in the colonies and to abandon its attempt at direct supervision no conciliation
Second Continental Congress (may 1775) still sought conciliation no progress and it begin to
conduct the government of the colonies
46. Thomas Paine/Common Sense (1737-1809)
Wrote the pamphlet Common Sense in the winter of 1775 galvanized public opinion in favor
of separating from GB
A colonial army and navy were organized
47. John Trenchard (1662-1723)
One of the most influential writers of the 18th century
He was a Commonwealthman (they held republican political ideas that had their intellectual roots
in the most radical thought of the Puritan revolution)
48. Thomas Gordon (d.1750)
One of the most influential writers of the 18th century
Also a commonwealthman (they held republican political ideas that had their intellectual roots in
the most radical thought of the Puritan revolution)
He wrote Catos Letters (1720-1723) in them he relentlessly criticized the government
patronage and parliamentary management of Sir Robert Walpole and his successors.

49. Catos Letters (1720-23)

Thomas Gordon relentlessly criticized the government patronage and parliamentary management
of Sir Robert Walpole and his successors if England's rules were corrupt then they could not
expect a balanced constitution to save them from tyranny.
50. John Wilkes (1725-1797)/ The North Briton
Problems with him began in 1763
London political radical and member of Parliament
Published a newspaper called the The North Briton in issue 45, Wilkes criticized Lord Butes
handling of the peace negotiations in France
Was arrested under the authority of a general warrant issued by the secretary of state pleaded
the privileges of a member of parliament and was released
House of Commons ruled that issue number 45 constituted libel and it expelled Wilkes fled the
country and was outlawed
He gained a lot of support and many popular demonstrations were held in his cause
In 1768, Wilkes returned to England and again stood for election in Parliament won the
election, but the House of Commons (under George IIIs friends) refused to seat him
He was elected 3 more times and after the 4th, House of Commons just ignored him
Was supported by lower class shopkeepers, artisans, and small-property owners
Wilkes and Liberty became the slogan for radicals
Wilkes was finally seated in 1774 after becoming the lord mayor of London
51. Christopher Wyvil (1740-1822)
In 1778, he organized the Yorkshire Association Movement
He was a landowner and a retired clergyman
52. Yorkshire Association Movement
Founded by Wyvil
Property owners of Yorkshire met in a mass meeting to demand moderate changes in the corrupt
system of parliamentary procedures
Also organized societies elsewhere
They wanted to examine and ultimately reform the entire government
Was the Association Movement which was a popular attempt to establish an extralegal institution
to reform the gov
The movement collapsed in the early 1780s because its supporters were not willing to appeal for
broad popular support
In April 1780, the Commons ultimately did pass a resolution that called for lessening the power
of the crown
53. Charles James Fox (1749-1806)
A longtime critic of George III
Lord North had to form a ministry with him because of parliament changes

Chapter 18 (The Age of Enlightenment: Eighteenth-Century Thought:

1. Philosophe
Writers and critics of the Enlightenment
Forged new attitudes favorable to change
Championed reform
Flourished in emerging print culture
Application of reason and logic to all contemporary institutions
2. Voltaire

Most influential of philosophes

Offended French and went to England
o Liked Englands tolerant intellectual and religious climate
o Also saw Englands scientific and economic prosperity
Letters on the English praised English virtues and criticized abuses of French society
Elements of the Philosophy of Newton popularized Newton
Writings made him literary dictator of Europe
Satire and sarcasm to attack French and Europe as a whole
Believed humanity and society could be improved
o Wasnt sure if reforms would last
o Candide
3. Candide
o Voltaire
o Attacked war, religious persecution, and what he saw as unwarranted optimism about the human
condition
4. print culture
Culture where books, journals, newspapers, and pamphlets had their own status
Increase in print of those things
Prose as valued as poetry and emergence of the novel
Focus on secular parts of daily life
Growth of public and private libraries
5. Isaac Newton
Major intellectual forerunner to the Enlightenment
o Law of universal gravitation exemplified power of human mind
o Emphasis on concrete experience
o Pattern of rationality in natural world
6. John Locke
Major intellectual forerunner to the Enlightenment
o Inspired by Newton to explain human psychology in terms of experience
Tabula rasa
7. tabula rasa
Locke
Ideas that humans minds are blank slates at birth
o Experience, and only experience, shape character
Human nature is changeable
Reformers psychology
8. The Spectator
Popular publication by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele
Fostered value of polite conversation and reading of books
o Coffeehouses as center for this
9. Coffeehouses
Enlightenment center for public discussion
o Less unruly behavior than in taverns because of lack of alcohol
o Only for men
o Furnished copies of printed materials
Coffee was a chief Turkish contribution to Western diet
Because coffee and sugar came from New World plantations, they were connected to slave trade
10. Alexander Pope
Prominent Enlightenment author

11.

12.

13.
14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

Exemplifies one of the first times an author could make a living from writing
o Actually grew wealthy
o Authorship based on merit and commercial competition, not heredity and patronage
Public Opinion
New social force that came from the Enlightenment
Grew increasingly influential because of expansion of literate public and growing influence of secular
printed materials
Collective effect on political and social life of views circulated in print and discussed
Encyclopedia
Compilation of major ideas of the era
o Part of a collective plea for freedom of expression
o Contained work from over 100 authors
Included all major French philosophes
Most advanced critical ideas on religion, government, and philosophy from the time
Beat censorship by hiding controversial ideas in obscurity or irony
Also included things about manufacturing, canal building, ship construction, and
improved agriculture
One of the greatest achievements of the Enlightenment
Designed to secularize learning and undermine intellectual assumptions that lingered from Middle Ages
and Reformation
Helped Enlightenment penetrate German and Russian intellectual circles
Denis Diderot
Authored Encyclopedia with Jean Le Rond dAlembert
Deism
Enlightenment religious movement
Combine a life of religion and reason
o Religion as natural and rational, not supernatural, mystical, and phenomenal
o Anticlerical
o Empirical existence of God
o God favored rational morality
Life after death determined by virtue of life led on earth
o Religious toleration
John Toland
Early deist author
Christianity Not Mysterious
Christianity Not Mysterious
John Toland
Religion as natural and rational, not supernatural
o Separate from Locke and Newton who both were Christian
o God as divine watchmaker who created and then let happen
Joseph Addison
Deist poet
Poem on spacious firmament
o Belief in existence of God
o Use of nature to empirically justify existence of God
Treatise on Tolerance
Voltaire
Made case for Jean Calas
o Judicial authorities overturned the case
o Case was representative of results of religious fanaticism

19. Jean Calas

Huguenot persecuted by Roman Catholic authorities in Toulouse
Accused of murdering son to prevent him from converting to Catholicism
o Tortured and strangled
o Never admitted guilt
Would have still died
Would have been propaganda for Catholics
20. Philosophical Dictionary
Voltaire
Questioned truthfulness of priests and morality of Bible
o Inconsistences between biblical narratives and actions of biblical heroes
21. David Hume
Scottish philosopher
Inquiry into Human Nature
22. Inquiry into Human Nature
Hume
No empirical evidence to support divine miracles central to Christianity
23. Edward Gibbon
English historian
The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
o Explanation of rise of Christianity in natural, non-miraculous, terms
24. Baron dHolbach
Enlightenment philosophe
Embraced positions very near to atheism and materialism
o Only an extreme view of philosophes
25. Immanuel Kant
German philosopher
Had view representative of most philosophes in regards to religion
o Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone
o No abolition of religion
o Transformation of religion into humane force that would promote virtuous living
26. Baruch Spinoza
Jewish figure of Enlightenment who lived in the Netherlands
o Son of Jewish merchant
o Deeply influenced by new science of 17th century
o Use of human reason to conceptualize traditional thought
Set example for secularized version of Judaism
Ethics
Theologico-Political Treatise
27. Ethics
Spinoza
Close identification of God and nature
o Condemned by contemporaries
Left little room for divine revelation in scripture
Lack of personal responsibility of humans
Condemned as atheist
28. Theologico-Political Treatise
Spinoza
Described the origins of religion in natural terms

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

o Basically anticipated Enlightenment thoughts

Argued that organized religion led people away from scriptures
Moses Mendelsohn
Jewish figure of Enlightenment who lived in Germany
o Known as Jewish Socrates
Established outlines of an assimilationist position
Judaism and rationalism
Jerusalem/ On Ecclesiastical Power and Judaism
o Advancement of religious toleration
Religious diversity did not harm loyalty
o Distinctiveness of Jewish communities
No excommunication over theological differences
o Judaism as one of many paths to God
The Persian Letters
Supposedly written by two Muslim Persians visiting Europe
Montesquieu
Used Muslim culture as a foil to criticize European culture
o Biting satire
Montesquieu (also p. 604)
French lawyer, noble, and member of provincial parlement
The Persian Letters
Spirit of the Laws
Also visited England and liked its institutions
Spirit of the Laws (also p. 604)
Montesquieu
Upheld British constitution as wisest way to regulate power of government
Use of empirical method
o Study of ancient and modern nations determined that there could be no universal set of laws
o Had to use countrys size, population, social and religious customs, economic structure, traditions,
and climate to determine its form of government
Division of power with Britain as an example
o Executive, legislative, and judicial where any two branches could check the power of the other
o Profound effect on liberal democracies
o Misunderstood corruption and emerging cabinet system in Britain
View of France
o Monarchial government with limits from aristocracy, towns, and other things that had liberty that
monarch had to respect
Those limiting institutions would protect the peoples liberty
Conservative
o Thought absolutism had degraded France
Association of Islam and passivity of people who were ruled by despots
o Religious leaders in Ottoman Empire prevented technological advances
Mary Wortley Montagu
Wife of British ambassador to Turkey
One of Islams most positive 18th century commentators
Turkish Embassy Letters
Turkish Embassy Letters
Montagus letters about her experiences
o Had access to private quarters of women

Praised Ottoman and Muslim society

o Vaccination against smallpox
o Freedom and good treatment of upper class women
o Magnificence of architechture
Decried comments hostile to Islam as mostly completely wrong
35. Social Science
Idea originated during Enlightenment
Philosophes hoped to end human cruelty with social laws
o Most evident in their works on law and prisons
36. Cesare Beccaria
Italian philosophe
On Crimes and Punishment
37. On Crimes and Punishment
Beccaria
Critical analysis to problem of making punishments both effective and just
o Conformity of laws of monarchs and legislatures with laws of nature
o Attack against torture and capital punishment
o Speedy trial, certain punishment, and purpose of punishment was deterrence
Utilitarian philosophy
o Laws not meant to impose will of God or perfect ideal
o Greatest good for greatest amount of people
38. Physiocrats
Name of economic reformers in France
Mercantilism actually hurt the economy
Primary role of government was to protect property and allow it to be used freely
o Economic production depended on sound agriculture
Consolidation of small farms into larger, more efficient ones
39. Adam Smith
Scottish economist
Most important economist of the Enlightenment
Wealth of Nations
40. Wealth of Nations
Smith
Economic liberty was foundation of natural economic system
o Opposed to Mercantilism
Supposed to preserve wealth of nation, capture wealth from other nations, and maximize
work available for nations laborers
Actually hindered expansion of wealth and production
o Best way to encourage economic growth was to leave people to their own selfish devices
Market would expand as individuals tried to become rich by meeting needs of others
Consumers would find their wants met as manufacturers competed for business
Resources of nature were not finite
o Contrary to Mercantilism
o Could be exploited for human advancement
Laissez-faire
Four-stage theory
41. Laissez-faire
Smith
Limited role for government in economic matters

Did not oppose all government activity

Government should provide schools, militaries, and roads
Government should undertake enterprises that were economically desirable but too
expensive or risky for private industry
42. Four-stage theory
Enlightenment theory of human social and economic development
o Hunting and gathering with little to no settle life
o Pastoral or herding with nomadic tendencies and some private property
o Agricultural with settlement and clear private property
o Commercial
Advanced cities
Widespread manufacturing for consumption
Extensive trade between urban and rural areas
Elaborate forms of property and financial arrangements
The higher up, the more advanced
o Easy to evaluate society
o Europeans were top level
Justified future European imperialism and economic dominance
Carrying out mission to civilize society
Smiths Wealth of Nations
43. Rousseau
French philosophe
Strange and isolated from other philosophes who made him uncomfortable
Few close friends
Deep apathy for world and society in which he lived
Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts
The Social Contract
44. Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts
Rousseau
Process of civilization and Enlightenment had corrupted human nature
45. The Social Contract
Rousseau
Question of what constitutes a good life
o Questions about concepts of material and intellectual progress
o Question about morality of society in which commerce and industry were most important
Outlines general reforms and political structure that Rousseau thought would overcome evils of
contemporary politics and society
Certain societal chains are necessary
Contradictory with rest of Enlightenment thinkers
Society is more important than individual members
People could do little on their own
Have to create society where people behave morally
Society with personal liberty and people being loyal to larger community
Freedom defined as obedience to the law
Law to be obeyed was general will (majority in a democracy)
Radical direct democracy and forcing some people to be free
Basically diametrically opposed to contemporary society
46. Salon
Places where philosophes could access useful social and political contacts

 Women who ran salons were well connected politically

Also helped philosophes to sell their work
Also receptive environment to Enlightenment ideas
47. Mary Wollstonecraft
Vindication of the Rights of Women
Brought Rousseau before judgment of rational Enlightenment ideal of progressive knowledge
48. Vindication of the Rights of Women
Wollstonecraft
Opposed to certain ideals of French Revolution that hurt women
Accused Rousseau and other traditionalists of attempting to hold women back from experience
o Rousseaus separate spheres for women made them sensual slaves to men
o Would not allow society to progress
Broadened Enlightenment to rights of women as well as those of men
49. Peter the Great
Monarch of Russia
Voltaire saw him as forming Russia
o Voltaire was a monarchist
50. Catherine the Great
Master of public relations
o Image of being Enlightened
Read philosophes works
Financially subsidized Diderot
Corresponded a lot with Voltaire
Enlightened despot
o Enlightenment convinced her that Russia was backward and needed reform
Understood importance of political constituencies because of weakness of rulers before her
o Knew reform would need support of nobles and other political elites
Some administrative reform
o Support to rights and power of nobility and gave them local offices rather than creating a royal
bureaucracy
o Charter of Nobility
Continued economic development from Peter the Great
o Suppression of internal trade barriers
o Expansion of urban middle class in order to expand trade
Tried to stay friendly with philosophes so that they would give her a progressive image
Territorial expansion
o Drive for warm-water ports (of course its Russia)
War with Ottoman Turks
Ports on Black Sea
o Status as protectorate of Orthodox Christians in Ottoman Empire would lead to future conflict
with France which was protectorate of Roman Catholics
51. Enlightened Absolutism
Monarchs implementing Enlightenment reforms
o Most philosophes were ok with power if it was used in this way
o Rational strengthening of central absolutist organization at cost of lesser political powers
Monarchs did this because it strengthened them, their states, and their militaries
52. Frederick II
Enlightened despot
Wanted recovery and consolidation of Prussia following midcentury military losses

Retook Silesia from Austria

Great military and financial cost
Could use it as manufacturing district
Agricultural policies
o Imported workers from outside of Prussia
o State supervised advancements
Draining swamps
New crops introduced
Peasants compelled to move when necessary
o Came from monarchy and bureaucracy
o Most Prussians were hurt by large tax burden
Non-economic policies fared better
o Tolerance for Catholics and Jews in Lutheran country
Allowed state to benefit from foreign workers
Most major positions were still held by Protestants
o Codification of Prussian Law
Rationalize existing legal policy to increase efficiency
Reduce regions strange laws
Reduce power of aristocracy
Saw it as means of extending and strengthening royal power
o Replacement of personal monarchy with impersonal state
53. Joseph II of Austria
Embodied rational, impersonal force
o Had noble intentions of improving the lives of his people
o Led to a series of aristocratic and peasant revolts
Son of Maria Theresa and also co-ruler while she was still alive
Wanted to expand territories towards Poland, Bavaria, and Ottoman Empire
Main goal was to increase power of Habsburg emperor over his realms
o Expand influence into areas of influence that his mother avoided
Reduction of Hungarian autonomy by allowing his officials to rule it locally and having
governmental business done in German exclusively
o Ecclesiastical matters
Catholic but favored toleration of Lutherans, Calvinists, and Greek Orthodox
Also removed some taxes from Jews but didnt give them full equality
Made bishops go through him to talk to Pope
Shut down many monasteries and took their land but still had orders for education and
hospitals
Essential made Catholic priests employees of the state
o Economic and Agrarian Reforms
Abolished many internal tariff and encouraged infrastructure improvements
Sought to moderate treatment of serfs and allow for royal oversight
Abolished serfdom
Reduce burdens on serfs to make them more productive
Abolished robot and spread tax burden to all landed peoples
54. Maria Theresa
Mother of Joseph II and also jointly ruled with him
Guaranteed aristocracy major independence during War of Austrian Succession
o Built more bureaucracy after the war
o Reforms in Austria and Bohemia
More efficient taxes, even on clergy and nobles

 Central councils to deal with governmental problems

Expansion and monarchial domination of education
o Concerned about serfs
Extended royal bureaucracy to limit amount of work they could be forced to do
Devout Roman Catholic but she didnt allow Church to limit her authority
o Discouraged radical Catholicism
o Opposed toleration
55. Robot
Amount of labor an Austrian serf was forced to do
Limited by Maria Theresa because she was concerned about serfs
Abolished by Joseph II
56. Josephinism
Describes ecclesiastical policies of Joseph II
Essential gave him power over Church in his territories and made Catholic priests state employees
Thought to prefigure policies of French Revolution
57. Charter of Nobility
Catherine the Great
Guaranteed nobles many rights and privileges
o Almost a necessity because of power of nobles
o Not enough educated people to form royal bureaucracy
o Strengthened her ruling stability
58. The Partition of Poland
Divided Poland among Russia, Prussia, and Austria
o Helped alleviate fears after Russia military successes under Catherine the Great
o Russia abandoned going after the Danubian provinces (which Austria wanted) in return for a
large swath of Poland
o Prussia got provinces that helped to connect all its territory in return for not aiding the Ottomans
o Austria got a province with important salt mines
o Possible because Polish nobility tried to hold on to local autonomy
Showed that nations without a strong, unified government was necessary to compete in the new European
state system

Chapter 19: The French Revolution:

1. Louis XV
French king
Didnt have character to fix French problems
o Morally and politically corrupt court
Appointed Rene Maupeou
o Tried to break parlements and increase bureaucratic taxes
o Death of Louis XV doomed his plan
2. Louis XVI
French king
Didnt have character to fix French problems
o Morally and politically corrupt court
o Indecisive
o Wanted popular support so he gave parlements their powers back
Overthrown, imprisoned, and beheaded during French Revolution
3. Jacques Necker
Swiss banker

