BIOLOGY 2320 HUMAN ANATOMY NOTES

Day 1 pgs 1-22

Hippocrates 400 BC
Father of Medicine
Philosophy Treat the body as a whole. Not as a bunch of separate, unrelated parts
Herophilus 300 BC
Father of Anatomy
Performed public dissections
Galen of Pergamum 200 AD
Prince of Physicians
Stressed importance of expirementation
No advancements 200 AD to 1200 AD
Italy was the center of medicine starting 1200
Leonardo da Vinci 1500 AD learned about body to aid in his painting and art
Andreus Vesalus brought med students around dissection table and corrected 2000 yr old errors
1628 William Harvey published book on the heart
1980s Visible Human Project cross cutting 2 donated bodies from head to toe in thin slices
Van Hagens current plastination Bodies World
Anatomy study of structure
Physiology study of function of structure
Microscopic Anatomy studies structure that cant be seen
Surface Anatomy study of skin whats seen and how the organs realted to the skin work together
Organ Systems
Integumentary System protects, regulates body temp, synthesizes vitamin D
Skin, hair, glands associated with skin
Skeletal System supports, blood production, muscle attachment
Bones
Muscular System provides movement and generates heat
Muscles and tendons
Nervous System controls movement, responds to sensory stimuli, memory, consciousness
Sense organs (eyes), brain, spinal cord, nerves
Endocrine System secretes hormones that regulate body growth and reproductive functions
Testes, pituitary gland, kidneys, thymus, thyroid, hypothalamus
Cardiovascular System pumps blood throughout body in order to distribute gases, nutrients, wastes
Heart, arteries, veins, capillaries
Lymphatic System Transports and filters lymph and initiates immune response
Spleen, thymus, lymph vessels
Respiratory System responsible for exchange of gases in the lungs
Lungs, nose, trachea
Digestive system absorbs nutrients, expels waste, breaks down food
Mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, intestine
Urinary system expels waste from blood, concentrates wastes in form of urine, expels from body
Kidneys, urethra, bladder
Reproductive system produce sex cells, transfers sperm, site of growth of fetus

Penis, scrotum, urethra, vagina, clitoris, mammary glands

1.4 - terminology
Coronal Plane a vertical cut from shoulder to shoulder
Transverse plane a horizontal cut
Midsagittal Plane a MEDIAN vertical cut from spine to nose
Sagittal Plane a vertical cut from spine to nose
Oblique Plane an angular cut
Anterior (Ventral) towards the front of the body i.e. sternum
Posterior (Dorsal) towards the back of the body i.e. spine
-Superior (Cranial) towards the head
Inferior (Caudal) towards the feet
-Medial towards the midline of the body
Lateral away from the body
-Proximal closest point of attachment to trunk
Distal furthest point from attachment to trunk
Regional Anatomy 2 main regions, axial and appendicular
Axial Region includes head, neck, trunk
Appendicular Region includes appendages
1.4e
Posterior Aspect 2 enclosed cavities
Cranial cavity is formed by the cranium and houses the brain
Vertebral cavity is formed by the individual bones of the spinal column and houses spinal cord
Ventral Cavity arises in early embryonic development from the coelom
Partitioned into superior THORACIC CAVITY and inferior ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY with the
diaphragm separation
*both thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities are lined with serous membranes
Serous membranes contain 2 layers
Parietal layer lines internal surface of body wall
Visceral layer covers external surface of organs
*Serous membranes secret serous fluid
Serous fluid has consistency of oil and serves as a lubricant this is to reduce
friction and any harmful side effects that could occur
Thoracic Cavity
Median space in the thoracic cavity is the mediastinum. The mediastinum contains the heart,
thymus, esophagus, trachea, and major blood vessels
Within the mediastinum, the heart is enclosed by the pericardium (cardiac for heart to remember)
The pericardium is a 2 layers serous membrane.
The parietal pericardium forms the sac that the heart sits in
The visceral pericardium is the actual external surface of the heart.
The pericardial cavity contains serous fluid lubricating the hearts surface
The left and right sides of the thoracic cavity contain the lungs