Director-general of French finances

Argued that France wasnt really that bad off
o Budget surplus without expenditures for American Revolution
o Large portion of expenditures went to pensions of aristocrats
Angered many so he was removed
Report made it more difficult to argue for tax increases
4. Charles de Calonne
Minister of Finance Charles Alexandre de Calonne
o Encourage internal trade
o Lower some taxes (gabelle on salt)
o Transform peasants services to money payments
o New land tax that would be required regardless of social class
Monarchy could have abandoned indirect taxes
Less need to seek approval for additional taxes by regional parlements
New local assemblies to approve such taxes
Eventually dismissed by Louis XVI
5. Gabelle
French tax on salt
Calonnes plan would have lowered this tax, among others
6. Assembly of the Notables
Upper ranks of Church and aristocracy
Calonne sought their support for his land tax plan
o Refused the plan
Claimed only Estates General had right to approve new taxes
Estates General was dominated by Church and aristocracy
o Gave counter measure
More direct control of government for them
Necker back as finance minister
7. Estates General
Medieval French institution with power to consent to new taxes
Traditionally dominated by aristocrats and Church
Called by Louis XVI and Etienne Charles Lomenie de Brienne in response to financial crisis
Caused major political change
o Some historians believe that this brought out clash between aristocracy and bourgeoisie
o Others believe both groups commonly resented absolutism
Conflict during negotiation of social groups
o Others believe that calling created political vacuum
Structured into three estates
o First was clergy
o Second was aristocracy
o Third was theoretically everyone else
Representatives typically from most wealthy of everyone else
Didnt want to permit monarchy and aristocracy to determine the future of the
nation
o All men
Aristocrats made power grab
o Said each estate should be equal in number and vote so that the first two estates would
dominate the third
o Third estate wanted to have double the members and voting by member not estate
allowing it to dominate

8. Third Republic (not in book)

Frances third republic that lasted from 1870-1940
Some historians argue that it took until its establishment to end the political turmoil started by the
French Revolution
9. Abb Siys
Wrote pamphlet entitled What Is the Third Estate?
o Contrasted vital contributions of third estate to exclusion from political and social
privilege
o Image of third estate in direct conflict with aristocracy (not monarchy)
More complex than this
Both groups disliked the monarchy
Exemplified third estates representatives who wouldnt let aristocracy and monarchy control
future of the nation
10. Cahiers de dolances
List of grievances registered by local electors
Brought by representatives to the Estates General
Criticisms
o Government waste
o Indirect taxes
o Church taxes and corruption
o Hunting rights of the aristocracy
Reforms
o Periodic meetings of Estates General
o More equitable taxes
o More local control of administration
o Unified weights and measures to help with trade
o Free press
Overwhelming demand in all for equal rights for all subjects
11. National Constituent Assembly
Created by Third Estate as new legislative assembly to replace Estates General
o Joined by lower clergy
o Second Estate voted to join
Tennis Court Oath forced Louis XVI to recognize this as legislative body
o Quickly joined by first and second estates
o Voting was to occur by head
Allowed commoners of third estate to dominate
o Had nothing further occurred revolution would have been successful
Monarchy could govern only in cooperation with assembly
Majority of members from all three estates wanted liberal administrative,
constitutional, and economic reforms
12. Tennis Court Oath
Members of National Assembly were locked out of usual meeting place
Sat at tennis court and took an oath not to stop until they had given France a new constitution
Forced Louis XVI to recognized rights of National Assembly
13. Marie Antoinette
Queen to Louis XVI
Advised Louis to disrupt the National Assembly
o He did when he dismissed finance minister without Assemblys consent
o Mistake proved fatal because most of Assembly no longer wanted constitutional
monarchy after Louis resistance

14. Marquis de Lafayette

French hero in American Revolutionary War
Offered and accepted command of National Guard
Created cockade of revolution
15. Storming of the Bastille
Citizens who had elected representatives to the Third Estate had continued to meet and were
organizing a militia
o Regarded dismissal of finance minister as offensive by Louis XVI against National
Assembly
o Went to Bastille in search of weapons
Were fired upon by guards
Stormed the fortress and released seven prisoners as well as killing several troops
and the governor
Force, the militia of Paris, called itself the National Guard
o Group was recognized by Louis XVI as legitimate government of the city
Symbolic for a couple of reasons
o Bastille had been used to house political prisoners
o Redirected course of revolution
First journee
Showed that people were also independent political force with own goals outside
of the National Assembly
16. Cockade
Badge created by Marquis de Lafayette as symbol for National Guard
Emblem later became official flag of revolutionary France (is French flag)
Worn by Louis XVI when he entered Paris after storming of the Bastille to give group of electors
right to legitimately govern city
17. Journes
Days when the populace changed the course of the French Revolution
o Showed that National Assembly wouldnt be the only one to control direction of
Revolution
First was storming of the Bastille
18. Great Fear
Group of peasant disturbances during same time as urban disturbances after storming of the
Bastille
o Caused by rumors of royal troops being sent into countryside
o Intensified peasant disturbances from the spring
Burning of castles, destruction of records and documents, and refusal to pay
feudal dues were common
Peasants were determined to take land and food supplies that they thought were
rightfully theirs
Elicited response from National Assembly
o Attempt to halt it by having many liberal clergy and nobles renouncing feudal rights,
dues, and tithes
o All French citizens became subject to same equal laws
Paved the way for social and legal reform
19. Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
Statement of broad political principles from National Assembly before writing of new
Constitution
Drew from Enlightenment and Declaration of Rights from Virginia in 1776
All men born and remain free and equal in rights

Rights to liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression

Governments existed to protect those rights
o All political sovereignty in a nation and its representatives
o Equality before the law and equality of opportunity
Due process of the law
Innocence until proven guilty
o Freedom of religion
o Taxation in proportion to amount one could pay
20. Constitution of 1791
Product of National Assemblys deliberations
Constitutional monarchy
o Major political authority in one house Legislative Assembly
Origin of all laws
Had powers of war and peace
o Monarchial veto could delay but not halt legislation
21. Active Citizens
Men paying annual taxes equal to three days of local labor wages
Only group allowed to vote under Constitution of 1791
o Meant to thwart direct popular pressure on government
Chose electors who then voted for the members of the legislature
o Electors had further property qualifications
Political power in hands of wealthy with property
22. Passive Citizens
Any man who wasnt an active citizen and any woman
Couldnt vote under Constitution of 1791
23. Olympe de Gouge
Butchers daughter from Montauban
Became major revolutionary woman in Paris
Wrote Declaration of the Rights of Female and Citizen
o In response to women not being allowed to vote or hold office
o Ironically addressed to Marie Antoinette
24. Declaration of the Rights of Female and Citizen
Olympe de Gouge
Mostly reprinted Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen with the addition of woman
o Demanded that women be citizens too
o Women could hold property
Men had to recognize paternity of their children
Equality in marriage
Improved education for women
Showed that National Assembly had established set of values for liberty
25. Dpartements
Replaced ancient provinces
83 of roughly equal size named after geographical features
o Subdivided into districts, cantons, and communes
Local elections were indirect
Ancient judicial courts and parlements were abolished
o Replaced by uniform courts
Elected judges and prosecutors
Simplified procedures

 Most degrading punishments removed from books

26. Chapelier Law
Forbade workers associations
o Crushed attempts for workers to protect their wages
o Peasants and workers left to freedom and mercy of market
27. Assignats
Government bonds to be issued by the National Assembly
o Value guaranteed by revenue to be generated from sale of Church lands
Meant to finance the new government without repudiating royal debt which was
owed to members of Third Estate
Produced further inflation, religious schism, and civil war
o Initially were limited in quantity
Public liked them so much that they circulated as currency
Assembly produced more and more to liquidate the debt and create new body of
large property owners to protect the revolution
Eventually lost value and inflation increased causing more financial stress
28. Civil Constitution of the Clergy
Reorganization of Church in France after the confiscation and sale of Church lands
Made Roman Catholic Church a branch of the secular state
o Cut number of bishops
o Aligned dioceses along department lines
o Election of priests and bishops who became salaried employees of the state
o Didnt consult French clergy or pope
o Passed reluctantly by the king
Major blunder of National Assembly
o Resisted by French clergy
Assembly forced clergy to take oath of support
Those who didnt take oath removed from clerical functions but they resisted and
continued to preach
o Condemned by Pope
Also condemned Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen
Roman Catholic offensive against revolution and liberalism
o People thought they couldnt be Catholic and Revolutionaries
29. migrs
Aristocrats who left France after it became clear that the old social and political order was
changing
Settled in countries near France where they sought to create counterrevolutions
Kings younger brother was one of most important ones
o Convinced Louis and his family to attempt to flee France
30. Flight to Varennes
King and family disguised as servants tried to flee the country
o Discovered and stopped in Varennes
o Brought back to Paris by company of soldiers
National Assembly tried to save constitutional monarchy
o Said king had been abducted
o Clear that chief counterrevolutionary was on throne
31. Leopold II
Emperor of Austria
Brother of Marie Antoinette and Frederick William II, king of Prussia
Issued Declaration of Pilnitz under pressure from emigres

32. Declaration of Pillnitz

Issued by Leopold II under pressure from emigres
Leopold and Frederick William II agreed to invade France to protect royal family and monarchy
if other major powers agreed
o No actual meaning because Britain didnt support it
o Read by French revolutionaries as sign that France was surrounded by aristocratic and
monarchial foes
33. Legislative Assembly
Took over for National Assembly as legislative body in 1791 as per Constitution of 1791
National Assembly passed act forbidding any of its members from being on Legislative Assembly
Faced immense problems
o Political divisions over future course of revolution and nation
o Passive citizens began to demand full political participation
o Aristocrats and Louis XVI didnt like new order and followed only reluctantly
Aristocrats plotted overthrow of new government
Many workers didnt think revolution had gone far enough
o Women demanded more rights
o Foreign powers saw revolution as threat
o Led to second revolution that was more democratic and radical
34. Jacobins
Most organized and famous of political clubs that emerged from the Third Estate
o Name derived from the fact that Dominican friars were called Jacobins and group met in
Dominican monastery in Paris
o Had provincial affiliates
Prominent group in National Assembly that had pushed for a republic
o Language and rhetoric from radical segment of Enlightenment
35. Girondins
Group of Jacobins that assumed leadership in Legislative Assembly
o So named because most came from the department of Gironde
o Determined to oppose forces of counterrevolution
Signed measure forcing emigres to return to France or lose land
Another measure forced priests who resisted Civil Constitution to accept it or lose their
state pensions
Both vetoed by Louis XVI
Declared war on Austria, which was allied with Prussia
Monarchists supported war because they thought it would strengthen monarchy or led to
military defeat and reimplementation of Old Regime
War they started led to second revolution
o King overthrown
o Republic established
36. Pauline Lon
Led group of women who petitioned Legislative Assembly for right to bear arms to fight for the
protection of the revolution
o Had previously led effort to allow women to be in National Guard
o Used language of universal citizenship
Women allowed to serve and some served with distinction
37. Commune
Committee of government
One took power in Paris under pressure from the radical working-class
38. Tuileries Palace

Palace in Paris where royal family was staying after they had been forced to leave Versailles
Invaded by large Parisian crowd
o Royal family fled to Legislative Assembly
o Royal Swiss guards fought with crowd
Called off by Louis XVI
Deaths of hundreds of guards and citizens
o Incident led royal family to be imprisoned and have no political power
39. Paris Commune
Replaced elected council as government of Paris under pressure from radical working-class
Made up of representatives from each section of the city
Carried out September Massacres
Compelled Legislative Assembly to call for election by universal male suffrage of new assembly
to write democratic constitution
40. September Massacres
Execution of about 1,200 prisoners in city jails
o Carried out by Paris Commune under pressure of Parisian crowd
o Crowd had assumed all prisoners were counter revolutionaries
41. National Convention
Elected by universal male suffrage to write democratic constitution
o Created by Legislative Assembly under pressure from Paris Commune
o Seemingly vindicated by French military victory in war against Prussia and Austria
First act was to declare France a republic
Dominated by Sans-culottes
o Executed Louis XVI
o Declared war on Britain, Holland, and Spain
Started by Girondists but carried by Mountains
Also faced some internal resistance
Approved fully democratic constitution that was to go into effect at the end of the war
o Never actually implemented
42. Sans-culottes
Group of super radical Jacobin citizens of Paris
Shopkeepers, artisans, wage earners, and some factory workers
o Food shortages made their lives difficult
o Old Regime had ignored them
o National Assemblys economic liberty had battered them
Attitudes, desires, and ideals were primary factors in revolution from 1792-1794
o Goals
Immediate relief from food shortages and inflation through price controls
Hostile towards social inequality and the aristocracy
Wanted democracy to be as large as possible
o Honed political skills during meetings of Paris Commune
o More extreme Jacobins generally went along with them
Originally hated aristocracy but were ok with representative democracy, wealth,
and a free economy
Mountain Jacobins went along with this group
Mountain Jacobins were too extreme for the Girondists
Succeeded in trying and executing Louis XVI and his family
o Had help of Mountain Jacobins
o Girondists tried to spare kings life but failed
Invaded Convention and got Girondists kicked out

43. Edmund Burke

Irish-born writer and British statesman
Reflections on the Revolution in France
44. Reflections on the Revolution in France
Edmund Burke
Saw restructuring of French government as blind rationalism
o Ignored both historical realities and complexities of social relations
o Predicted further turmoil as inexperienced led
Handbook of European conservatives for decades
45. Reign of Terror (Autumn 1793 to summer 1794)
Figurative war that raged inside France to protect the Revolution
o Government took extraordinary measures that touched almost every aspect of national
life
o Thousand arbitrarily executed
Created a collective executive in the form of powerful committees
Brought suppression of many liberties that the Revolution fought for
Led to destructive search for enemies within
Revolutionary Tribunals
o Meant to destroy enemies of the state
o Meaning of enemies changed often
Those who might aid other European powers
Those who endangered republican virtue
Good republicans who opposed dominant faction of government
o Killed aristocrats and political enemies mostly
46. Committee of Public Safety
Established by Convention to carry out executive duties of the government
Major problem was to wage war and secure domestic support simultaneously
Eventually enjoyed almost dictatorial power
47. Jacques Danton
Leader of Committee of Public Safety
Provided heroic leadership in September 1792
Strong republican who opposed weakness of Girondists
o Saw himself as fighting internal enemies of revolution
o Political alliance of expediency with sans-culottes
48. Maximillian Robespierre
Became Committee of Public Safetys most powerful member
Strong republican who opposed weakness of Girondists
o Saw himself as fighting internal enemies of revolution
o Political alliance of expediency with sans-culottes
Embodied Republic of Virtue
o Total support for the republic
o Renunciation of selfish gains from political life
o First in line of secular ideologues who would bring suffering to Europe
Arrested and executed by members of the Convention
o Work of sans-culottes who were made when their leaders were taken away
o Also work of politicians who feared that Robespierre would target them next
49. Leve en masse
Lazare Carnot
o Military leader from Committee of Public Safety

o Similar to Danton and Robespierre

Military requisition on entire population
o Conscripted males into the army
o Directed economic production to military purposes
Sans-culottes got their price ceiling
Helped army crush counterrevolutionary disturbances in provinces
First time Europe saw nation organized and defended in such a way
50. Republic of Virtue
Belief by Committee of Public Safety that they had to create such a republic
o Couldnt simple do things to make life easier
o Civic virtue
Sacrifice of ones self for the good of the whole
Replace selfish aristocratic and monarchial corruption
Many manifestations
o Renaming of streets to egalitarian revolutionary things
o Republican manner of dress similar to that of Roman Republic
o Suppression of plays that were insufficiently republican
o Attack against crimes of an aristocratic society
This in the name of the public good is what led the Committee of Public Safety to carry out
events of the terror
51. Dechristianization
One of most radical parts of Terror
Started with new calendar that started with first day of the Revolution
o Twelve months of 30 days each named after seasons and climates
o Every tenth day was a holiday
Sent out provincial enforcers
o Closed churches
o Persecuted clergy and believers
o Forced some priests to marry
Alienated many provinces from Revolutionary government
o Opposed by Robespierre for this reason
52. Society of Revolutionary Republican Women
Founded by Paline Leon and Claire Lacombe
Purpose was to fight internal enemies of the Revolution
o Militant citizens
o Initially supported by Jacobins
Became increasingly radical
o Stricter price controls
o Ferret out food hoarders
o Brawled with market women who werent revolutionary enough
o Right to wear cockade
o Scared Jacobins into banning all womens societies
Execution of Olympia de Gouge
Exclusion of women from the army
53. Temple of Reason
New name for Notre Dame Cathedral
Symbol of de-Christianization during the Terror
54. Enrags
Certain extreme leaders of the sans-culottes
Robespierre secured their execution

Wanted more price controls, social equality, and de-Christianization

Executions were start of period when Revolutionary leaders turned against each other
o Robespierre got Danton and other conservative republicans executed
55. Law of 22 Prairial
Allowed revolutionary tribunals to convict suspects on minimal evidence
Device used by Robespierre to execute all his political adversaries
56. Cult of the Supreme Being
Established by Robespierre in place of citizens worshiping Reason
Rousseaus vision of civic religion that induced morality
57. Thermidor/Thermidorian Reaction
Tempering of Revolution that began in July 1794
o Weariness of radicals, Terror, and sans-culottes
Closure of Paris Commune
Jacobins couldnt communicate with each other
o Destruction of machinery of Terror and institutions of constitutional regime
Restructuring of Committee of Public Safety
Repeal of Law 22 of Prairial
General amnesty for political prisoners
Lots of changes
o Revival of Catholic worship
o Return of frivolous pleasures
o Repeal of legislation making divorce more equitable for women
Constitution of the Year III
58. The White Terror
Period where people involved with Terror were attacked/ murdered
o Started with execution of former terrorists
o Jacobins given little due process before executions
o Bands of Jesus
59. Bands of Jesus
Gangs of youth who beat Jacobins
o Had aristocratic connections or had avoided serving in the military
o Part of white terror
60. Constitution of the Year III
Replaced fully democratic constitution of 1793 as a result of Thermidorian Reaction
Rejection of both constitutional monarchy and democracy
o Two house legislature
Upper House: 40+ husbands and widowers
Lower House: 30+ married or single
o 5-person Directory as executive with members chosen by upper house from list provided
by lower house
o Voting
Property qualifications
Soldiers could vote without holding property
Revolution of property holders had triumphed
o Middle class won
o Peasants also gained property that was taken from nobles
61. The Directory
Set up by Constitution of Year III
5-person Directory as executive with members chosen by upper house from list provided by
lower house

 Peace with Prussia and Spain

War still with Britain and Austria led to dependence on army
62. Conspiracy of Equals
Led by Gracchus Babeuf
More radical democracy
More equality in property
Crushed by Directory
o Showed that it was resistance to further social changes
63. Coup dtat
Overthrow of the government

Chapter 20: The Age of Napoleon and the Triump of Romanticism:

1. Congress of Vienna
Meeting of numerous heads of state of Europe to deal with European problems
o Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain dominated
o France
Didnt want any state to dominate Europe
Restoration of Bourbon monarchy
Nonvindictive boundary settlement to calm and satisfy France
o Series of states built as buffer against France
Netherlands including Belgium
Prussia got land on the Rhine
Austria was given full control of northern Italy
Rest of Germany given to legitimate monarchs
o France included as fifth power after it helped settle the Polish-Saxon question
Chief aim was to maintain peace and prevent another Napoleonic sequence
o Purpose of treaties was peace not victory
Framework for stability
Treaties between states so they continued even if monarch died
o Success
France was accepting of its role as international power
2. Horatio Nelson
British admiral
Destroyed French fleet after Napoleons invasion of Egypt
o Cut French army off from France
British troops had to drive out the French
o Showed Ottomans were weak
o Caused Ottoman provinces to try to reform
3. Second Coalition
Alliance of Russia, Austria, Britain, and the Ottoman Empire against the French
Created out of fear of France after French invasion of Egypt
Series of military victories in 1799
o Took back Switzerland and Italy
o Threatened to invade France
4. Abb Siys
One of the Directors
Proposed new constitution
o Directory had fragile support
Economic troubles domestically
Second Coalition against France
o Executive body independent of electoral whims
o Would require military support of another coup
Napoleon helped
Napoleon then quickly pushed Sieyes out of power
Wrote What is the Third Estate?
5. Constitution of the Year VIII
Napoleons new constitution after he pushed Sieyes out of power
Illusion of democracy
o Universal male suffrage
o Complicated system of checks and balances
o Council of State

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 Really put Napoleon as lone man in charge

6. First Consul
Napoleon when he became dictator under Constitution of the Year VIII
7. Consulate
Government established under Constitution of the Year VIII
Effectively ended Revolution
o Third Estate had accomplished what it wanted to
Abolished hereditary privilege
Talent allowed one to achieve wealth, status, and security
o Peasants also got what they wanted
End to feudal system
Land
o These classes didnt want to endanger their newfound privileges
8. Maurice de Talleyrand
Napoleons foreign minister
Called assassination of Bourbon duke of Baden a blunder because it gave France
enemies
o Violated sovereignty and due process
Napoleon knew the duke to be innocent
Violation of international law
o Liked by Jacobins because it was antiroyalist
9. Napoleonic Code/Code Napoleon
Napoleons codification of French law
Similar ideals to Revolution
o Safeguarded all forms of property
o Hereditary privileges remained abolished
o Merit for salaried office positions
o Conservative attitude towards women and labor
10. Concordat of 1801
Napoleons peace with the Catholic Church
o Gave Napoleon most of what he wanted
Required refractory clergy and those that accepted Revolution to resign
State named bishops
State paid salary of bishops and at least one priest per parish
Church gave up claims on confiscated property
o Named Catholicism majority religion in France
o Wasnt all that pope had hoped for
Clergy had to swear oath of loyalty to state
Supremacy of state over church
Similar laws applied to Protestant and Jewish communities weakening
Catholic privilege
11. Third Coalition
Britain, Austria, and Russia
Put together by William Pitt the Younger
o Fear of French expansionism
12. Battle of Trafalgar
Naval battle off coast of Spain
British Admiral Horatio Nelson (died during battle)
o Destroyed combined French and Spanish fleet
o British lost no ships

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Consequences
o Assured France couldnt invade Britain
o Guaranteed British naval supremacy for rest of the war
13. Confederation of the Rhine
Organized the western German princes
o Created by Napoleon
o Led to official end to Holy Roman Empire
Provoked Prussia to join the war against France
o Quickly crushed by Napoleon
14. Continental System
Continental System
o Prevented trade with Britain in an attempt to force peace on the British
Didnt have much opposition on its own
Didnt cripple British economy because of markets in New World
o Napoleon insisted that tariffs and trade policies favored France
Angered foreign merchants
Led to smuggling that led to Napoleons invasion of Spain that helped
lead to his downfall
15. Wars of Liberation
Spain
o Napoleon attacked highly held Spanish monarchy and Catholic Church
Led to peasant revolt
Revolt would drain French resources
Austria
o Austria restarted its war after Napoleon got bogged down in Spain
Thought Napoleon was weak
Thought German princes would rise to help them
Thought wrong
o Lost much of its territory
o Napoleon also took an Austrian princess as his wife
16. Klemens von Metternich
Austrian prince and foreign minister
Would have preferred to allow Napoleon to stay than allow Russia to dominate Europe
o Showed reluctance of Austria and Prussia to challenge Napoleon even after he
was defeated in Russia
o Napoleon didnt want to make concessions that would make his opponents turn
against each other
17. Battle of the Nations
Battle where Napoleon faced combined forces of Austria, Prussia, and Russia at Dresden
Decisive defeat for Napoleon
o New army was poorly trained and equipped and its generals were low on moral
o Last battle before his first downfall
18. Elba
Little island, off coast of northern Italy, where Napoleon fled to after he abdicated
Abdicated after defeat in Battle of the Nations and British invasion of France
19. Battle of Waterloo
Where Napoleon was defeated after he returned from exile
o Army was still loyal to him
o French people thought they would fare better under him than restoration
Bourbons

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o Said he was going to be peaceful but European powers didnt trust him
20. Saint Helena
Tiny Atlantic island off the coast of Africa
Where Napoleon was sent (and later died) after he was defeated at Waterloo
21. Hundred Days
Period of Napoleons return from Elba
Frightened European powers
o Made peace settlement harsher for France
Minor territorial changes
Army of occupation in France
22. Quadruple Alliance
Austria, Prussia, Britain, and Russia
Originally an alliance against Napoleonic France
Became an alliance for maintaining the peace
o New idea in Europe
Countries had seen how wars affected civilians as well as professional
soldiers
o Reflected in settlement from Congress of Vienna
23. William Wordsworth
British romantic writer
People lose things in necessary process of maturation
o Lose childlike vision and closeness to spiritual reality
o Childhood period of creative imagination
24. Don Juan
Written by British romanticist Lord Byron
Nature both cruel and beautiful
Admiration for urban life
25. Romanticism
Reaction to the thoughts of the Enlightenment
o Writers and artists saw imagination (or a similar thing) supplementing reason
Urged revival of Christianity that was seen throughout Europe in Middle
Ages
o Liked art, literature, and architecture of medieval times
o Interest in folklore, folksongs, and fairytales
o Fascinated by dreams, hallucinations, and sleepwalking
Suggested existence of world beyond empirical observation and reason
In literature
o All literature that didnt observe classical forms and gave free play to
imagination
o British Romantic Writers
Poetry enhanced by freely following creative impulses of the mind
Wordsworth
Lord Byron rejected old traditions and championed personal liberty
o German Romantic Writers
Mostly novels characterized as being highly sentimental and borrowed
material from medieval romances
Enlightenment ideal of women attacked
Goethe
In religion
o Inner emotions of humankind as foundation of religion

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Origin of Methodism
Revolt against deism and rationalism of Church of England
Justification by faith
Inward, heartfelt religion with possibility of Christian perfection in life
o Similar religious revivals on the Continent
Catholic revival in France with emphasis on passion
Always against religion on the Enlightenment
Views of Nationalism and History
o Nationalism
Glorification of individual peoples and cultures
Human beings and societies developed over time
Support for nationalism (particularly seen in German romantics)
o History
Ideas develop in an evolutionary fashion with conflict
Thesis and antithesis clash until synthesis becomes new thesis
All periods of humanity necessary as basis for further progress

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Chapter 21 Identification (The Conservative Order and the Challendes of Reform (18151832):
1. Nationalism
Nation composed of people joined by common bonds
o Common language
o Common customs, history, and culture
o Bonds make it so those people should have same government
Political and ethnic boundaries should coincide
Gained prominence during era
2. Nation-State (not all in book)
Sovereign political and geopolitical entity
Cultural and ethnic entity
Geographic overlap of state and nation
3. Nationhood
Nationalists used a variety of metaphors and analogies to try to define it
o Germans and Italians argued for unification
Elimination of dynastic states
Increased efficiency
o Professional metaphors/ analogies
Nations determined destinies like people determined careers
Nations were similar to biological creatures, creations of God
Place for nations in divine order
4. Liberal
Anyone or anything that challenged the status quo for more freedom
Usually well-educated, somewhat wealthy, and associated with professions or
commercial life
Political goals
o Derived from Enlightenment, traditional English liberties, and French
Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen
Legal equality
Religious toleration
Free press
o Role of government
Limit arbitrary power of government
Legitimacy from freely given consent of the governed
Ministers responsible to the elected representatives, not the monarch
o Sought to use written constitutions to achieve these goals
o Only wanted political power extended to propertied and wealthy
Would include them because of their important roles
Would still exclude lower classes who they detested
Economic goals
o Divide them from the working people
o Capitalism
Removal of economic restraints
Labor as commodity to be bought and sold freely
Economic liberty as basis for material progress
5. Giuseppe Mazzini
Italian nationalist and patriot
Wrote on nationalism
o Common ideas, common principles, and common practices

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o Divine destiny of nations

o Democracy as part of nationalism
o People as the basis
6. Conservatism
Anyone or anything that tried to actively keep the status quo
Pillars
o Legitimate monarchies
o Landed aristocracies
o Established churches
Liked revivals
Disliked Enlightenment ideas about religion
o French Revolution and Napoleonic events turned them into allies
Dislike of written constitutions
New pressures from end to the war
o Citizens could raise new complaints because there wasnt need to support
military
o Soldiers and sailors needed jobs
o Young could change their focus
7. Klemens von Metternich
Austrian prince
Epitomized conservatism
Helped create Vienna Settlement
o Control over forces of European reaction
Defended Austria against liberalism and nationalism
o Multi-ethnic empire risked dissolution from nationalists
o Representative government would have let ethnic groups break away
o Had to control new German Confederation
8. Viscount Castlereagh
British aristocrat
Helped Metternich with Vienna Settlement
9. Frederick William III
Prussian ruler after Vienna Settlement
Had promised a constitutional system during final stage of war against Napoleon
o Created new Council of State instead
Improved administrative efficiency
Not constitutionally based
o Reformist ministers later resigned after a fight and were replaced with
conservatives
Conservatives suggested eight diets with advisory power
Junkers dominated reinstituting Old Regime
10. Burschenschaften
Nationalistic, liberal student associations at German universities
o Expected more than conservative leaders offered
o Tried to sever provincial loyalty and replace it with loyalty to a unified German
state
o Often anti- Semetic
11. Karl Sand
German student and member of a burschenschaften
Assassinated conservative dramatist August von Kotzebue
o Tried and publically executed

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 Made him martyr in eyes of young nationalists

o Metternich used it to suppress other student associations and liberal organizations
12. August von Kotzebue
Conservative dramatist
Assassinated by Karl Sand
13. Carlsbad Decrees
Dissolved burschenshaften
o In response to assassination of Kotzebue
Was more opportunist than a direct relationship
o University inspectors and press inspectors
Also restricted the press
o Most publications couldnt print without prior knowledge and approval of state
officials
o States responsible for anything produced within them that attacked institutions of
their state or any other
Followed by Final Act
14. Final Act
Limited the subjects that were allowed to be discussed in constitutional chambers of
Bavaria, Wurttemberg, and Baden
Reasserted the right of monarchs to resist the demands of constitutionalists
o Secret police suppressed and harassed political dissidents
Included anyone who sought even moderate change
Showed opposition to liberalism and nationalism in Germany
15. Lord Liverpool
Leader of the post-war Tory ministry
o Unprepared for unemployment problems
o Sought to protect interests of landed and wealthy
Corn law
Abolishment of income tax (which mostly taxed the wealthy) and
replacement with a sales tax (which taxed all)
16. Corn Law
Parliament maintained high prices on domestic grain
o Did this through tariffs on foreign grain
o Protected interests of wealthy and landed
17. Combination Acts
Parliamentary law banning unions or workers organizations
Exemplified British aristocracy abandoning of its traditional role of protecting the poor
o Also seen with corn law and abolishment of income tax
o Wage protection had been removed
o Advocates of eliminating Poor Laws that protected destitute and unemployed
18. William Cobbett
Leader of reform club called Political Registrar
o Disliked aristocrats abandonment of traditional role of protecting the poor
Mostly lower class
Demanded political reform
o Government saw clubs such as this one as being filled with sans-culottes who
wanted to hang aristocrats
Seen by government leaders as demagogue who was seducing people from them
o Responded with repression
19. Coercion Act of 1817

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Temporarily suspended habeas corpus and extended existing laws against seditious
meetings
o Passed out of fear of lower classes demanding reform
o Used unruly mass meeting at Spa Fields near London as justification but it was
just opportunistic
Only successful for a short time with the help of some good harvests
20. Peterloo Massacre
Started as mass meeting of public discontent in Manchester at Saint Peters Fields
o Royal troops and local militia on hand to ensure order
o Local magistrate ordered troops to move into the crowd
Caused chaos and confusion that resulted in 11 deaths
So-named because of contemptuous comparisons with Waterloo
Showed that repression was only a scab
21. Six Acts
Another attempt by Parliament to suppress political dissidents
o Came out of attempt to support local officials who were responsible for Peterloo
o Six things
Forbade large, unauthorized public meetings
Raised fines for seditious libel
Sped up trials of political agitators
Increased newspaper taxes
Prohibited the training of armed groups
Allowed local officials to search homes in disturbed areas
Attempted to remove instruments of agitation from hands of radical leaders
22. Cato Street Conspiracy
Group of extreme radicals plot to blow up entire Cabinet
o Failed
o Leaders tried and some were executed
Further discredited movement for Parliamentary reform
23. Louis XVIII
Brother of Louis XVI who was put on French throne during Bourbon restoration
o Became political realist during exile
o Agreed to become constitutional monarch
Made own constitution
24. The Charter
Constitution of French restoration made by Louis XVIII
Hereditary monarchy and bicameral legislature
o Upper house appointed by monarchy
o Lower house elected
Very few who could vote due to high property requirements
Most of rights from Dec. of Rights of Man and Citizen
o Religious toleration
Catholicism was official religion
o People kept property rights gained during Revolution
25. Ultraroyalism
People more royalist than Louis XVIII
o Led by Artois
o Wanted revenge for Revolution
Led White Terror
Convinced Louis XVIII to kick out liberal ministers after Artois son was assassinated

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o Wealthy got two votes

o Press censorship
o Easy arrests for those dangerous to government
o Catholic Church in charge of secondary education
26. White Terror
Killing of former revolutionaries and supporters of Napoleon following Napoleons
defeat
Carried out by vengeful ultraroyalists
27. Concert of Europe
Way for European powers (Austria, Prussia, Britain, and Russia) to deal with each other
o Major powers would periodically meet at congresses to fix problems and foreign
policy issues
o Prevented one nation from taking major action in international affairs without
approval of others
Initial goals
o Keep balance of power against French aggression
o Check military might of Russia
Long-term goal of maintaining peace
28. Congress System
Similar to Concert of Europe
Functioned well immediately following Congress of Vienna
o First Congress at Aix- la- Chapelle
Major powers agreed to remove troops from France
Since France had paid its reparations, it was admitted back into good
standing
o Some tension even at first conference
Russian tsar wanted Quadruple Alliance to uphold existing borders and
governments
British claimed alliance was only to prevent French aggression
Didnt mean anything until outbreak of revolutions in southern Europe
starting in 1820
29. Ferdinand VII
Spanish Bourbon monarch placed on throne following Napoleons defeat
o Agreed to uphold written constitution
Ignored once he was in power
Dissolved Cortes (the parliament) and ruled alone
o Forced to again rely on constitution when group of army officers rebelled
30. Holy Alliance
Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria created by Metternich in 1815
o Called by Metternich in 1820 to respond to revolts in Italy and Spain
Had forced written constitutions on kings
Italy was especially troubling because Austria sought to dominate it and
use it as a buffer to the south
o Met with unofficial representatives from France and Britain at Congress of
Trouppau
31. Congress of Troppau
Meeting of Holy Alliance and unofficial representatives from France and Britain in
response to 1820 rebellions in Spain and Italy
Members of Holy Alliance, led by tsar of Russia issued the Protocol of Troppau
32. Protocol of Troppau

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Issued by members of Holy Alliance at Congress of Troppau

Stable government might intervene to restore order in a country experiencing revolution
o Russia initially hesitated to allow Austria to intervene in Italy
Allowed it at Congress of Lilbach
Austrians restored non-constitutional monarchy
Tried to increase efficiency to help beef up local support
33. George Canning
British foreign minister after suicide of Castlereagh
Less sympathetic to Metternichs joint-interventionist to preserve conservative regime
goals
o Basically withdrew Britain from continental affairs at Congress of Verona (last
of the postwar congresses)
o Wanted to help British trading interests
Sought to prevent reactionary European politics from preventing
independence of Spains Latin American colonies (which would help
break the Spanish trade monopoly)
Supported Monroe Doctrine that helped to give British trade dominance
34. The Eastern Question
What should European powers do about Ottoman inability to assure political and
administrative stability in its possessions in and around the eastern Mediterranean?
o Ottoman Empire was weak because it refused to undergo reforms as European
powers got stronger
o Gained prominence because of Greek revolution
o Major powers all had interest
Russia and Austria wanted empires Balkan holdings
British and French wanted trade and naval bases in the region
Treatment of Christian subjects in Islamic empire
Access to shrines in Holy Land
Goals often conflicted with want of independence for people in the
region but supported nationalists to weaken Ottomans
35. Treaty of London
Britain, France, and Russia demanded Ottoman recognition of Greek independence
o Would benefit strategic interests and not harm domestic security
o Sent joint naval fleet to support Greeks
Second treaty recognized independence of Greece
36. Treaty of Adrianople
Russia got what is modern day Romania from Ottomans
o Had sent troops into territory after Treaty of London
Ottomans agreed that France, Britain, and Russia got to decide fate of Greece
37. Toussaint LOuverture
Led slave revolt on Haiti with Jean-Jacques Dessalines
o Achieved independence from France in 1804
o First of colonial revolutions in Latin America
o Exception in drive for independence from European masters
Suppressed people led the revolution
Most were led by Creole elite
Creoles were determined not to lose social privilege from revolutions
38. Peninsulares
Whites born in Spain who moved to Spanish colonies
Creoles resented that they were favored in government policies

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o
o
o
o

Political patronage
Best positions in colonial government, church, and army
Way for Spain to extract wealth from colonies
Trading policies favored Spain
Influence of Enlightenment philosophy and American Revolution
Napoleons influence
Portuguese monarchy fled to Brazil where it ruled
Creoles feared Napoleon would set up liberal institution to replace
Spanish Bourbon monarchy that would enact reforms that would harm
their economic interests

39. Juntas
Political committees created by creoles the claimed rights to govern different regions of
Latin America
o Fear of Napoleon
Liberal reforms that would hurt economic interests
Draining of resources to fund his wars
o Insincerely declared they were ruling in the name of the deposed Spanish
monarch (Ferdinand VII)
Made it so Spanish would never again directly rule the Latin American colonies
Ended privileges of the peninsulares
One from Buenos Aires asserted its independence and helped Paraguay and Uruguay gain
theirs
o Paraguay was free
o Uruguay was absorbed into Brazil
40. Bernardo OHiggins
Chilean independence leader
Ruled as dictator of Chile in Santiago
Jose de San Martin took over in Santiago
o Built naval force here and led assault on Peru (bastion of the monarchy)
41. Simon Bolivar
Involved in liberating junta in Caracas, Venezuela
o Believed in both independence and republicanism
Exile during civil war between republican government/ monarchists/ slaves and Ilaneros
(Venezuelan cowboys)
o Attack from Haiti to capture New Grenada (Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and
part of Venezuela)
o Attacked from New Grenada and captured Caracas and was named president
Eventually helped most of South America become free and pushed for republican
governments
42. Augustin Iturbide
Former royalist general in Mexico
Declared Mexico independent
o Conservative forces were worried by liberal revolution in Spain
o Regime as emperor didnt last long but the conservative nature of Mexican
government did
43. The Decembrist Revolt
Group of army officers wanted reform and planned a coup
o Result of heir controversy after death of Alexander I
o Nicholas I declared himself tsar (in line with Alexanders wishes)
Army forced to swear allegiance to new tsar