The lungs are lined by a 2 sided serous membrane called the pleura
The pleuras space for movement is called the pleural cavity (study tip, pleural for plural,
because there are 2 lungs)
Peritoneum - moist, 2 layer serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity
Parietal peritoneum
Visceral peritoneum
1.4f
Abdominopelvic region
Split up into sub-regions like a tic-tac-toe game
Epigastric region - superior region of medial abdomen
Umbilical region center of the abdomen
Hypogastric region (UNDER=HYPO) inferior region of the medial abdomen
Hypochondriac left and right sides of the abdomen on the superior end, touching the epigastric region
Lumbar left and rights sides of the abdomen, medial, touching the umbilical region
Iliac left and right sides of the abdomen, touching the hypogastric regions, inferior abdomen
CT computed tomography basically a hella x-ray. Takes slices on a transverse plane used for
viewing tumors, kidney stones, hemorrhages, etc.
MRI using magnets, the protons in tissues align, then exposed to radio waves. After exposure the
protons align in a different position and then the machine is shut off. Energy is released by the protons
at different rates, depending on the tissue, and a computer turns this into a viewable image. MRIs are
much more useful for soft tissues like brains and are used to map the way our brains work
ALVEOLUS MEANS CAVITY
SUPRA- OVER
SUB- UNDER
DAY 2 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM CH 5 JUNE 5/12
Skin is also known as the cutaneous layer
Study of skin is dermatology
5.1
Surface is covered with epithelium that protects under layers
Tissue under the epithelium contain blood vessels, which provide nutrients and give strength
Nerves also are under the epithelial layer so we can feel
It accounts for 7 to 8 percent of the body weight and ranges in thickness from 1 to 4 mm
Consists of 3 layers, the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis
Wherever the epithelial tissue comes to an end, an opening in the body begins, and there are mucous
membranes
5.1b
Protection
The skin is selectively permeable
It regulates the bodys temperature, saves it from infection, trauma, etc.
When exposed to the sun, melanin production increases, giving you a darker color
Prevention of water loss
Protects against unnecessary water loss
Transepidermal water loss is when you lose water through breathing. It accounts for about a
pint of water loss a day
Insensible perspiration is loss of water through sweat glands through regular activites
Sensible perspiration is visible swearing from heat
Temperature regulation

Blood vessels dilate (open) and contract (close) to maintain body heat
When cold, blood to the skin is contracted and brought into the core of the body
Metabolic regulation
Vitamin D is synthesized from cholecalciferol , which needs sunlight to synthesize
Immune defense
Epidermal dendritic cells are an immune response and kill microbes with phagocytosis and
initiate an immune response
Sensory Reception
Tactile cells are responsible to feel touch
Excretion by Means of Secretion
When sweating, your body can also expel wastes
5.2
Epidermis is the outermost layer of skin
The epidermis is keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium
It acquires nutrients through underlying blood vessels
*****SKIN GOES (from deep to superficial) stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum (found only
in thick skin), corneum
First 3 layers have living keratinocytes
Last 2 layers have dead keratinocytes
Stratum Basale
Single layer of cells
Tightly attached to basement membrane that divides it from the dermis
Made up of 3 types of cells
1. Keratinocytes
Most abundant cell type in the entire epidermis
Dominates the basale with replacement stem cells
Name is derived from their role in synthesizing Keratin
Keratin makes skin nearly waterproof and tough
2. Melanocytes
Have long, branching cytoplasmic processes scattered among the keratinocytes
Transfer Melanosomes
This pigment accumulates around cells and protects DNA from UV rays
Melanocytes trigger on exposure to harmful UV light
3. Tactile Cells
Responsible for feeling
Few in number, scattered among basale
Stratum Spinosum
Several layers of keratinocytes
As the keratinocytes divide, they push the new cells towards the surface, leaving the stem cells
underneath
The deepest layers will sometimes have some mitotic activity in building new cells
Also contains epidermal DENDRITIC CELLS
Stratum Granulosum
3-5 layers of keratinocytes
KERATINIZATION OCCURS
As the cells age and move superficially, they begin to dry out and die and true keratin
begins to form. This forms the outermost part and has all the waterproofing properties
Stratum Lucidum