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o
o

Most did so without any problem

Moscow regiment refused
Wanted constitutional monarchy, abolition of serfdom, and Constantine
(other brother) as tsar
Crushed
Nicholas led commission on secret liberal societies in the army
First revolt in modern Russian history with actual political goals
o Symbolized wants of Russian liberals
44. Alexander I
Became tsar after coup against father
Briefly followed Enlightenment but then turned conservative
o Suppressed anything related to the Enlightenment and liberalism
o Army officers discovered those ideas during fighting against Napoleon
Died suddenly leading to dynastic crisis and Decembrist Revolt
o Had given secret instructions for his younger brother Nicholas to be tsar
Accepted by his other brother who was actual heir
Legal fighting about this
45. Nicholas I
Tsar of Russia
Cemented power during Decembrist revolt
Extreme form of autocracy
o Knew Russia needed economic and social change but was scared to enact it
o Censorship and secret police
o Official Nationality
Program in place of reform
Russian Orthodox Church provided basis for morality and education
Autocracy necessary for advancement
Alienated Russian intellectuals
Codified Russian law
Crushed revolt in Poland and became ready to suppress liberalism and nationalism all
over Europe
46. Organic Statute
Issued by Tsar Nicholas I in response to Polish revolt
Declared Poland an integral part of the Russian Empire
o Guaranteed certain Polish rights but that part was ignored
o Press censorship in Poland
47. Charles X
Succeeded Louis XVIII as king of France
o Same as ultraroyalist Artois
Reactionary policies
o Tried to compensate aristocrats who lost land in Revolution
Lowered interest rate on government bonds to set up fund for them
Middle-class bondholders resented this
o Reinstated hereditary inheritance for aristocrats
o Enacted a law that punished sacrilege with imprisonment or death
48. July Revolution
Charles X called for new elections
o Liberals won a surprising victory
o King decided to try royalist power seizure instead of accepting elections
French naval pirate ship took control of Algeria

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o Charles X tried royalist coup with Four Ordinances

49. Four Ordinances
Royalist attempt to seize power after French Empire started in North Africa
o Restricted freedom of the press
o Dissolved elected, liberal parliament
o Restricted voting to the wealthiest in society
o Called for new elections
Swift liberal reaction
o People of Paris revolted
Royalist troops unable to regain control of city
Charles X abdicated
o Duke of Orleans named monarch
Constitutional monarchy
Tense relationship between liberals (who wanted constitutional
monarchy) and the working class (who really wanted republic)
50. Louis Philippe/July Monarchy
Monarchy that was in power after abdication of Charles X
More liberal than restoration monarchy
o Flag of French Revolution
o Anticlerical and Catholicism became only majority religion
o Censorship abolished
o Slightly expanded voting rights
o Constitution as protection of rights of the people
Socially conservative
o Little or no concern for lower classes
Led to discontent from populace
Expanded French empire
51. Great Reform Bill
Reform bill in Britain that involved conservative and reformist accommodations
o Possible influence of July Revolution in France
o New Parliamentary elections after George IVs death
o British uniqueness
Commercial and industrial class was larger in Britain than any other
country
Liberal Whigs had tradition of being moderate
Lord Liverpools less conservative ministry after passage of Six Acts
Product of Whig government
Two Goals
o Abolish rotten boroughs with very few voters and replace them with previously
unrepresented manufacturing districts
o Number of voters to increase by about 50% in England and Wales
Not democratic because of property and gender qualifications
Some workers without land actually lost right to vote
Defeated twice
o House of Commons replaced in new election
o House of Lords forced to accept it after king agreed to make enough new
positions to allow it to pass
Legacy
o Did not actually represent triumph for middle class
o Set stage for further reform in other areas

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52. Catholic Emancipation Act

Key reform in Britain meant to maintain the union with Ireland
o Fear of Irish nationalist uprising
o Originally only Irish Protestants could sit in House of Commons
Allowed Catholic Irishmen to sit in House of Commons
o In exchange made it so only wealthiest could vote
o Also repealed restrictions against Protestant nonconformists
o Took away Anglican monopoly
53. Daniel OConnell
Irish nationalist who organized Catholic Association that worked for Catholic
Emancipation
Won election to Parliament in spite of fact that it was illegal for him to be seated
o Convinced Parliament that Catholic Emancipation was necessary to prevent civil
war in Ireland
54. Thomas Babington Macaulay
Member of House of Commons that passed Great Reform Bill
Argued in support of Great Reform Bill
o Balanced representation to major portions of population
Power to middle class
Secure against a revolution
o Not an embrace with democracy
Thought it would produce destructive revolution
o Wide appeal to liberals and conservatives

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Chapter 22 (Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850:)

1. Irish Potato Famine
Crop failure of Irish potatoes
Effects
o As many as half a million peasants who didnt have enough land died
o Hundreds of thousands left Ireland
Showed that poor harvests still had devastating effects
British government tried to help
o Repealed tariffs on imported grains
o Enacted public works program to employ those who were forced off their land
o Didnt help and may have done more harm than good
2. laboring poor
Members of the labor force who had jobs but earned just enough to survive
Shows variety of conditions of those in labor force
3. Proletarianization
Entrance of workers into a wage economy where they dont control the means of
production
o Dont have equipment
o Arent in control of their trade
o Decrease in economic freedom
Occurred rapidly as the factory system rose
o Factory owner was source of capital to control means of production
o Factory workers did wage labor
Also occurred outside of factory system if new invention could do work of several
artisans in a workshop
Often overall better than those who resisted the factory system
Urban artisans also underwent process more slowly
o Often benefited, or at least werent hurt, but factory system
o Problem from organization of production
Guild system where master owned larger equipment and artisans owned
tools and other smaller stuff
Laws outlawed these types of organizations
4. Andrew Ure
Factory system made possible the production of large quantities of consumer goods
o More efficient that artisan system
o Thought factories would bring era of material prosperity
Factory system required new organization of labor
o More assembly line style
o Peoples tasks were less difficult than those of artisans
Allowed for more unskilled labor
5. Confection
Products made in standard sizes rather than in special orders for individuals
Practice began by many workshop masters in response to competitive challenges from
capitalized or machine dominated industry
o Greater division of labor
o Less skill required and particular skills less valuable
o Masters also tried to lower wages
Often led to strikes
Influx of unskilled laborers from countryside allowed for quick scabs
6. Chartists/Chartism

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Program of political reform that artisans who wanted to protect their social and economic
status turned to
o William Lovett and The Six Points of the Charter
o Northern Star
o Feargus OConnor
Ultimately failed as a national movement
o Split between violent and non-violent factions
o Return to economic prosperity caused many working people to abandon it
Significance
o Several local successes including control of city councils in Leeds and Sheffield
o First large-scale, European, working-class led movement
o Continental workers saw it as the kind of action that was necessary to improve
their condition
7. William Lovett
Radical London artisan who helped form the London Working Mens Association
o Group issued The Six Points of the Charter
8. The Six Points of the Charter
Political demands issued by London Working Mens Association
o Six specific reforms
Universal male suffrage
Annual election to the House of Commons
Secret balloting
Equal electoral districts
Abolition of property requirement to be in House of Commons
Salaries for House of Commons
o Rejected by Parliament on three separate occasions
Often had millions of signatures
Led to strikes
o Several of the reforms were eventually made into law
9. Northern Star
Chartist newspaper
10. Feargus OConnor
Most important Chartist leader
Made speeches across Britain for Chartist cause
11. Factory Act of 1833
British law regulating child labor
o Forbade employment of children under nine
o Children 9-13
Workday limited to nine hours
Two hours of daily education to be paid for by the factory owner
Split up family unit
Led to adults demanding shorter workday
o Wanted to increase time with children
o Eventually got 10 hour workday (down from 12 hours)
12. Louise Aston
German political radical
Portrayed plight of working women who were often sexually exploited because of need
to supplement their low wages
13. Stephanie Jullien
Young, middle-class woman who wrote on marriage

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Father wanted her to marry

Wanted to delay a decision
Women dont have as many opportunities as men, especially once they
are married
Wanted to love the man before she decided to marry him
14. Sir Robert Peel
Sponsor of legislation in British Parliament that put police on streets of London
o Need had presented itself as more people moved to cities
o Meant to be professional, stand-alone police force
Keep order
Protect property and lives
Investigate crimes and catch offenders
o First seen with some suspicion but seen as protectors by end of century given that
they didnt have a political purpose
15. Bobbies
What new London police force was called informally
o Named after Robert Peel, bills sponsor
Unarmed, unlike most other police forces
Shows new concern with stability
16. Hulks
Ships that acted as prisons for governments at the beginning of the 19th century
17. transportation
New penalty introduced by British government for most serious offenders in late 18th
century
o Sent to Australia until mid-19th century when colony started to object
o Long term prisoners were then put in public work prisons
Shows new concern with stability
18. Auburn System
One prison system that Europe imported from U.S.
o Prisoners separated at night but allowed to intermingle during day
Individual cells
Meant to allow for intense self-reflection
Relaxed because it often led to mental breakdown
o Attempt at prison reform
Crime seen as character fault of criminal not act against order
Move to rehabilitate criminals
Shows new concern with stability
19. Philadelphia System
Another prison system that Europe imported from U.S.
o Prisoners kept separated at all times
Individual cells
Meant to allow for intense self-reflection
Relaxed because it often led to mental breakdown
o Very different from Auburn system
o Shows new concern with stability
20. Devils Island
Island off of South America where France sent offenders sentenced to transportation
o Meant to deal with rise in repeat offenders
o Started long after British stopped the practice
Shows new concern with stability

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21. Thomas Malthus/ Essay on Principle of Population

Classical economist
Population must eventually outgrow food supply
o Late marriage, chastity, and contraception necessary to avert disaster
Immediate conditions of working class could only get worse
22. David Ricardo/ Principles of Political Economy
Classical economist
Transformed Malthus concepts into Iron Law of Wages
23. Iron Law of Wages
Ricardo
Idea
o As wages rose, more children would be produced, increasing the labor supply and
causing wages to drop
o As wages dropped, less children would be produced, decreasing the labor supply
and causing wages to rise
Effects
o In long run, wages would always be at lowest level
o Supported employers in resisting wage increases and demands of unions
24. Classical economics
Economics based on Adam Smiths Wealth of Nations
o Laissez-faire
People would be competitive and thereby promote the common good
Marketplace would respond to demand
o Role of government
Sound currency
Enforce contracts
Protect property
Have low tariffs and taxes
Leave the rest alone
Dominant at the time
25. The July Monarchy
Louis Philippe and his finance minister Francois Guizot followed classical economics
o People who werent lazy didnt have to be poor
Construction of major capital-intensive infrastructure improvements
Little done about poverty in cities and countryside
26. Zollverein
Application of classical economics in Germany
Free trading union
o All major German states except for Austria joined
o Meant to abolish internal tariffs that impeded growth
27. Jeremy Bentham
Strong supporter of utilitarianism
Sought to create scientific laws based on utilitarianism
o Fragment of Government and The Principles of Morals and Legislation
o Utility would overcome special interest that prevented rational government
Helped increase support for classical economics
28. Utilitarianism
Greatest amount of good for greatest amount of people
Application to government

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Legal and judicial system burdened by tradition so that they hurt the people they
were supposed to help
o Led to new Poor Laws and repeal of Corn Laws
29. Poor Law Commission
Established by new Poor Law to make poverty most undesirable of social situations
o Government poor relief to be distributed only in workhouses
Families separated, food terrible, and work unpleasant
Also had social stigma attached
o Meant to combat laziness and inspire people to lift selves up
Poor thought workhouses were new prisons
30. Anti-Corn Law League
Organization of manufacturers who wanted to repeal Corn Laws
o Abolish tariffs in line with classical economics
o Lower tariffs meant lower food prices which meant workers wages could be
lowered
o In turn prices of British manufactured goods could be lowered to increase their
competitiveness
Real reason for repeal was Irish Potato Famine and attempt by British government to prevent
Irish from starving
31. Utopian socialists
Group of writers who defined social questions and socialism
o Ideas were visionary and often advocated creation of ideal communities
o Questioned structure and values of capitalist framework
Called utopian by their later critics
Also advocated free love and more open family relationships
32. Henri Saint-Simon/ Saint-Simonianism
Early socialist pioneer
o Liberal French aristocrat who fought in American Revolution and welcomed
French Revolution
o Modern society would require rational management
Private wealthy, property, and enterprise should be administered by nonowners
Large board of directors organizing and coordinating activities to achieve
social harmony
Developed a small following that also discussed feminism and would run French railway
industry
33. Robert Owen/ Owenism
Major British contributor to early socialism
o Self made cotton manufacturer
o Firm believer in environmentalist psychology of the Enlightenment
Human beings placed in correct situation could improve their character
No incompatibility between humane industrial environment and profit
Later in life tried to create Grand National Union, an organization of all the British trade
unions
34. New Lanark
Factory where Owenism was put into practice
o Workers got good quarters and recreational opportunities
o Rewards for good work
o Children got an education
o Various churches on site

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o Still made good profit

Visitors came from all over Europe to see the successful implementation of Owens ideas
35. Charles Fourier/ Fourierism
French intellectual counterpart of Owen
o Never achieved Owens prominence though
o Industrial order ignored passionate side of human nature
o Construction of communities called phalanxes
36. phalanxes
Fouriers communities to account for passionate side of human nature
o Liberated living would replace boredom
o Agrarian production would be the primary focus
o Free sex and marriage only later in life
o No requirement to do the same work for the entire day
Dealt with problem of boredom
37. Louis Blanc/The Organization of Labor
French socialist who paid more attention to the politics of situation that Saint-Simon,
Owen, and Fourier
o Wanted end to competition but not a totally new society
Political reform giving working class right to vote
Workers could then use political process to help their economic situation
o State could be used to improve living and labor conditions
38. anarchists
Writers and activists who rejected both industry and dominance of government
o Socialist tradition but didnt entirely fit
o Some favored terrorism and violence and some did not
39. Auguste Blanqui
Anarchist who favored violence to abolish capitalism and the state
o Professional revolutionary vanguard
o Ideas for new society were vague but he foreshadowed Lenin
Spent most of adult life in jail (obviously)
40. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon/What is Property
Anarchist who was peaceful
Attacked banking system for rarely extending credit to small-property owners of the poor
o Expansion of credit to allow those people to engage in economic enterprise that
would not involve unfair or unearned profits
o Society should have mutualism where there was a system of small businesses and
cooperative enterprises
Peaceful cooperation and exchange of goods based on recognition of labor
required in each industry
State therefore no longer needed to protect property
Later influenced French labor movement
41. Karl Marx/Marxism
Marx was a middle-class German
Source of ideas
o German Hegelianism, French socialism, and classical economics applied to
concrete historical, social, and economic developments
o
Marxism
o At the time one of the many forms of socialist ideas
o By the end of the century, triumphed in much of Europe

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Differences from other socialist ideas

Claim to scientific accuracy
Rejection of reform
Call for rather undefined form of revolution
o New industrial workforce as single most important driving force in contemporary
history
Fate of proletariat equated with fate of humanity
Proletariat needed to rise up and liberate themselves
42. Friedrich Engels
Another middle-class German
Wrote The Condition of the Working Class in England
o Devastating picture of industrial life
o Helped Engels and Marx, who had met year before, become good friends
43. Communist Manifesto
Marx and Engels laid out their form of socialism (which they called communism because
of its revolutionary aspect)
o Total abolition of private property
Would become one of the most influential documents in European history
Revolution through class conflict
o History understood as humanity coming to a system to produce goods necessary
for survival
Conflict between classes that controlled means of production and classes
that worked for them
That conflict led to historical development
Meant that mere reforms couldnt produce the necessary change and that
revolution was inevitable for change to happen
o Bourgeoisie v. Proletariat
Bourgeoisie was middle class associated with industry
Proletariat was working class
Capitalism increased size of proletariat and competition hurt them
Proletariat would finally get fed up and overthrow the ever decreasing
owners
For a time the proletariat would be a dictatorship
Dictatorship of proletariat would give way to propertyless and classless
society
Problems with Marxs Class Revolution
o High unemployment and deprivation conditioned Marxs view
o Capitalism did not collapse and middle class didnt become proletariat
44. Louis Napoleon
Nephew of Napoleon
Elected president of Second French Republic
o Meant to use disorder to gain power
Argued with National Assembly and claimed he represented the will of
the people
Assembly refused to allow him to run for reelection
o Used military to seize power
Dispersed National Assembly
Mass arrests to destroy dissidents
National plebiscite approved a new constitution that allowed him to consolidate power
and subsequently approved him becoming an emperor

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45. Second Republic

Declared after Louis Philippe abdicated the throne
Short lived
o National Assembly crushed working class discontent
o President Louis Napoleon took power when National Assembly wouldnt allow
him to run for reelection
46. Alphonse de Lamartine
French poet who led liberal opposition that organized a provisional government after
Louis Philippe abdicated
o Intended to call for election for assembly that would write republican constitution
o Gave into demands of working class that wanted representation in cabinet
Elected National Assembly was conservative and moderate
o Did found Second Republic
o Put down working class and ended chance at social revolution
47. General Cavaignac
French general who helped crush any chance of a social revolution
o Under orders from government
o Troops drawn from largely conservative countryside
48. The Womens Voice
Feminist daily newspaper and political society
o Some members had previously been involved with Saint-Simonian or Fourierist
groups
o Improving conditions for men wouldnt necessarily improve conditions for
women
o Relatively conservative feminists
Cooperated with male political groups
Supported fidelity and family
o Tried to use maternal role of women to raise their importance
Better education
Right to work
Economic security
Equal civil rights
Property rights
Right to vote
National government didnt act on this
49. French Feminist Movement
Wanted to improve status of women after Revolution of 1848
o Both middle and working class women
o Most radical ones called Vesuvians
Full domestic household equality
Right of women to serve in military
Similarity in dress for both sexes
o The Womens Voice
Met same fate as radical working class
o National government ignored them
o Women banned from political clubs
o Leaders of attempt to improve economic situation of working class women
imprisoned
50. Vienna Uprising
Louis Kossuth started cries for revolution

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Students were inspired by him and led major disturbances in Vienna

Army failed to restore order
Metternich resigned and fled
o Students didnt think moderately liberal constitution offered by Emperor
Ferdinand was enough
Emperor and imperial court fled
Government led by 200ish people who wanted to help workers
economically
Government really feared serf uprisings
o Abolished serfdom
o Took away serious support for rebels
51. Louis Kossuth
Magyar nationalist who contributed to start of Vienna uprising
o Member of Hungarian Diet
o Attacked Austrian domination of Hungary
Called for Hungarian independence
Responsible ministry under Habsburg dynasty
52. Magyar Revolt
Built on Vienna Uprising
Led by liberals with backing of aristocrats who wanted aristocratic liberties against
central government
o Hungarian Diet passed March Laws
Equality of religion
Jury trials
Election of a lower chamber
Relatively free press
Taxes on nobility
o Magyars wanted local autonomy with Ferdinand still as emperor
Attempted annexation of Habsburg eastern territories that was resisted by
national groups
Habsburgs helped national groups leading to clash between nationalism
and liberalism
53. Pan-Slavic Congress
Causes
o Czech nationalists wanted autonomous state within Habsburg domain made up of
Bohemia and Moravia
o Germans in the area disliked that plan
Slavic people came together
o Included Poles, Ruthenians, Czechs, Slovaks, Croats, Slovenes, and Serbs
o Wanted national equality of Slavs within Habsburg Empire
o Protested Slavic repression by Habsburgs, Hungarians, Germans, and Ottomans
o Idea of large Slavic nation
Stretch from Poland to Ukraine
Russian interests would surely dominate leading Pan-Slavism to be an
important tool in Russian foreign policy
The day of its closure the radicals were crushed after a radical insurrection broke out in
Prague
54. Giuseppe Garibaldi
Prominent Italian nationalist who went to Rome after the founding of the Roman
Republic

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Radicals then forced King of Lombardy back into war with Austria
Crushed in battle
King abdicated to his son
o Republic forced to battle for Italian independence and unification on its own
Crushed by French forces
Pope restored
Led one last push against Austria but was defeated
55. Victor Emmanuel II
Son of King of Lombardy
Took throne when his father abdicated after being defeated by Austrians
56. Frankfurt Parliament
Intended to write a moderately liberal constitution for a united Germany
o Revise organization of German Confederation
o Alienated conservatives and the working class
Disliked by conservatives for being liberal
Disliked by working class for not allowing guilds to come back
Start of split between German liberals and the working class
o Called in troops to crush radical workers insurrection
o Failed on issue of unification
Grossdeutsch favored including Austria but Kleindeutsch did not
Austria rejected German unification so they turned to Prussia
Prussian king rejected German crown offered by parliament because he
disliked the constitution
o Started to end and then driven out by troops after unification failure
Liberals never really recovered
o Had alienated conservatives and workers for nothing
o Did achieve extension of right to vote in some states but it was nothing compared
to their lofty goals

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Chapter 23 (The Age of Nation States):

1. The Crimean War
Caused by Russias want to extend its influence into the Ottoman Empire
o Had eyes on Moldavia and Walachia (modern Romania)
Used status as protector of Orthodox Christians within the Empire to
justify occupation
French had similar role for Catholics
o Pushed Ottomans to declare war
Britain and France didnt want the Russians to expand bringing them into the war
War was fought poorly but was concluded with the Treaty of Paris (1856)
2. The Treaty of Paris (1856)
Concluded Crimean War
Effects
o Russia had to give up a few things
Lost some territory
Had to recognize neutrality of the Black Sea
Gave up protector status
o Destroyed Concert of Europe because there wasnt as much fear of revolution
since they had been successfully put down in 1848
3. Hatt-i Sharif
Decree issued by Ottoman sultan that attempted to reorganize the administration and
military in a style similar to the European style
Made all citizens equal before the law, regardless of religion
4. Tanzimat (1839- 1876)
Era of reconstruction in the Ottoman Empire
o Led by administrative councils
o Effects
Liberalized economy
Ended farming taxes
Tried to eliminate corruption
More Western influence
o Printing presses
o Missionary-led Western schools
o Ottomans sought to copy Western legal and military institutions and liberal
secularism
Tried to shore up loyalty of Christians where there was prominent nationalism
o Abolition of millet system
Ultimately failed
o Local and regional governments didnt cooperate or tried to implement their own
reforms
o Growing nationalism
o Conflict between Westernized bureaucrats and army officers, merchants who
were helped, and the ulema, which sought to maintain Islamic law
o Loss of much of European land
5. Hatti-i Humayun
Another Ottoman reform that explicitly defined the rights of non-Muslims within the
Ottoman Empire
o Caused by pressure from Britain and France at end of Crimean War
o Equal obligation in military service
o Equal opportunity for state employment and admission to state schools

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 Abolished torture
Made it easier for foreigners to acquire property
6. Young Turks
Group of army officers that came to power after a coup in 1908
Had plan for reforms
Led Ottomans in World War I which led to defeat and collapse of the Empire
7. Romantic Republicans
Secret unification societies that formed after the Congress of Vienna
o Failed
8. Carbonari
Most famous of the secret unification societies of the Romantic Republicans
9. Giuseppe Mazzini
Leader of Italian nationalist unification movement following the failed uprisings of 1831
o Believed that God had ordained nations
o Founded Young Italy Society to expel Austrians from Italy
o Led insurrections during the 1830s and 1840s
o Had part in Roman Republic
Became well known but scared moderates because of his republican ideals
10. Giuseppe Garibaldi
Helped Mazzini lead Italian nationalist movement
o Led insurrections during the 1830s and 1840s
o Had part in Roman Republic
Became well known but scared moderates because of his republican ideals
11. Count Camilo Cavour
Would unify Italy under a constitutional monarchy through force and secret diplomacy
o Prime minister of Piedmont
Strong believer in the Enlightenment, classical economics, and
utilitarianism
Wanted a unified Italy for material and economic progress
o Believed French help would be necessary for unification
Helped France in Crimean War
Gave France Nice and Savoy for its help against Austria
12. Victor Emmanuel II
Son of King Charles of Piedmont who lost fights with Austria
Became king when his father abdicated
o Chose Count Cavour as his prime minister
13. War of Piedmont
War with Austria
o Piedmont defeated Austria with the help of the French
o Piedmont only got Lombardy because the French didnt want too large a victory
for Cavour
War for the rest of Italy
o Cavour helped outfit troops for Garibaldi so that Garibaldi could take Sicily and
Naples
o To ensure Garibaldi didnt go all republicanism, Cavour sent troops down that
conquered the rest of Italy (except for just around Rome which was protected by
the French)
Left major problems
o Economies of the North and South were different and incompatible
North was industrializing and looking outward

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 South was rural, poor, and backward

Political framework of a conservative constitutional monarchy couldnt deal with
the fact that Italy was conquered not unified
14. Transformismo
Italian politicians way of dealing with major problems
o Used bribery and favours to transform political opponents into supporters
o Made Italian politics synonymous with corruption
15. Italia Irredenta
Unredeemed Italy
Trent and city of Triestes name for the rest of Italy
o They were still under Austrian control
o Wanted to liberate the rest of Italy
Caused continued hostilities with Austria
Major reason for Italys support for Allies in WWI
16. William I
Became king of Prussia in 1861
o Wanted to strengthen the military, but Parliament wouldnt give him the
necessary taxes
Turned to Otto von Bismarck for help
17. Otto von Bismarck
One of most important people in European history from 1860s to 1890s
Background
o From junker (noble) class
o Attended a university and displayed an interest in German unification
o Reactionary as a member of provincial diet
o Foreign policy experience
Prussian minister to Frankfurt diet
Ambassadorships to Russia and France
o Conservative
Constitutional monarchy but monarch still strong
Strong industrial base
o Patriotism
o Pragmatism
o Planned to unite Germany through Prussias conservative institutions
Led Prussia into war with Denmark and Austria in pursuit of unification
18. The Danish War
Denmark tried to incorporate Schleswig and Holstein into its kingdom
o States had been traditionally split between Germany and Denmark
o Prussia and Austria acted to crush Denmark
Increased Bismarcks personal prestige
19. Austro- Prussian War
Bismarck went about planning this conflict
o Lulled Austria
Combined to defeat Denmark
Given half of land taken from Denmark
o Russian sympathy for supporting suppression of Polish revolt
o Persuaded Napoleon III to remain neutral
o Treaty with Italy that would give Italy Austrian land in return for support
o Tried to provoke Austria by telling Prussian forces to be obnoxious
Prussia then proceeded to destroy the Austrians
o

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20. Treaty of Prague

Concluded Austro- Prussian War
Gave Venetia to Napoleon III who gave it to Italy
Hapsburgs permanently excluded from German affairs
o Prussia had the dominance in wanted
21. North German Confederation
Federation made by Prussia of all of Germany north of the Main River after AustroPrussian War
o States retained local governments
o Military forces all under Prussian control
Prussia dominated
o President was the king of Prussia, represented by chancellor
o All laws for legislature had to be created by chancellor
22. Bundesrat
Federal council
o Upper house of legislature of North German Confederation
o Members selected by governments of member states
23. Reichstag
Lower house of legislature chosen by universal male suffrage
o Bismarck thought peasants would vote for conservatives
o Reichstag had no real power anyways
Ministers responsible to monarch
Couldnt present new legislation
Could approve military budget but for years at a time
24. The Franco- Prussian War
Another war that Bismarck wanted to get the southern provinces from France and
complete unification
o Bismarck edited a telegram from William I to make it seem like he had insulted
the French ambassador
o French government took the bait partially to try to get its populace to support the
government again
French were crushed
o Germany got Alsace and Lorraine
o German princes requested that William I become German emperor
Germany was an economic and military superpower
Also a strong force for conservatism
Showed weakness of French and Austrians
25. Napoleon III
Ruler of second French empire
o Authoritarian until 1860
o More liberal empire after 1860
Foreign policy failure
o Lost control in Italian unification process
o Supported disastrous military expedition to Mexico by an Austrian archduke
o Allowed German unification and lost a war to Germany
Captured before the end of the war and allowed to go to England
Proclamation of the Third Republic
26. Heinrich Von Treitschke
German historian known for extreme nationalism during the Franco- Prussian War
o Demanded annexation of Alsace and Lorraine

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Alsace wanted to remain part of France and majority of people were

French
Might makes right policy

27. The Paris Commune

New government elected to rule Paris separate from the rest of France
o Parisians thought National Assembly had betrayed them in peace negotiations
with Prussia
o Had radicals and socialists galore
National Assembly surrounded Paris and then attacked in killing 20,000 people
o Regarded by Marxists as a proletariat revolution
Most members were actually bourgeoisie
Actually wanted a more decentralized, radically democratized
government
o Another triumph of centralization just like the unifications of Germany and Italy
28. Third Republic
Founded in France because the monarchists couldnt get a king to sit on the throne
o Bourbon king had no heir
o Orleans king didnt want to keep tricolored flag
o Elected Marshal MacMahon to try to prepare for a monarchist restoration
Made republican system to regularize the political process
o Two house legislature
Chamber of Deputies elected by universal male suffrage
Senate chosen indirectly
o President elected by two houses
Much stronger and resilient system than many had expected
29. Marshal MacMahon
Elected president to try to prepare for a monarchist restoration
Conservative army officer
Resigned after quarrels with the lower house
o Left republicans in control
30. The Dreyfus Affair
Most traumatic event to the Third Republic (until they Nazis ended it)
Events
o Captain Dreyfus, a Jew, was convicted on flimsy (and forged) evidence of
passing secrets to the Germans and sent to Devils Island
o New head of counterintelligence looked at it again and found the evidence was
forged
Tried a different army officer
That army officer was acquitted
o Large amount of public debate followed
French conservatives initially dominated with anti-Dreyfus material
Emile Zolas newspaper article
o Liberals started to use events to attack conservatives
o Dreyfus given military retrial, convicted again, then pardoned by president
Conservatives put on defensive
Radicals, republicans, and socialists allied on the left to support republican institutions to
help themselves
Issues continued to divide Third Republic until Nazis ended it
31. Emile Zola
Wrote a newspaper article about the Dreyfus Affair

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Contended that the army didnt give Dreyfus due process and suppressed and
forged evidence
o Convicted of libel but fled to England
32. Francis Joseph
Ruler of Hapsburg Empire from 1848 to 1916
Tried to bring Hapsburg Empire into modern times
o Ministers attempted to create a centralized administration
Military and bureaucratic regime dominated by Austrians
Hungary divided into military districts
Catholic Church in charge of education
Failed
o Institution of a federation among the states
First plan was local diets dominated by landed classes and one imperial
parliament
Second plan was Reichsrat that was bicameral imperial parliament
Both rejected by Hungarian nobles (Magyars) who resented Austrian
domination
33. Dual Monarchy
Combination of Austrian and Hungarian crowns
o Given to Francis Joseph, the Habsburg, Austrian ruler
34. Ausgleich (Compromise) of 1867
Transformed Hapsburg Empire into a dual monarch, Austria-Hungary
Otherwise made Austria and Hungary basically separate
o Shared only ministers of foreign affairs, defense, and finance
o Separate parliaments
Causes
o Magyars hadnt liked Austrian dominated system for a long time
o Austria needed to do something after defeat in the Austro-Prussian War
Successful
o Magyars got local control they always wanted
o Habsburgs still held on to the territory and foreign power
35. Trialism
Proposed policy where Czechs would be given position similar to the Hungarians
o Borne out of Czech opposition to the Compromise of 1867
Representative of feelings of all non- Hungarian national groups in the
empire
Representative of the growth of nationalism, particularly within the Austro-Hungarian
Empire
36. Lord Acton
English historian and commentator on contemporary politics and religion
o Concerned with preservation of liberties
o One of earliest people to warn against political dangers of nationalism
Takes away rights of minorities in a nationalist state
Nationalism leads to the ruin of states because it places national purity
ahead of liberty and prosperity
37. Alexander II
Russian tsar from 1855 to 1881
o Instituted largest reforms since Peter the Great
o Reforms instituted from the top
Reforms
o

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Abolition of Serfdom
Seen as necessary to allow Russia to maintain its status as a world power
Problems: economically inefficient, threat of revolts, morality
Opposition from nobles and landlords
Serfs got rights to marry without landlords permission, buy and sell
property freely, court action, and pursue other jobs
Didnt get land for free and had to pay plus interest for land that wasnt
large enough to support them
o Local Government
Village communes replace authority of landlord (and often owned the
land)
Village elders settled disputes, imposed fines, issued internal passports,
and collected taxes
Nobles got more power through county (zemstvos) councils for
improvements in infrastructure, education, and agriculture
Received too little funding to be important
o Judicial System
Western legal principles introduced
Not perfect but more efficient and less corrupt than old system
o Military
Period of service lowered to 15 years (from 25) and then to 6 for active
duty and 9 for reserves
Discipline relaxed
Universal service for men starting at age 20
o Overall failed and gave way to a police state
38. Alexander Herzen
One of Alexander IIs most prominent critics
The Bell was a reformist newspaper published from his place of exile (England)
Intellectuals had had hope for the reforms but it dwindled when it was clear that the
reforms were limited
39. Populism
Revolutionary movement that grew out of the ideas of Herzen and others
o Social revolution based on communal life of Russian peasants
o Mostly students
o Turned to terrorism when they couldnt get peasants to help
40. Land and Freedom
Largest radical society of populism movement
o Split into two groups in 1879
One advocated educating peasants and was soon dissolved
Other was The Peoples Will
41. The Peoples Will
Revolutionary group that came out of the split in Land and Freedom
Dedicated to the overthrow of the tsarist autocracy
o Wanted representative government
o Wanted to assassinated Alexander II
Eventually successful
6 sentenced to death in his assassination
o Such dedicated revolutionary opposition was part of Alexanders reign
Limited reforms convinced many Russians that autocracy could never
truly make reforms

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 Worsened by Alexander III

42. The Second Reform Act (1867)
Expanded British electorate by over 1 million voters
o Passed by Disraelis conservative ministry
o Admitted a large number of working class males to the electorate
43. Benjamin Disraeli
Led conservative ministry that passed the Second Reform Act
o Surprising because ministry came to power after a liberal ministry resigned for
failing to expand the electorate
o Did it because he hoped conservatives would benefit from the new votes
Immediately was incorrect
Was correct over the long run
44. William Gladstone
Became prime minister after Disraeli
o Began in 1830s as a Tory but became more liberal over time
Supported Robert Peel, free trade, repeal of Corn Laws, and efficient
administration
Lowered taxes and government spending
Champion of Italian nationalism
o Led liberal ministry
Opened positions still for aristocracy and Anglicans to other classes and
religions
Competitive exams for civil service
Abolishment of sale of officers commissions
Voting by secret ballot
Education Act of 1870
45. Rowland Hill
English reformer who proposed way to improve postage system
o Low, flat rate for postage
o Sender would pay for mail
o Franking privilege would end
Also proposed idea of a stamp
46. Penny Postage
System that came out of Rowland Hills reforms to the mail system
o Large increase in mail volume because everyone could afford it
o Huge increase in government postal workers
System basically still in place today
47. Education Act of 1870
Government assumed responsibility for establishing and running elementary schools
o Replaced inadequate religious institutions
o Gladstones first ministry
48. Public Health Act of 1875
Consolidated previous legislation on sanitation and reaffirmed states duty to interfere
with private property on matters of health and physical well-being
Reform of second Disraeli ministry helped by Richard Cross
49. Artisan Dwelling Act of 1875
Government actively involved in providing housing for working class
o Showed even further concerning by allowing trade unions the right to picket lines
Reform of second Disraeli ministry helped by Richard Cross
50. Home Rule

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Irish control of local government

o Advocated by Irish nationalists since 1860s
o Came to head in 1880s
Gladstones first ministry did improve Irish condition a little
o Disestablished Irish branch of Anglican Church so Irish Catholics no longer had
to pay taxes to hated church
o Land act provided compensation to evicted tenets and helped others get loans to
buy land
o Didnt address home rule
51. Charles Parnell
Leader of Irish movement for a just land settlement and home rule
o 1880s saw land act that strengthened tenet rights
o Coercion act to restore law and order to Ireland accompanied that land act
o Was during Gladstones second ministry
Organized Irish members of House of Commons into tight voting bloc
o Frequently disrupted Parliament to advocate home rule
o Home rule continued to be an issue through the first world war

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Chapter 24 (The Building of European Supremacy: Society and Politics to World War I):
1. 2nd Industrial Revolution
Emergence of new industries
o Completely different from those of the 1st Industrial Revolution
Steel, chemicals, electricity, and oil
Dependence on imported oil
o Not solely focused in Great Britain
o German leadership
Link between science and industry
Large industrial force
2. Henry Bessemer
Process that allowed for cheap steel production
o Britain, France, Belgium, Germany
o Skyrocketing production
o Helped lead to 2nd Industrial Revolution
3. Gottlieb Daimler
Inventor of automobile
o French
o Initially luxury item
o Used internal combustion engine
4. Henry Ford
Mass accessibility of automobiles
5. Petite Bourgeoisie
Lower level of the middle class
o Secretaries, retail clerks, and low-level bureaucrats
o Sought to distance selves from working-class beginnings
o Education
o Consumer goods to mimic rest of middle class
Growing tension with upper middle class capitalists
6. Boneshaker
Early name for bicycle
o Reference to rough riding of early bikes
o Individualistic freedom to move
Way to get to work for men
Liberating for women
7. George Haussmann
Redesign of Paris
o Napoleon III
Partially political to prevent insurrections
Political in creation of jobs
o Urban reconstruction
Destruction of whole districts
Larger and wider streets
Parks and theatres
Creation of jobs
o Exemplification of era of urban reconstruction
8. The Metro
Subway system in Paris
o Symbol of urban reconstruction
o Increased mobility