Thin, translucent layer that is only found in parts of skin needing thicker protection
Statum Corneum
20-30 layers of dead, keratinized cells
Anucleate, meaning they lack a nucleus
Contains large amount of keratin
B-S-G-L-C
5.2b
On most of the body, the skin is only 1 to 2 mm thick
Thick skin is found on the palms of hands, feet, and lips
Thick skin contains sweat glands, but no hairs or sebaceous glands
Thin skin covers most of the body
Thin skin has hair, sebaceous glands, sweat glands
Skin Color
Melanin is a pigment produced by melanocytes
The pigment is picked up in the basale or spinosum and then is pressed towards the corneum
This is what tints our skin
Carotene also adds to tints. It comes from foods we eat like carrots or tomatoes
DAY 3 JUNE 6 2012 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM CONT
SKIN MARKINGS
Nevus (mole) an overgrowth of harmless melanin-forming cells
Sometimes a mole can go malignant, normally due to UV exposure
Malignant = cancerous
Freckles are an area of increased melanocytic activity, not more melanocyte cells meaning
theres just more pigment/melanin
Hemangioma (angio=vessel, oma=tumor) usually will disappear in childhood, unless theyre deep; then
they can last for a lifetime
Its a cluster of blood vessels
Not related to genetics
FRICTION RIDGES
Ridges in the skin that allow friction when handling objects
Friction ridges have merocrine sweat glands that help us to grip
*folds in the skin can indicate things like cancer, down-syndrome, Alzheimers, etc.
5.3
DERMIS
The dermis contains all of the blood vessels, sweat glands, sebaceous glands (oil glands), hair follicles,
nail roots, sensory nerves, and elastic and reticular fibers.
Consists of 2 layers, a superficial papillary layer and deeper reticular layer
The Papillary layer is superficial and is direct contact with the epidermis
It gets its name from the ridges that connect with the epidermis (papillae dermis
papillae=nipple)
The epidermal papillae and the dermal papillae increase the surface area of connectivity
The Reticular layer is deeper and is FULL of collagen connective tissue to keep your skin tight
Stretch marks, wrinkles, and lines of cleavage
The collagen is directly responsible for the elasticity of the skin
If you stretch the skin too much, through weight gain, pregnancy, etc. youll get stretch
marks
Visible stretch marks are from over-stretching the collagen (called striae)

Lines of Cleavage are parallel bundles of elastic fibers

Theyre orientated for natural movement
Surgical cuts should follow the lines of cleavage so that the wound will stay
closed and heal faster if theyre cut perpendicular, there will be increased scarring
Innervation and blood supply
Nerves are all throughout the dermis, a property called innervation
Nerves control much from gland secretion, to blood supply, to what we feel
The largest blood vessels are found on the layer between the dermis and the
hypodermis
The blood vessels then shoot up through the dermis, never reaching the
epidermis, to supply our skin with nutrients
Then the blood peels off into capillaries, and pools back into veins
Vasoconstriction constriction of blood vessels to keep the heat in the core, probably
when youre really cold
Vasodilation dilation of the blood vessels on the surface to lose excess heat, probably
when youre really hot
5.4
Subcutaneous Layer (hypodermis)
Serves pretty much as fat storage
Binds closely with the reticular tissue of the dermal layer to keep the skin tightly in place
In men and women, it accumulates in different regions
5.5
Epidermal Accessory Organs
Nails, hair, and sweat and sebaceous glands derived from epidermis
Nails are keratinized cells that form on the dorsal tips of fingers and toes
Protect dorsal tip
Formed with same cells that form the stratum corneum
Has a pinkish body with a white tip
Body appears pink because of the capillaries underneath with blood
Tip appears white because there is nothing underneath
NAIL DISORDERS CLINICAL VIEW
Brittle nails when the nails are brittle and break due to a lack of moisture from excessive washing or
chemicals
Ingrown nail when your nail grows into the surrounding tissue causing pain and a possible infection
Onychomycosis a fungal infection (fungus counts for about half of nail disorders) from excessive
moisture on the nail. Treatment requires medication for a long period of time
Bacterial and viral infections oral antibiotics needed to treat
Yellow nail syndrome when the nail slows or stops growing; a sign of respiratory disease
Spoon nails nails look like spoons; sign of iron deficiency
Beaus lines happens when nails temporarily stop growing; due to trauma or malnutrition
Vertical ridging occurs as we get older, just happens
Hapalonychia condition in which the nail thins and breaks
Portion where the skin folds around the nail is appropriately called a nail fold
Nail plate portion where there actually is a nail
Nail matrix where the nail is actively growing
Hair
Nearly everywhere on the body except for palms, soles of feet, lips, etc.
Made up of keratinized cells, colored by melanin