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9. Eiffel Tower
Originally temporary structure for international trade exposition
o Kept
o Impact of middle-class in business
o Age of steel and iron
Symbol of liberals social and political values
10. British Public Health Act
British response to problems on urban sanitation
o Increased government involvement
Condemnation of private property for being hazardous to public health
Excavation of private land for sewers
Building regulations
o Concern over public health in cities
11. French Melun Act
French response to problems on urban sanitation
o Increased government involvement
Condemnation of private property for being hazardous to public health
Excavation of private land for sewers
Building regulations
o Concern over public health in cities
12. Louis Pasteur
Bacterial theory of disease
o End of 19th century
o Even more increased care about public health
13. Married Womens Property Act
British law allowing married women to own property
o First step in addressing social disabilities of women
o Slow pace of reform
Law passed in 1882
Unique for over a decade
14. Harriet Taylor
Author of The Subjection of Women
Wife of John Stuart Mill
15. The Subjection of Women
Harriet Taylor
Applications of liberal freedom to position of women
o Against utility for women to be inferior
16. Millicent Fawcett
Leader of moderate National Union of Womens Suffrage Societies in Britain
o Respectability and responsibility of women in politics
o Large rallies
17. Frances Power Cobbe
British feminist
o Reasoning behind women seeking suffrage
Power it gives
Bring mercy and justice to Earth
o Tactics
Non-violent
Good tempered
Convince men that women arent going to misuse right

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 Wrote on many religious and social issues

18. Emmeline Pankhurst
Leader of radical British feminists
o Disruptive and violent tactics
o Founded Womens Social and Political Union
Also involved in labour and Irish nationalist movements
19. Womens Social and Political Union
Radical British womens suffrage group founded by Emmeline Pankhurst
o Known as suffragettes
o Turned to violent tactics
o Marched on Parliament
20. Suffragettes
Derogatory nickname of members of the Womens Social and Political Union
21. Hubertine Auclert
Lone leader of French feminist movement in 1880s
22. National Council of French Women
Feminist organization that emerged in France
o Upper-middle class women
o Did not support suffrage at first
23. Union of German Womens Organizations
German feminist organization
o Supported call for suffrage
o Primarily concerned with improvements in womens daily lives
Social position
Education
Other protections
24. Pogroms
Organized riots
o Organized by police in Russia and Poland against Jews
25. First International
Group of British and French trade unionists
o All sorts of political radicals
o Publically supported by Marx
Tried to reform system and improve labour conditions within existing
framework
Privately criticized it
Lost power after Paris Commune
o Marx had declared it a proletariat uprising
Socialists tried to distance themselves
o Pressure from French authorities because of socialist tendencies
Large impact on socialism going forward
o Statistics, information of labour problems, and debates over socialist doctrines
o Marxism emerged as most important socialist ideal
26. Keir Hardie
First independent working man elected to British Parliament
o 1892
o British socialism weak at the time
27. Fabian Society
Britains most influential socialist group
o Named after Q. Fabius Maxmius

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28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

Roman General
Avoid direct conflict that could lead to defeat
o Gradualist approach to social reform
Many members civil servants
Gradual, peaceful, democratic progress
Education about rationality of socialism
Collective ownership at municipal level
Exemplified lack of revolutionary socialism in Britain
David Lloyd George
Leader of Liberal Party ministry
o Broad program of social legislation
Labour exchanges
Regulation of certain industries
National Insurance Act of 1911
Marginally successful in calming labour strife
o Goal of not losing seats to new Labour Party
o Conflict with conservative House of Lords
House of Commons got power to override veto of House of Lords
Representative of moderate social reform in Britain
National Insurance Act of 1911
Social welfare act in Britain
o David Lloyd Georges Liberal ministry
o Unemployment benefits and health care
Moderate social reform in Britain
Second International
Attempt to unify various French socialist parties and trade unions
o Amsterdam Congress
Debated and rejected opportunism
Ordered French socialist parties to unify
Led to growth of French socialism
Opportunism
Participation of French socialists in cabinet
o Way to make progress
o Condemned by Second International
Syndicalism
General strike as device for generating worker unity and power
o Belief of French labour movement
o Georges Sorels Reflections of Violence
o Led to classes with socialists and middle class
Socialist belief in aiding labour through state action
Middle class suppression of strikes with troops
Representative of disconnect between French socialism and labour movements
Georges Sorel/Reflections On Violence
Doctrines of syndicalism
o General strike to unify and empower workers
o Conflict between French labour and socialist movements
Erfurt Program
German Social Democratic Party (SPD)s attitude towards German Empire
o August Bebel and Karl Kautsky
o Impending doom for capitalism and necessity of socialism

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35.

36.

37.

38.

To be achieved through legitimate political action

Immediate task to improve lives of wokers
SPD opposition to German Empire theoretical
o Participation in political processes
Revisionism
New socialist ideas of Eduard Bernstein
o Challenges to orthodox Marxism
o Social reform through democratic institutions
Debate within SPD
o Criticism
Britain liberal and parliamentary
Germany authoritarian
Ultimately won out
o Course of action still similar to Bernsteins suggestions
Trade union members didnt want revolution
Patriotism and love of Germany
Fear of renewed repression
o Showed SPDs concern for politics
Electoral gains
Expansion of membership
Short-term reform
Sergei Witte
Leader of Russian industrialization
o Finance minister
Strong financial relationship
Led to diplomatic relationship
o Economic planning
Protective tariffs
High taxes
Gold standard
Efficiency
o Heavy industry
Railroads, coal, iron, steel, and textiles
Factory system
o Problems similar to other industrializing nations
Eduard Bernstein
Questioned orthodox Marxist doctrines
o Life in England with Fabians
o Question of correctness of pessimistic view of capitalism
Evolutionary Socialism
Conditions didnt meet orthodox expectations
Expansion of vote to working class
New ideas about socialism
o Social reform through democratic institutions
o Revisionism
Kulaks
Prosperous Russian peasants
o Owned their own land
o Poorer peasants had to work for them
Inefficient farming methods

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39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

Couldnt afford enough land to support their families

System shows problems in rural Russia
Constitutional Democratic Party (cadets)
New political party in Russia
o Modeled off of liberal parties of western Europe
o Parliamentary government
Ministers responsible to parliament
Civil liberties
Economic progress
o Members from representatives in local councils (zemstvos)
Exemplary of political developments as a result of Russian industrialization
Gregory Plekhanov
Russian socialist leader of late 19th century
o Exile in Switzerland
o Had Lenin as disciple
o Revolutionary practice necessary
Lack of representative institutions
Small working class
Vladimir Lenin
Personal background
o Son of high bureaucrat
o Studied law
o Chief disciple of Plekhanov
o Time in Switzerland
After exile in Siberia
What Is to Be Done?
Leader of Russian socialism
o Elite party of revolutionaries
o Different from Western European socialism
Rejection of ideas of Western European socialists
Necessitated by authoritarian structures of Russia
o Socialist revolution
Unification of proletariat and peasantry
Showed Lenins superior understanding of plight in the countryside
What Is to be done?
Lenins view on what Russian socialist party should do
o Rejection of policies of Western European socialists
Condemnation of accommodations
Criticism of trade unionism for being too short term
Rejection of mass democratic party of workers
o Necessity of small, organized, elite party
Resistance of police spies
Training of professional revolutionaries
Caused by authoritarian structures of Russia
Bolsheviks
Lenins faction of the Russian socialists
o Meant majority
o Dominant force in Russian socialism
Lenins organized, elite party
Goal of actual revolution

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o Lenins idea of joint proletariat and peasant revolution

Ultimately won out
o Initially scorned by Western European socialist parties
o Took power in 1917 in turmoil of WWI
Mensheviks
Moderate faction of Russian socialists
o Meant minority
o More democratic than Bolsheviks
Mass membership
Similar to socialist parties of Western Europe
Ultimately lost out
Revolution of 1905 (explain)
Causes
o Dislike of consequences of industrialization
o Loss in the Russo- Japanese War
o Bloody Sunday
Massacre of people trying to petition tsar to improve industrial
conditions
Large number of ordinary Russians no longer trusted the tsar
o Continuing discontent
Sailors and peasant revolts
Strikes
Liberal demands for reform
o Events in St. Petersburg
Started with strikes
Soviets basically controlled city
Effects
o Recall of Witte
o Promise of constitutional government
Two chambered Duma
Tsar reserved ministerial appointments, financial, foreign, and military
affairs
Soviets
Workers groups
o Practically controlled St. Petersburg after strikes
o Led to Tsar Nicholas II promising constitutional government
Duma
Two chamber representative body in Russia
o Result of Revolution of 1905
First and second bodies were revolutionary and dissolved
Third based on conservative franchise was enough for tsar
o Step towards constitutionalism in Russia
Dissolved until it did tsars bidding
Tsar retained ministerial appointments and financial, foreign, and
military policy
Edouard Manet
Influential painter in second half of 19th century
o Many techniques of impressionists
Bright colors
Depiction of modern life itself

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

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o
o

Paintings had many modern things

Consumer goods included
Interior lighting from light bulbs
Commentary on time
Uncertain class relations
Fears of economic downturn or war

Chapter 25 Identification (The Birth of Modern European Thought):

1. Positivism
Human intellectual development culminated in science
o Three stages of human development
Theological stage
Metaphysical stage
Positive stage
o Exact description of observable events
All knowledge must resemble science
2. August Comte
Developer of positivism
o Should expand past science
o Seen as father of sociology
Follower of Saint-Simon
3. Beatrice Webb
British Fabian Socialist
o Commenter on public awareness of science and technology
Result of Second Industrial Revolution
Science to explain everything
4. Jules Verne
Father of modern science-fiction literature
o Five Weeks in a Balloon
o Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea
o Basis in science
Reflective of European trends
o Literacy of the masses
o Focus on science
5. Charles Darwin
British naturalist
Authored On the Origin of Species
6. On the Origin of Species
Charles Darwin
Mechanical interpretation of world of living things
o Explanation of the how of evolution
o Natural selection
7. Alfred Russel Wallace
British naturalist
Also formulated principle of natural selection
o Independent of Darwin
o Evolution of species over time
8. Natural Selection
Darwin and Wallace

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Process by which evolution occurs

o More organisms than can survive
Malthus
o Organisms with advantageous traits survive to reproduce
Traits from chance variation
o Mechanistic development in nature
No need of anything unnatural
Couldnt explain origin of chance variations
Triumph of naturalism
o Directly against biblical narrative
o Undermined argument that God exists because He created universe
9. Herbert Spencer
British philosopher
Most famous advocated of evolutionary ethics
o Human society progressed through competition
Weak cant receive too much protection
Ethical imperative to compete
o Led to series of justifications
Take away help for poor
Domination of colonial peoples
Aggressive international competition
10. Social Darwinism
Evolutionary ethics and similar concepts
o Herbert Spencer
o Human society progressed through competition
Justification of seemingly unethical things
Might makes right
11. Thomas Henry Huxley
British scientist
Chief opponent of Social Darwinism
o Evolution and Ethics
o Physical evolution at odds with human ethical development
o Defended pure Darwinism
12. David Friedrich Strauss
German theologian and writer
The Life of Jesus
13. The Life of Jesus
Strauss
Questioned historical evidence of Jesus
o Conclusion of Jesus as myth
Arose for social and intellectual conditions of Palestine
Jesus character represented aspirations not reality
Most prominent reason for loss of faith among literate peoples
o Others soon followed
o Part of attack on Christianity
14. Friedrich Nietzsche
German writer
Christianity as religion that glorified weakness
o Life required strength
o Useless debilitating sacrifice rather than courage and risk taking

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Part of climate that caused Christianity to lose its intellectual respectability

Failed intellectual tests
People could live without it
15. Falloux Law
French law that had local priests as teachers in public school
o Disliked by Third French Republic
Replacement of religious training with civic instruction
Religious leaders barred from teaching in public schools
o Representative of conflict between church and state
Arena was education
Because of loss of Christianitys intellectual respectability
16. Kulturkampf
Bismarcks cultural struggle against the Catholic Church in the German Empire
o Saw it as threat to unity
o Education again the battlefield
Removal of clergy from local education
Secularization of education
May Laws of 1873
o Ultimately failed
Provoked Catholic anger at Germany
Price paid for state control of education and civil laws regarding marriage
Representative of church and state conflict of the time
17. May Laws of 1873
Part of Bismarcks conflict with the Catholic Church
Placed education requirements of priests
o Had to be educated in German schools and universities
o Must pass state exam
o Applied only to Prussia
Weakened role of Church
o Abolishment of Churchs disciplinary powers in Prussia
o Power of state to punish clergy
Widespread resistance
o Clergy refused to obey
o All Catholic bishops in Prussia arrested to expelled
o Demonstration of continued life of Church during time
18. Pope Pius IX/ Syllabus Of Errors
Pope who some hoped would be liberal
o Brief
o Fled Rome when Roman Republic was proclaimed
Disliked Italian unification process
Counteroffensive against liberalism
Syllabus of Errors
o Catholic Church against science, philosophy, and politics of the time
o Led to papal infallibility
Applied when speaking on faith and morals officially
Centralization of authority within the church
Belief that for Catholic Church to survive, focus would have to be on pope
19. Rerum Novarum
Pope Leo XIIIs most important proclamation
o Defense of private property, religious education, and religious control of marriage laws

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o
o
o

Condemnation of socialism and Marxism

Declaration of decent treatment of workers
Basis for democratic Catholic parties and Catholic trade unions
Modern society organized into corporate groups from various classes that followed
Catholic principles
Alternative to socialism and competitive capitalism
Attempt to modernize Catholicism
20. Catholic Modernism
Movement of modern biblical criticism within the Catholic Church
o Condemned by Pius X
Anti- Modernist oaths
Resumption of conflict between Catholicism and modern thought
21. Ernest Renan
French writer
Islam a manifestation of ancient Semitic thinking
o Similar to Judaism
o Powerful monotheistic vision
Islam closed to new ideas and science
22. Jamal Al-Afghani
Egyptian intellectual
Opposed ideas of Renan
o Over time Islam would produce culture as modern as Europe
Islam was 600 years younger than Christianity
Rare direct contest to European thinker
23. Salafi
Movement to reconcile Islam and modern thought
o No contradiction between Islam and science
Muhammad had addressed the issue
Reformed Islamic society could do so too
o Modernization with pure Islamic faith
Rational reading of the Quran
Ottoman decline as part of religious error
Church and state conflict not limited to Europe
o Less adversarial
o Not as modernized as Europe
Actual led some Muslims to oppose Western influence
24. Ernst Mach
The Science of Mechanics
o Scientists needed to reconsider their concepts
Not necessarily descriptive of physical world
Described sensations experienced by observer
o Representative of discontent with excessive scientific realism
25. Hans Vaihinger
Discontent scientists
o Dislike of excessive scientific realism
Descriptions were as if
Shift against ability to discover truth of physical reality
26. Wilhelm Roentgen
Discovered X rays
o Form of energy that penetrates some opaque materials

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27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

o Led to more exploration of radioactivity

Showed physics was far from completely understood
Ernest Rutherford
Explained the cause of radiation
o Disintegration of atoms of radioactive materials
o Immense store of energy in atoms
Max Planck
Theoretical physicist
Father of quantum theory of energy
o Energy is series of discrete quantities
o Exemplifies what replaced concrete models of mid-19th century
Albert Einstein
Theoretical physicist
Theory of relativity
Relativity
Einsteins theory on relationship between space and time
o Space and time were combined continuum
o Measurement of space and time dependent on observer and entities being measured
o Representative of new revolutionary theories in physics
Realist
Late 19th, early 20th century literary movement
o Scientific observation and objectivity
o Rejected romantic idealization of nature, the poor, love, an polite society
o Portrayed dark side of life
Representative of changing literary trends
Naturalist
Late 19th, early 20th century literary movement
o Scientific observation and objectivity
o Representative of changing literature
Charles Dickens
Early realist author
o Cruelty of industrial society
o Cruelty of society based on money
Mary Anne Evans
Early realist author
o Pseudonym George Eliot
o Close attention to detail of her characters
Imagination and artistry
Better morality possible through Christian or humane values
Gustave Flaubert
Madame Bovary
o First real realist novel
Colorless provincial life
Womans search for love
o Life without heroism, purpose, of civility
Start of changing literary trends
Henrik Ibsen
Norwegian playwright
Realism in domestic life
o Marriage difficulties

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o Sexually transmitted diseases

o Suicide while trying to impress a young woman
o Attack on respectability of middle class family
37. George Bernard Shaw
Irish writer
Realist attack on romanticism and false respectability
o Reality of prostitution
o Attack on romanticizing of love and war
o Ridicule of Christianity
38. Modernism
Multifaceted movement that touched all the arts
o Critical of middle class society and morality
o Not deeply concerned with social issues
o Concern for beauty
o Arts could and should influence others
Attempt to create new forms
o Seemed formless to many
o Cross medium techniques
39. Virginia Woolf
British author
o Member of Bloomsbury Group
Proponents of modernism
Challenged values of Victorians
Rejection of repressive sexual morality
o Novels portrayed people trying to live absent of 19th century values
Representative of realism
40. Keynesian Economics
New economic idea
o Government should regulate supply and demand
o Counter to 19th century ideas
Another example of challenges to 19th century thinking during early 20th century
41. Thomas Mann
German modernist author
o Social experience of middle class Germans
o How middle class Germans dealt with intellectual heritage of 19th century
42. Sigmund Freud
Primary psychoanalyst
Early theories
o Application of science to psychic disorders
o Free and spontaneous talk
o Causes back in childhood
o Significance of sexual matters
Sexual drive existed since infancy
Humans inherently sexual creatures
Dreams
o Seemingly irrational content of dreams had scientific explanation
Culmination of unconscious or repressed desires
Unconscious desires contributed to conscious actions
Later thoughts
o Mind as area of conflict

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 Id where there was irrational desires for sexual and sensual pleasures
Superego where there was societal values imposed on a person
Ego where Id and Superego were balanced
Reflected romanticism and Enlightenment
Finite physical and mental forces in a finite world
Hostility towards religion

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

o
o
o
Carl Jung
Swiss psychoanalyst
o Former student of Freud
o Came to disagree with Freud
Qualms with Freud
o Sexual drives as primary cause of mental disorders
o Less faith in reason
Ideas
o Human subconscious had memories from previous generations
o Memories plus experiences made up the soul
o Mysticism and positive value of religion
Max Weber
German sociologist
Emergence of rationalize as major development in human society
o Rise of scientific knowledge
o Bureaucratic organization
Basic feature in modern social life
Self worth from position in bureaucracy
Challenges to Marxism
o Bureaucracy instead of capitalism as driving force of modern society
o Noneconomic factors could account for major developments in human history
Collective Behavior
Theories that collective behaviour was different from individual behaviour
o Crowds acted irrationally
o People led to action by shared ideals
o Necessity of shared values and activities in a society
o Instinct, habit, and affections directed human behaviour
Representative of focus of most social scientists, except for Weber
Arthur de Gobineau
Reactionary French diplomat
Fleshed out first important theory of race as the major determining factor in history
o Inequality of the Human Races
o Troubles of Western Civilization as the result of the long degradation of the original Aryan race
Degradation as a result of interracial marriage
No way to reverse trend
o At the forefront of new racism based on biology and Social Darwinism
H.S. Chamberlain
Englishman
Drew together different parts of racist thoughts
o Foundations of the Nineteenth Century
o Biological determinism based on race
o Development of a superior race through genetics
Also anti-Semitic
o Jews as major European enemy

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o Helped spread anti-Semitism (and racism)

48. Alexis De Tocqueville
French historian and commentator
o Criticized Gobineaus idea of racial determination of human actions
o Danger of Gobineaus idea if it influenced the political life of nations through mass electorate
Representative of opponents of racial theories of the time
49. Zionist Movement
Jewish movement for a separate Jewish state
o Founded by Theodor Herzl
o Result of outbreak of anti-Semitism
50. Theodor Herzl
Founder of Zionist Movement for a Jewish homeland
o Liberal politics and institutions couldnt protect Jews
o Jewish state so Jews could have protections of other citizens in liberal nations
Appeal to Eastern European Jews who were often poor and were forced to live in ghettos
Combined with rejection of anti-Semitism
51. Contagious Diseases Acts
British law concerning prostitutes
o Any suspected prostitute could be ordered to immediately undergo a test for venereal diseases
o Any one with a disease could be locked up in a special hospital without legal process
o No action against men
Sexual double standard
Purpose of law to protect men from infection
Led to feminist organization called Ladies National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases
Act
52. Josephine Butler
British feminist
Leader of Ladies National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Act
o Middle class group
o Successful in getting law first suspended then repealed
53. Auguste Ficke
Leader of feminist General Austrian Womens Association
o Issues
Legal regulation of prostitution that put women under control of male authorities
Societal sexual double standard
o Representative of women attacking double standard in sexual morality through attacks on
prostitution laws
Women should focus of freeing and developing their personalities
o Better education
o Governmental financial support for women in traditional social roles

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Chapter 26 (Imperialism, Alliances, and War):

1. Imperialism
Policy of one nation extending its authority by gaining territory or political/ economic influence
over other nations
General term applying to a lot of civilizations
o Applicable to ancient Egypt and late 19th-century Europe
o Late 19th-century Europe a little different
2. New Imperialism
European imperialist movement of late 19th-century
Causes
o Technological advantages of Europe
o Growth of nation states
Demands of loyalty and service
Competition
Effective use of resources
o European arrogance
Belief that their civilization was superior
Need to spread that belief
New techniques
o Investment in infrastructure
Change nations culture
Agreements with local government to safeguard investment
o If that didnt work
Conquering or direct rule
Spheres of influence
3. spheres of influence
European nation receiving special commercial and legal privileges without direct political
involvement
Part of New Imperialism
4. Joseph Chamberlain
British colonial secretary
Argued for empire as a source of profit and economic security
o Money for program of domestic reform and welfare
o Made well after Britain had achieved empire
o Another argument for New Imperialism
5. Karl Pearson
Englishman who provided justification for new imperialism
o Social Darwinism
Survival of the fittest applied to human societies
Only natural to rule inferior races
o Shows how intellectual advances of the time helped along imperialism
6. Open Door Policy
Policy for imperialism in China where there would be no foreign annexations and entrepreneurs
of all nations would be on equal footing
o U.S. wanted this policy when it feared China would be closed to its citizens
o Accepted by all major European powers except Russia
7. Three Emperors League
League created by Bismarck with Austria and Russia
o Three conservative emperors
o Meant to prevent a war on two fronts if France ever went to war with Germany

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Quickly collapsed
Russian and Austrian competition in Balkans
Russian Turkish War

8. Jingoism
New term for super patriotism
o Came from popular music hall song
o Originally came from British fear of Russian expansion into the Mediterranean
9. Congress of Berlin
Sought to settle imperial questions without conflict
o Site and Bismarck as leader showed new importance of Germany
o Dividing up the Ottoman Empire
Austria and Britain didnt want the Russians to gain too much
Germany didnt want to get drawn into any conflict
o Balkan Settlement
Bulgaria reduced in size
Austria-Hungary given Bosnia and Herzegovina
Britain got Cyprus
France got Tunisia
o Resentment from Russians and Balkan states
Russia didnt like its land losses
Didnt like territorial settlement especially Austrian occupation of Slavic lands
10. The honest broker
Bismarcks self-created title at the Berlin Conference
Fit him well and showed his determination to maintain German gains by preventing conflict
11. Dual Alliance
Secret treaty between Austria and Germany
o Mutual defense against Russia
o At least neutrality if another nation attacked
o Borne out of German fears of Russia following Congress of Berlin
Russians had resented Germany for its role as host
Caused revival of Three Emperors League
12. Triple Alliance
Italys joining the Dual Alliance
o Fear of France
o Great policy success for Bismarck
Allied with three great powers
Friendly with Britain
France was isolated
13. William II
Came to German throne in 1888
o Interesting personality
Believed he ruled by divine right
Very militaristic with strong rhetoric and ambition
o Thought Germany was destined to be the great power of Europe
Wanted equal footing with Britain
Colonies and a navy
o Conflict with Bismarcks policies
Eventually dismissed Bismarck
Bismarck was effective at keeping peace but now that was gone
14. Alfred von Tirpitz

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Architect of new German navy

o Proclaimed that naval policy was aimed at Britain
Theory that Germany navy could do enough damage to British that other powers
would finish them
Absurd and just caused militarism
o Naval race actually caused Britain to turn away from Germany and towards Russia and
France
15. Russo-Japanese War
Russian war with Japan over Korea
o Russia lost
Humiliated Russia
Led to Revolution of 1905
o Defeat helped reduce British concerns about Russian power
16. Triple Entente
Association between France, Britain, and Russia
o France and Britain joined as a result of dislike of Germany
o Britain and Russia joined for a couple of reasons
Threat of Germany
Russia and France were allies so made sense for Britain to join with Russia
Stood against Triple Alliance
o Germany effectively surrounded
o Showed how new alliance system created possibility of war rather than lessened it as
Bismarck had hoped
17. Young Turks
Group of revolutionaries within the Ottoman Empire
o Took power and started to revive the empire
o That revival threatened the nationalist ambitions of the Slavic nations
18. 2nd Balkan War
War between Bulgaria and Turkey, Romania, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia over dividing up
Macedonia
o Bulgarians lost war and much of their lands
19. Franz Ferdinand
Austrian archduke
o Resisted calls for Austria to annihilate Serbia when Serbia was illegally occupying
Albania
o Assassinated by Bosnia nationalist
Connection to Black Hand
Set into motion chain of events that led to WWI
Also some suspected Serbian involvement
20. Black Hand
Political terrorist society
o Some nationalist wants
o Person who assassinated Archduke Ferdinand had a connection
21. Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg
German chancellor
o Supported Austrian attack on Serbia
Response to assassination of Archduke Ferdinand
German support necessary for Hungarians to allow Austria to do this
Also need for German support when Russia would almost inevitably join
o Message to Austria

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 Swift act while other powers still angry

Failure to act would be a sign of weakness
o Hoped for local war but prepared to risk general war
Actually made general war pretty hard to avoid
Chancellor was under great pressure from emperor William II who was friends
with Ferdinand and saw it as an attack on royalty
Thoughts on the beginnings of the war
o Feared the future
Russia was gaining power
Only ally, Austria, was waning
Pushed him towards war
o Miscalculated who would be involved in general war
Thought Russia and France would get involved
Thought Britain would remain neutral
Thought on Britain was major miscalculation
22. blank check
Incorrect interpretation of the message the German chancellor gave to Austria in allowing it to
attack Serbia
23. Schlieffen Plan
German battle plan
o Attack France before Russia was ready to act
Then turn and attack Russia
Wouldnt work if Russia mobilized first
o Helped cause the war
Once Russia started mobilizing to deter Austria, Germany had to mobilize
Once mobilization began war was going to happen
German mobilization helped force Britain and France to act
German invasion of Belgium to get to France undermined an 1839 treaty of
Belgian neutrality and caused Britain to act
24. splendid isolation
British foreign policy for much of the 19th century
o Forced to abandon it to start naval race with Germany
Wanted to maintain naval superiority
Race seen as one of causes of Great War because of that abandonment
o After abandoning it made more foreign policy decisions that led it into war
Joined Triple Entente
This caused Germany to feel encircled and led to more rigid German stance that
led to war
25. Helmuth Von Moltke
German in charge of putting Schlieffen Plan into action
o Strengthened an area meant to be deliberately weak to draw a French attack
Counter to the core idea of the plan
Meant that forces facing Russia were even weaker
o Some hesitance and mistakes by German generals
o Schlieffen Plan ultimately failed
26. Winston Churchill
First lord of the British admiralty during WWI
Plan to break deadlock on Western Front by going around it
o Attack on Dardanelles to capture Constantinople
Would force Turkey out of the war

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 Bring war to Balkan front

Ease communications with Russia
Little risk in original plan
Plan was poorly executed and failed

o
27. Henri Ptain
French commander at Verdun
o Defended fortress from German onslaught
o Became national hero
New national defiance slogan: They shall not pass
28. March Revolution
Causes
o Collapse of tsars ability to rule
People didnt support the war as it dragged on
Nicholas II was personally very weak
o Workers strikes
Exacerbated by the war
Russian troops in Petrograd refused to put them down
Tsar Nicholas II abdicated
Reconvened Duma formed provisional government
29. Nicholas II
Tsar during WWI
o Seen as weak
Controlled by German wife
Obsessed with Rasputin
o Government was inefficient
o Abdicated after troops refused to fire on striking workers
30. Provisional Government
Reconvened Duma that took power after tsars abdication
o Mostly composed of Constitutional Democrats who had Western sympathies
Decided to maintain alliances
Associated itself with much of tsars foreign policy, which was responsible for
domestic suffering
31. Alexander Kerensky
Socialist leader of the provisional government before its collapse
o Couldnt quell disillusionment with the war
o Couldnt maintain army discipline
Failures led way for Bolsheviks
32. V.I. Lenin
Leader of the Bolsheviks
o Set back to Russia from his exile in Switzerland by the Germans
o Alliance of workers and peasants
Peace, land, and bread
Political power to the soviets
o First coup attempt failed
Helped Bolsheviks to power by encouraging a second coup that was successful
33. Leon Trotsky
One of Lenins main lieutenants
o Arrested after first coup attempt
Released after right wing countercoup
o Organized and led second coup

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 Armed assault on provisional government

Successful
34. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Peace between Russia and Germany that got Russia out of WWI
o Harsh on Russians
Poland, Baltic states, Ukraine to Germany
Territory in Transcaucasus region to Turkey
Payment of war damages to Germany
o Lenin had no choice
Russia not capable of continuing to fight
Bolsheviks needed to solidify domestic power
35. Maurice Palologue
French ambassador to Russia during WWI
Described Russian Revolution of 1917 in memoirs
o Demonstrations in Petrograd
Poorly organized
Army joined in
o Response of tsarist government
Wanted to set up military dictatorship
Tsar was blind to reality of situation
36. White Russians
Russians who opposed the Bolshevik revolution
o Civil war with Bolsheviks
Led by loyal army officers
Aid from the Allied armies
o Eventually crushed by Trotsky led Red Army
37. Social Democratic Party
Leftist party in Germany
o Established a republic to prevent a soviet government
o Signed the armistice that ended fighting with German defeat
Most Germans didnt realize the necessity of this based on crumbling military
Blamed civilian government for the bitter peace that followed
38. 2nd battle of the Marne
Height of the last German offensive
o No more German reserves
o Allies were powered by the arrival of more and more American troops
o Germans lost
Led to democratic government in Germany that wanted peace
39. Mandates
Territories taken from the losers of WWI and given to the League of Nations
o In effect ruled as colonies of British and French
Britain in Iraq and Palestine
France in Syria and Lebanon
o Pushed many different people with no real history together
Source of many of the Middle Easts problems after decolonization
40. Mustafa Kemel (Ataturk)
Young Turkish general who came to power in Turkey
o Drove out a Greek force
o Got new peace with Western powers
Dissolution of Ottoman power and connections

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 New Turkish Republic that was independent from Western powers

o Led Turkey to be a secular state and a stabilizing country in the region
41. League of Nations
League of states meant to pursue the common interest and mitigate threats
o Arbitration to settle differences
o Economic sanctions for refusal to follow league actions
Almost destined to fail
o No military force to back up its decisions
o Action required unanimity
42. War Guilt Clause
Clause in Treaty of Versailles that blamed Germany for WWI
o Meant to justify forcing Germany to pay reparations
o Angered many Germans
Undermined government that accepted it
Helped lead to rise of Hitler and Nazi Germany and WWII
43. John Maynard Keynes
British economist who took part in peace conference at Versailles
Condemned Treaty of Versailles particularly for its economic parts
o The Economic Consequences of Peace
Reparations were terrible economically
Wilson was hypocritical
Would bring war and ruin to Europe
o Gave British way to duck out of international affairs
o Fed American tendency toward isolationism

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Chapter 27 (Political Experiments of the 1920s):

1. War Communism
Economic policy that seized and confiscated essential assets
o Things seized
Banks
Transport system
Heavy industry
Grain from peasants to feed the army
o Help with effort in civil war against White Russians
Civil war used to justify repression of opponents of policy
o Led to Red Army winning civil war
o Strained alliance between workers and peasants
Workers used strikes
Peasants resisted the seizure of grain
2. Leon Trotsky
Leader of the Red Army during the civil war
o Suppressed internal and external opposition
o Use of terror and intimidation to achieve revolution
Capitalism used force, so workers must too
No real moral argument against those things
Helped to create fear of socialism that spread through Europe
Later a victim of Stalin
o Collectivization of farms to pay for quick industrialization
o Russia needed to help revolutions elsewhere to get more supports
3. Kronstadt Mutiny
Insurrection of Baltic fleet
o Shows breaking of alliance between worker and peasants
o Crushed by Red Army with lots of fatalities
Part of circumstances that led to Lenins NEP (a strategic retreat)
4. New Economic Policy (NEP)
Lenins economic policy partially tolerating private enterprise
o Government control of banking, transportation, heavy industry, and international
commerce
o Private enterprise ok in other areas
Peasants could profit from farms
Strategic retreat for Lenin
Positive political and economic effects
o Countryside became more stable
More secure food supplies for cities
Still no consumer goods for peasants to purchase
o Flourished in light industry and domestic retail trade
o Industrial production back to pre-war levels by 1927
Caused disputes within the governing committee of the communist party (Politburo)
o Some saw it as betrayal of Marxism
o Stalin v. Trotsky
Lenin criticized both before his death
Stalin had base behind him
5. Joseph Stalin
Led what would be victorious faction in fight with Trotsky
o General secretary of the communist party

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 Came from poor family

No exile in Western Europe so much less intellectual and internationalist
More brutal than other party members
o Base of power
Party membership
Day-to-day management
o Manipulated in fighting to gain power
Supported Bukharins economics
Denounced Trotskys internationalist outlook
6. Nikolai Bukharin
Chief ideological voice of the right wing communists that opposed rapid industrialization
o Editor of official party newspaper
o Continuation of NEP and slow industrialization
Decentralized economic planning
Tolerance of some free enterprise
7. Third International (Comintern)
Organization created to make Bolshevik socialism as developed by Lenin the dominant
international socialism
o 21 conditions for membership
Acknowledgement of Moscows leadership
Rejection of reformist or revisionist socialism
Adopting communist party name
o Destruction of democratic socialism
8. Alexandra Kollontai
Soviet utopian writer on women and family
o New type of family that would liberate men and women
Expansion of sexual freedom and sharing of tasks between husband and wife
Family based on love and comradeship
o Not representative of whole
Radical view of family helped lead to rise of fascists who advocated traditional families
9. Benito Mussolini
Leader of the Italian fascist movement
Background
o Originally a socialist
Edited prominent socialist newspaper
Break when he supported Italian intervention on the side of the Allies
o Nationalism replaced socialism
Had his own newspaper
Served and was wounded in army
Unremarkable at end of WWI
o Just one politician with one small political group
o Opportunist
Action more important than thought or rationale
Political survival paramount
10. Fascism
Right-wing, authoritarian ideology that developed from fears of the spread of Bolshevism
o General characteristics
Anti- democratic
Anti- Marxist
Anti- parliamentary

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 Strongly nationalist
Frequently anti- Semetic
Hold back the spread of Bolshevism
Protect the bourgeoisie
Rejection of French Revolution and 19th-century liberalism
Generally trying to bring together groups for a great national purpose
o Single- party dictatorships characterized by terror and a police- state
o Base of power was mass political parties
11. Bands of Combat
Group that would grow to become the Italian fascists
o Led by Mussolini
o War veterans angry at Versailles Treaty
Felt Italy had been cheated out of land
Angry about territory on northeast coast of Adriatic Sea
o Fears of socialism and inflation
12. Gabriele DAnnunzio
Spokesman for Italian discontent at results of Paris Peace Conference
o Thought Italy deserved to be recognized as a great power and given land
o Briefly took control of land that Italians thought they deserved
Showed how nongovernmental military could be used
Embarrassed Italian government
Shows that it wasnt just fascists who were discontent with the peace settlement
13. Chamber of Deputies
Lower chamber of Italian parliament
o Socialists had plurality of seats in 1919 because of social discontent
o Socialists and Catholics didnt work together causing gridlock
o Events caused fear of communist revolution
Mussolini decided fascists should make enemies out of the socialists
Terror and violence against socialists and even local politicians
Gave fascists support of conservative parts of society and some local
governments
14. Black Shirt March
March on Rome by fascists
o Growing support for the fascists
Mussolini and 34 followers elected to Chamber of Deputies
More direct power for local fascists
o Kings refusal to authorize army to stop march
Cabinet resigned
Then asked Mussolini to be prime minister
Basically put fascists in position of power
o Also had power for terror campaigns in countryside
o Enemies were incompetent
o King soon gave Mussolini dictatorial power
15. Victor Emmanuel
King of Italy at time of Black Shirt March
o Refused to sign decree authorizing army to stop Black Shirt March
Personal and political concerns
Pretty much ensured fascist rise to power
16. Blue Horizon Chamber
Nickname of conservative Chamber of Deputies elected in France after WWI
o
o