3 kinds of hair growth

Lanugo hair is a fine, unpigmented, hair that is grown while were still in the womb.
Before birth, the hair is
Vellus hair is what were born with. Its lightly pigmented
Terminal hair is what we have on the top of our heads, beards, and pubic regions. Its
pigmented, needless to say
Replaces the vellus hair in the armpits and genital region during puberty
Hair structure 3 main parts
1. Hair bulb Consist of epithelial cells that swell and push the hair out as it grows
2. Root the hair within the follicle under the skin
3. Shaft portion of hair that extends beyond the skin
The root and shaft are dead epithelial, keratinized cells while the bulb contains
living, dividing cells.
Hair production involves a specialized type of keratinization that occurs in the matrix (where the
hair is grown)
Cortex the exterior surface of hair; consists of keratinized cells that determine the
stiffness of hair
Cuticle the exposed exterior surface of hair which coats the hair
Hair follicle an exterior sac of the hair that extends into the dermis
Arrector pili a smooth muscle that raises hairs on end as a result of fear or cold
Function of Hair
Protection hair on the head protects from sunburn, nostrils from foreign objects, etc.
Heat retention acts as a light blanket to maintain heat
Facial expression eyebrows act to enhance facial expression
Sensory reception hairs have associated nerves to sense light touch
Visual identification important in determining individuals
Chemical signal dispersal hairs play a role in releasing pheromones
Hair color
Hair color comes from melanin that is made in the matrix of hair follicles.
As we age, hair turns white because of decreasing melanin production
Hair Growth Cycle
1. Anagen Phase phase where hair is actively, rapidly growing. It lasts 18 months to 7
years and is determined by genetics. On the scalp, 80-95% of hair is in anagen phase
2. Catagen Phase phase where hair is in a brief regression where growth stops and hair
actually shrinks towards the scalp surface. Lasts 3-4 weeks
3. Telogen Phase resting phase where hair is shed (these are the hairs we find in our
comb) this lasts 3-4 months and then it all starts over again
We lose between 10 and 100 hairs a day, just normally
Alopecia is thinning of the hair, normally to aging, from the scalp
Diffuse hair loss is losing hair from all over the scalp normally from drugs, stress, or iron
deficiency
Male pattern baldness is a condition where, as you age, the dominant gene for baldness
comes out in males. Its normally brought on by testosterone. Its dominant in males and recessive in
females
Sweat and Sebaceous Glands
2 types of sweat glands
1. Merocrine sweat glands carries sweat to the surface of the skin
2. Apocrine sweat glands carries the sweat to a hair follicle

Sweat glands contain myoepithelial cells which are specialized cells sandwiched between
secretory gland cells and underlying basement membrane. The nervous system signals for the gland to
squeeze, and expel its liquid
Merocrine sweat glands most numerous with about 3 or 4 million in an adult male
The highest concentration is palms, feet, and forehead
Sweat is 99% water and 1% other chemicals
Apocrine sweat glands most numerous around armpits, nipples, groin, and anus
Stinky sweat glands fluid is cloudy and viscous composed of proteins
Sebaceous glands excrete SEBUM, an oily liquid, into a hair follicle
Acts to keep hair from drying out, keeps it most and soft
Most concentrated on forehead and often cause acne
Sometimes theyll get blocked and form furuncles or boils
Other glands
Ceruminous glands and mammary glands
Ceruminous glands are modified sweat glands that make cerumen (earwax) and
are only located in the external acoustic meatus. Its a mixture of sebum and exfoliated keratinocytes
They lubricate the eardrum, and have antibacterial properties
Mammary glands are modified apocrine glands
Excrete milk in females while pregnant
CLINICAL VIEW ACNE AND TREATMENTS
Comedo a sebaceous gland plugged with sebum; form blackheads and white heads
(blackheads are open pores and whiteheads are closed pores)
Papule dome shaped lesions filled with white blood cells, dead skin cells, and bacteria
Nodule continues down into the deeper layers and can scar
Cyst fluid filled nodule that can lead to scarring
(comedos are least deep, painful and cysts are the worst)
Treatments
Benzoyl peroxide dries out the skin, kills bacteria, slows oil sebaceous glands
Salicylic acid helps to unclog pores and can dry out the skin
Topical and oral antibiotics fights the bacteria that make acne
Topical retinoids essentially vitamin A that normalizes growths. Can dry out the skin
Systemic retinoids used for most severe acne, but can cause serious birth defects. Required to
be taken with birth control in women
5.6
Integument Repair and Regeneration
Regeneration is where the injury is filled with the same cell type to continue regular function
Fibrosis is where the injury is too severe and the wound is filled with scar tissue
Fibrosis closes the wound with scar tissue and does not restore function
STEPS OF REGENERATION (fibrosis)
1. Cut blood vessels initiate bleeding. The blood brings platelets (and other clotting proteins, nutrients,
white blood cells and antibodies to the site. The bleeding is stopped by the clotting compounds and the
antibodies clean the wound and fight infection
2. The cut is filled with a scab, or clot, and this protects the healing wound from other pathogens
entering the body. Macrophages and other leukocytes keep the wound clean
3. The cut vessels regenerate and grow back in the wound. The cut turns into granulation tissue, a
vascular connective tissue that initially forms in a healing wound. Macrophages begin to remove the
blood clot and fibroblasts make new collagen.

4. Stratum Basale cells migrate over the surface of the wound and clear over the hole. The connective
tissue is replaces by fibrosis (scar tissue)
The more severe the damage, the less likely it will return to normal. Also, it takes more time to
repair to normal. Things like hair follicles and nerves and muscles will not/have trouble regenerating
CLINICAL VIEW: BURNS
Burns are a big cause of accidental death. They range in severity, 1st-3rd, and are serious. The protective
layer of skin is lose, exposing the underneath layers, increasing complications like infection and fluid loss
First degree burns - characterized by damage only to the epidermis. With it there is redness and
pain. It typically takes 3 to 5 days to heal with no scarring.
Second degree burns characterized by blistering and pain. The epidermis and part of the
dermis may be affected. It will take 2-4 weeks to heal completely and some scarring may occur.
Ointments should not be applied and blisters should not be popped as it can increase infection
Third degree burns involves epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis; mostly will require
hospitalization. Infection is very likely. All of the layers of the skin are dead and the skin cannot hold in
water; dehydration is likely.
Skin grafts will often be used to cover the area. It will increase healing by decreasing the
openness of the wound, holding in water better, and will reduce the possibility of abnormal healing by
scar tissue
First step in treatment is to discover how much of the area has been damaged. The rule
of nines is used. Arm 9% of surface area of body. Leg 18%. Thorax 18%. Neck and head 9%.
Perineum 1%.
5.7
Skin and Aging
As you age, everything slows down and severity increases. Collagen loses its springiness,
mechanical damage heals twice as slowly, skin is thinner, etc.
Overexposure to UV rays can damage the epidermal cells and increase aging
This overexposure is the predecessor in almost all forms of skin cancer
Fair skinned children that had intense sunburns are most likely for cancers
Basal Cell Carcinoma
Least serious form of skin cancer
Least likely to metastasize
Squamous Cell Carcinoma
May metastasize
Arises from keratinocytes in the spinosum
Malignant Melanoma
Most deadly form of skin cancer because its prone to metastasizing
Arises from melanocytes, usually in a preexisting mole
CHAPTER 6 CARTILAGE AND BONE
6.1
Cartilage weaker than bone but more flexible and resilient
Chondroblast cells that produce the matrix of cartilage
3 major junction of cartilage
1. Supporting the soft tissues
The soft hyaline rings in the trachea support the connective tissue
2. Providing a gliding surface at articulations (joints) where 2 bones meet
3. Providing a model for formation of most bones in the body
3 major types of cartilage