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o
o

Lots of army officers in blue uniforms

Stuck with precedent of conservatives after catastrophic events (Waterloo, 1848,
1871)
Wanted security against Germany and Russian communism
o Lots of ministry changes
o Few concessions to domestic social reform
17. Treaty of Rapallo
Russia and Germany
o Diplomatic and economic relations
o Beneficial to both nations
o No secret military or political clauses
Suspected by many countries
Germans trained Russian troops in return for use of tanks and planes of
USSR for training
Confirmed French belief that Germany wouldnt hold up Treaty of Versailles and moved
it to action
18. Raymond Poincar
Super nationalistic French prime minister
o Found Germany in technical default of its reparations payments
o Meant to teach Germans a lesson
Ordered French troops to occupy German Ruhr mining and
manufacturing district
Sent French civilians in to work when Germans went on strike
o Costly to the French
Alienated British
Damage to French and German economies
19. Aristide Briand
French foreign minister in the 1920s after Ponicares ministry
o Recognition of Soviet Union
o Conciliatory approach towards Germany
o Championed League of Nations
o French military power didnt give unlimited influence
20. David Lloyd George
British politician
Ousted wartime Liberal prime minister Herbert Asquith
o Split in Liberal party between followers of the two
21. Ramsay MacDonald
Asked to be first Labour prime minister ever by King George V
Socialistic platform
o Democratic, non-revolutionary, and non- Marxist
o Extensive social reform not nationalization
Rise of Labour party and demise of Liberal party
22. General Strike of 1926
General strike resulting from attempts to lower wages
o Conservative government attempted to put British back on gold standard
Raised price of British goods to foreigners
Tried to compensate by lowering wages
o Started with coal miners
Joined by other sympathetic workers
Tension but little violence

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Unions capitulated partially because of weakness from high

unemployment
Attempt to reconcile labour with housing reform and new poor laws
23. Mohandas Gandhi (Congress Party)
Began to attract support following WWI
o British talked more about an independent India
o India gained more autonomy
Right to impose tariffs to protect own industry
British textiles producers no longer had totally free access
24. Irish Home Rule Bill
Passed by Parliament in 1914 but postponed until after the war
o Irish nationalists didnt want to wait
Easter Monday, 1916 there was an Irish nationalist uprising in Dublin
Only rebellion of a national group against a government involved in
WWI
Tactical error in executing leaders making them martyrs
o Shift in leadership of nationalist cause from Irish delegation in Parliament to Sinn
Fein
25. Sinn Fein
Ourselves Alone
Extremist Irish nationalist movement that gained leadership after Easter Day Uprising
o Won all but four Irish seats in Parliament in 1918
o Refused to go to Parliament and created their own Irish parliament
Declared Irish independence
Military wing became IRA
26. Eamon DeValera
First Irish president
o Saw bitter guerilla war between IRA and British Army
o Oversaw peace negotiations
Irish Free State took place alongside other commonwealth nations
Northern Ireland stayed with Great Britain
o Resigned after siding with diehards in civil war
Elected president again in 1932
27. Irish Moderates
Civil war side that supported treaty with Britain
28. Irish diehards
Civil war side that wanted totally independent republic with no oath to the British
monarchy
29. Josef Pilsudski
Carried out a military coup in Poland
o Ruled autocratically
o Shows weakness of democratic Poland
30. Thomas Masaryk
Leader of post- WWI Czechoslovakia
o Integrity and fairness
o Helped ensure state didnt devolve into authoritarianism until Nazis came
31. Miklos Horthy
Hungarian monarch
o Elected by landowners after a brief communist post- WWI government
o Executions and imprisonments

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32. Weimar Republic

Government of Germany following WWI
o Republic, headed by Social Democrats, accepted Treaty of Versailles
Permanently associated with disgrace and economic consequences
Used by opponents, especially the Nazis
o All political groups wanted to revise Treaty of Versailles to varying degrees
Constitutional Flaws
o Proportional representation in all elections so small parties could gain seats
o President appointed and removed chancellor
o President allowed to rule by decree in an emergency
Lack of Popular Support
o Lots of politicians still favoured a constitutional monarchy
o School teachers, civil servants, and judges were same as before the war and thus
disliked the republic
o Officer corps suspicious of government and infuriated by Treaty of Versailles
Myth of civilian government stabbing army in back by surrendering
Many people therefore wanted to revise the treaty
o Right wing Kapp Putsch (armed insurrection)
Government fled city
General strike
Representative of violence of early republic
Invasion of Ruhr and Inflation
o Borrowing and deficit spending caused hyperinflation
o Ruhr invasion and economic resistance caused more inflation
33. Adolf Hitler
German politician (understatement)
o German nationalism, racism, and extreme anti- Semitism
o Disliked Marxism which he associated with Jews
o Became associated with Nazi Party in Munich
Author of Mein Kampf
o Outlined core political views
Racial anti- Semitism
Opposition to Bolshevism
Germany must expand eastward to make up for territorial losses and
achieve living space
Not taken seriously by most people of the time
o Made a lot of money
Two important decisions in prison
o He was leader who can make Germany strong again
o Nazis must gain power legally
34. NAZI
National Socialist German Workers Party
o Originally small
o Anti- Semitic and nationalistic
o Red and white banner with black swastika
o Twenty- Five Points
Originally almost Marxist but redefined socialist to be nationalistic
o Subordination of economic enterprise to the welfare of the state
35. Twenty-Five Points
Platform of the Nazi party

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o Repudiated of Treaty of Versailles

o Unification of Austria and Germany
o Exclusion of Jews from German citizenship
o Agrarian reform
o Prohibition of land speculation
o Confiscation of war profits
o State administration of giant cartels
o Replacement of department stores with small retail shops
36. Ernst Roehm
Leader of the Nazi storm troopers (SA)
o Paramilitary organization that provided food, uniforms, and eventually money
o Chief instrument of terror and intimidation before Nazis took power
Attacked socialists and communists
Potential for violence
Contempt for law and republican institutions
Personally wanted a return to German military values
37. George Grosz
Captured strife and despair of Weimar Republic politics and life
o Attack on social and political elite
o Danger of Nazi party
Thoughts on WWI
o Germany people blindly followed elite
o Hypocrisy of conservative middle class and imperial order
38. Beer Hall Putsch
Attempted armed insurrection by Nazis
o In wake of Ruhr invasion
o Crushed by local authorities
16 Nazis killed
Hitler used treason trial to make himself into national figure
39. Gustav Stresemann
Chancellor (and later foreign minister) of Weimar Republic who tried to reconstruct it
o Economic help
Ended economic resistance in the Ruhr
New German currency
o Moved against challenges from right and left
o Conciliatory foreign policy
Followed Versailles Treaty
Still tried to revise it
Wanted German areas of Poland and Czechoslovakia as well as Austria
Able to restore some confidence in the Republic
40. Dawes Plan
New plan for Germany reparations payments
o Lowered annual payments
o Allowed annual payments to vary based on health of German economy
41. Paul von Hindenburg
Elected as president following death of Friedrich Ebert
o Military hero and conservative monarchist
Shift towards conservatism in German politics
Suggested conservatives had accepted a republic
o Appreciation of republic helped by economic prosperity of late 1920s

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42. The Locarno Agreements

Slight changes to Treaty of Versailles
o Brought about by Stresemanns conciliatory foreign policy
o Acceptance of western frontier of Paris settlement
Italy and Britain to disagree if this was violated
Also earlier French withdrawal of troops
No such thing for eastern frontier
o French support for German membership in League of Nations
Pleased all
o Germany happy for respect and possibility of revision in the east
o Britain pleased to have more evenhanded role
o Italy pleased to be recognized as great power
o France pleased by western frontier settlement and strengthening of eastern
alliances
43. Kellogg-Briand Pact
Great powers renounced war as a policy instrument
o In spirit of Locarno Agreements
44. Young Plan
Replacement of Dawes Plan
o Lowered reparation payments
o Limit on how long Germany had to pay
o Germany no longer had outside supervision and control
Still rejected by Germans who decried any reparations
o Showed optimist surrounding Locarno Agreements was unfound

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Chapter 28 Identifications (Europe and the Great Depression of the 1930s):

1. Mixed Economy
Governments became directly involved in economics
o Result of the Great Depression
o Abandonment of 19th century economic principles
2. Kreditanstalt
Major bank in Vienna
o Collapsed because American credit to Europe dried up
o Primary lending intuition to central and eastern Europe
Severe pressure on German banking system
Germany unable to make reparation payments
3. Debt Moratorium (Hoover)
President Hoover announced temporary end to German reparations
o Germany couldnt make payments
Collapse of Kreditanstalt
Pressure on German banking system
o Prelude to end of reparations
o Hurt French economy
Relied on flow of money from reparations
Had to accept it due to near total collapse of German economy
4. Lausanne Conference
Basically ended reparations
o No way for Germany to pay
o Settlement of U.S. debts soon followed
Small symbolic payments
Default
Effect of Great Depression on post- WWI loans and reparations system
5. John Maynard Keynes
British economist
o Originally called for orthodox method of cutting government spending to reduce
inflation
o General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money
Governments needed to spend money to increase demand to get out of an
economic downturn
Not published until 1936
Government spending theory reflected trend towards more government involvement in
economy
o Severity of Depression
Political goals of restoring employment and providing defense
New regulations on private enterprise
o Pressure from new mass electorate
6. Ramsay MacDonald
Lead a second Labour ministry in 1929
o Ministry divided as unemployment rose
MacDonald wanted to slash budget, cut government salaries, and cut
unemployment benefits
Would have been more radical if he didnt want to maintain partys
respectability
Other ministers resisted
o MacDonald went to king to fire entire cabinet

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 Labour ministry didnt leave office

Coalition National Government
7. National Government
Coalition Labour, Liberal, and Conservative ministry formed by MacDonald
o Won a decent majority in elections
o MacDonald as PM became tool of Conservatives
Conservatives had majority in House of Commons
Used coalition to help with appearance unpopular programs
Three major steps to attack Depression
o Balance the budget
Raised taxes, cut benefits to unemployed and elderly, and cut
government salaries
Argued that fall in prices meant no real change
o Took Britain off gold standard
o Import Duties Bill
o Signaled departure from century of British economic policy
Policies pretty successful
o Avoided banking crisis
o First nation to restore industrial production
o Private housing boom related to low interest rates
o Failed to deal with unemployment
Public response
o Demonstrations of unemployed, but they survived with government insurance
o Policy avoided extremes of Conservative and Labour parties
8. Import Duties Bill
Part of National Governments attack on Depression
10% tariff on imports
o Drastic given British commercial policy for past century
9. Neville Chamberlain
Became British prime minister in 1937
o Legacy of Munich agreement
o Progressive socially for the Conservative party
10. Oswald Mosley
Founder of British Union of Fascists
o Minor position in second Labour government
o Disliked lack of attack on unemployment
o Direct action through new corporate structure for economy
Shows Britain wasnt immune from right-wing extremists of the continent
11. British Union of Fascists
Followers of Oswald Mosley
o Wore black shirts and tried to have mass meetings
o Only a few thousand at apex
Alienation from anti- Semitism
Political oddity soon after
Shows Britain wasnt immune from right-wing extremists of the continent
12. Rene Magritte
French artist
o The Human Condition
Paradox of unsolved meaning
Challenges to accepted scientific truths

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 Uncertainty was part of human condition

o Fascination with dreams
13. Action Francaise/ Croiz de Feu
Right-wing groups with authoritarian tendencies that became active in France during
Depression
o More than 2 million members
Army veterans (Croiz)
Members who joined in wake of Dreyfus Affair (Action)
o Monarchy or military dictatorship
o Hostile to parliamentary government, socialism, and communism
o Greater good of France above petty parties
o Many similarities to Fascists and Nazis
Weakened loyalty to republican government
o More bitter political life
o Stavisky Affair
14. Serge Stavisky (Affair)
Small time gangster with government connections who became involved in fraudulent
bond scheme
o Committed suicide before his arrest
o Many people thought it was a political cover-up
Symbolized immorality and corruption of republic to the right-wing
o Clashes and an attempt to storm Chamber of Deputies
o Led to end of Radical ministry
Left-wing parties saw that a right-wing coup was possible in France
15. Eduoard Daladier
Leader of Radical ministry at time of Stavisky Affair
o Ministry replaced by all former living premiers
Chamber of Deputies gave power to deal with economic matters by
decree
16. Socialist- Communist Cooperation
Peace within the French left beginning in 1934
o Initial split had been over Comintern
o Stalins fear of Hitler made this possible
17. The Popular Front
Union of French leftist parties, primarily socialists and communists
o Brought together by Blum
Had been target of French communists
Stalins fear of Hitler made the pact possible
o Dedicated to preserve the French and bring about social reform
Election of 1936 gave a majority in the Chamber of Deputies
Ministry with Blum as PM
18. Leon Blum
Leader of the French socialists
o Brought together Popular Front
o Democratic, parliamentary socialism
Prime minister of Popular Front government
o Immediately faced labour strife
Fear among business community
Brought labour and management together and helped them to an accord

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Wage increase, recognition of unions and collective bargaining, annual

vacation, and universal 40 hour work week
Goal of justice in labour negotiations and increase in consumer demand
o Increased spending
Raised salaries of civil servants
Public works program
Government loans to small industry
Nationalization of some armaments and some wheat
Results of reforms
o Enraged business community
Blum halted the program
Popular Front disliked halt and Blum resigned
o Economy didnt recover and people lost faith in republic
19. Paul von Hindenburg
President of Weimar Republic when Depression struck
o Deadlock over economic policies
Social Democrats refused to cut social insurances
Conservative parties wanted a balanced budget
o Appointed Heinrich Bruning as chancellor
No majority in Reichstag
Ruled through emergency presidential decrees
Essentially turned Republic into authoritarian regime
o Inability to solve economic problems led to rise in extreme parties (Nazis and
Communists)
Basically left rule in the hands of a few close confidants
20. Kurt von Schleicher
Chancellor after Papen
o Fear of civil war between right and left
Tried to build large coalition
Conservatives and trade unionists
o Fear of this guy was even greater than fear of Hitler
His plan led to Hitler becoming chancellor
Later murdered as part of Hitlers consolidation of power
21. Josef Goebbels
Director of Nazi propaganda
o Understood the potential of radio to distribute political messages
Urged directors to be interesting
Audience would get political message better if they were interested
o Attitudes to be expressed
Nationalism
Not being boring was most importants
22. Reichstag/ Reichstag Fire
Arson of Reichstag by mentally ill Dutch communist
o Nazis said it was a communist threat
o Led to emergency decree suspending civil liberties
23. Enabling Act of 1933
Allowed Hitler to rule through decree
o Passed by Nazi led Reichstag
o No more legal limits on Hitlers power
24. Schutzstaffel (SS)

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Elite paramilitary organization of Nazi Germany

o Chief vehicle of police state
o Began as bodyguards for Hitler
25. Heinrich Himmler
Leader of SS
o Oversaw purges of potential rival Nazi officials
o Became head of all police matters in Germany and stood second only to Hitler
26. Nuremburg Laws
Nazi laws that took away citizenship of German Jews
o Professions and major occupations closed to Jews
o Marriage and sex between Jews and non- Jews was banned
Based on racial theories of late 19th century, not religious discrimination
o Also wanted people to humiliate Jews
o Definition of Jew was complex
If three Jewish grandparents, then automatically a Jew
If two Jewish grandparents and practicing Jew, married to a Jew, or with
one Jewish parent, then a Jew
Meant to build Nazi thought of superior Aryan race
27. Kristallnacht
Night where thousands of Jewish shops and synagogues were destroyed
o Under orders from Nazi party
o Jewish community had to pay for damages
Nazis confiscated insurance money
Some were even arrested for causing the damage
Gave Nazis excuse to put Jews into concentration camps for protection
28. David Buffum
American diplomat who witnessed and wrote extensive report on Kristallnacht
o Noted that most Germans seemed disturbed but more too intimidated but Nazis to
do anything
o Also noted that Jews wanted help emigrating
29. Emancipation of Women
Social policy that Hitler rejected
o Anti-Semitism to discredit those who argued for emancipation
o Separate spheres instead
Shows support for tradition family and opposition to Soviet views
30. Herman Goering
Head of the German air force
Directed to prepare German economy and armed forces for war
o Economic self-sufficiency
o Renunciation of military terms of Treaty of Versailles
End to unemployment
Top priorities given to armaments
Example of economics being subordinated to goals of state
31. Syndicates
Organizations of management and labour in major areas of production in Fascist Italy
o Framework for labour negotiations
Subject to government arbitration
Unions lost rights to strike and pursue independent economic goals
o Meant to prevent class conflict
Gave state a large degree of economic control

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32. Corporatism (corporations)

Reorganized syndicates in Fascist Italy
o Basically monopolies
21 covered the entire Italian economy
Replacement of Chamber of Deputies with Chamber of Corporations
o Failed to increase production
Large degree of state control of direction of economy
33. Five- Year Plans
Stalins method of rapid industrialization of Soviet economy
o Socialism in One Country
Communists would out produce capitalists
Protection for capitalist countries
o Fight with Trotsky was over power, not ideology
Successfully out expanded every nation in the Western world
Failures of the policy
o Lack of consumer goods
o Lack of adequate infrastructure in cities
Widespread crime and disease
Populations had expanded faster than infrastructure
34. Gosplan
Soviet State Planning Commission
o Oversaw Five-Year Plans
Goals for production
Reorganization of economy to meet those goals
Large economic disruptions
o Favoured capital projects over consumer production
Had to use propaganda to get cooperation of Russian people
o Workers were formed peasants without experience in industrial discipline
o Publicity for those who were good workers
35. Kulaks
Small group of Russian farmers who had prospered under Lenins New Economic Policy
o Discontent from lack of consumer goods
o Frequently withheld grain from the market
Food shortages in cities
Government fear of unrest
Came to mean any peasant who resisted collectivization
36. Collectivization
Vague policy of Soviet control of agriculture sector
o Produce enough grain for food and exports
o Free peasant labourers for new industries
Destruction of class of dissident farmers
o Dissidents had killed horses and cattle
o Sent to prison camps in Siberia
Also used as an excuse to persecute religious preachers
Consequences
o Failed to achieve adequate food production
o Mass migration to the cities
37. Dizziness from success
Stalins reason for a brief slow down in collectivization
38. Great Purges

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Stalins policy of eliminating anyone who was a possible opponent or rival

o Opposition from Stalins reversal of some of Lenins policies
Rapid industrialization
Moves against peasants
Support for non-communist parties against Fascists and Nazis
o Stalin was paranoid
Methods
o Show trials and false confessions for major party members
o Private trials for lower party members
o No justice for others
Targets
o Civilian party members
o Major party leaders
o Soviet army
Important officers
Heroes of the civil war
Explanations
o Central leadership tried to gain more control over lower levels
o Eventually came to eliminating opponents in central leadership
Essentially created new party structure loyal to Stalin
o Elimination of Bolsheviks from revolution who saw Stalin erring from Lenins
policies
o New young members who had never followed anyone but Stalin
39. Sergei Kirov
Popular party chief of Leningrad and member of Soviet Politburo
o Assassination marked start of Great Purges
Thousands arrested
More expelled from party and sent to work camps
o Complicity in crime was common charge against those Stalin targeted
40. N. I. Yezhov
Peoples Commissar of the USSR for Internal Affairs
o Oversaw Great Purges
o Longtime member of communist party who was loyal to Stalin
Thought purges were necessary
Eventually got purged
o Formally charged and tried for spying for Poland
o Believed it was his bureaucratic enemies
o Confession and attempted defense in military court
Argued he was loyal party member
Wanted his family to be looked after
Accepted his fate while at the same time asking that Stalin be told he was
loyal, and therefore innocent

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