1. Hyaline cartilage firmer cartilage located in the sternum as well as the buffer between
bones in the joints
2. Fibrocartilage cartilage that is more flexible, allowing it to buffer the vertebrae. Major
purpose of fibrocartilage is to absorb shock. Its also the meniscus (padlike cartilage in knee joint)
3. Elastic cartilage cartilage used in the ears
Cartilage growth patterns
Cartilage grows in 2 ways; interstitially (growth from within the cartilage itself) and
appositionally (growing along the cartilages outside edge)
Interstitial Growth
Chondrocytes in lacunae (small space in bone) undergo mitotic division, as the cells
grow; they push each other apart and reside in their own lacunae
Appositional Growth
Stem cells at the internal edge of the perichondrium (dense tissue surrounding
developing bone) begin to divide; the cells differentiate into chondroblasts which then secrete new
cartilage, turning them into chondrocytes
6.2
BONE
Bones are organs and contain all tissue types
Bones are rigid due to calcification
Bones have several different functions, including protection, support, movement, hemopoiesis, etc.
Support and protect support our skeleton as well as protect our brain, chest, etc.
Movement act as levers for muscle attachment
Hemopoiesis process of blood cell production
Occurs in RED BONE MARROW, located in SPONGY BONE
Storage of Minerals and Energy Reserves more than 90% of the bodys calcium and phosphate
are stored in bones.
Calcium is needed for muscle movement, blood clotting, and nerve impulses
Phosphate is needed for ATP
Red bone marrow
Occurs in different spots than children and adults
As children, almost all bones are full of red marrow
As adults, most of the red marrow degenerates into yellow marrow and the red marrow
is only left in select portions of the skeleton including the skull, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, ossa coxae, and
proximal ends of limbs
6.3
CLASSIFICATION AND ANATOMY OF BONES
4 types of bones in the human body
1. Long bones longer than they are wide, most common form of bone
2. Short bones bones that are almost as long as they are wide i.e. wrist bones, foot bones, etc.
3. Flat bones flat and thin, roof of the skull and scapula and shoulder blades
4. Irregular bones elaborate bones such as the ossa coxae, vertebrae, ethmoid, etc.
General Structure and Gross Anatomy of Long Bones
Principle feature of long bone is the DIAPHYSIS or staff of the bone
Usually cylindrical and support weight and provide leverage
At the end of each bone is an expanded region called the EPIPHYSIS
Allows for more surface area on articulating joints
Composed of an outside of compact bone and an inner layer of spongy bone

METAPHYSIS is the region between the diaphysis and the epiphysis, this region includes the
epiphyseal growth plates in youth and the epiphyseal lines in adults
The thin layer of hyaline cartilage that covers the epiphysis is called the articular cartilage
This provides less friction and absorbs shock
The area in the diaphysis that is hollow and contains yellow marrow is called the medullary
cavity
Endosteum the internal surface of bone that coats the medullary cavity; it is an incomplete
layer of cells that produce osteoblasts, osteoclasts, etc.
PERIOSTEUM the external surface of the bone; its made up of dense, irregular tissue that
consists of a fibrous outer layer. The periosteum is anchored to the one by perforating fibers; these
fibers anchor nerves, blood vessels, as well as provide stem cells for bone width growth, and fracture
repair
Cells of Bone
There are 4 types of cells found in bones; Osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and
osteoclasts
Osteoprogenitor cells- stem cells located in the endiosteum and the periosteum
(internal and exterior surface of bone) that divide and produce a committed cell and another stem cell.
The committed cell is an osteoblast
Osteoblasts the predecessor to new bone; they come from osteoprogenitor stem cells
and form a cell in which calcium and minerals deposit and form bone as we know it
Osteocytes cells derived from osteoblasts that detect stresses on the bone. They then
communicate to osteoblasts which in turn can produce more cells to thicken the bone
Osteoclasts cells used to liberate calcium and phosphate from the bone so that the
body can utilize them using hydrochloric acid
Composition of the Bone Matrix
The bone is composed of separate substances i.e.
Collagen fibers give bone tensile strength by resisting stretching and twisting and add to
overall flexibility of the bone
Ground substance is the semisolid material that supports the collagen fibers
Inorganic components include calcium that gives compressional strength
Comparison of Compact and Spongy Bone
2 types of bone connective tissue are present in the body, spongy bone and compact bone
Compact bone is solid and dense
Spongy bone is porous and features an open lattice of narrow plates of bone called
trabecule (note, in the skull, spongy bone is called DIPLOE)
Compact Bone Microscopic Anatomy
Compact bone has an organized structure when viewed under a microscope; this structure is
called an OSTEON and consists of 3 components (the osteon is the cylindrical part of the bone that runs
parallel with the diaphysis of long bone)
The central canal is a cylindrical channel in the middle of the osteon that allows for
blood vessels and nerves that supply the bone
The Concentric Lamellae is the mass of osteon and are the rings of tissue around the
central canal
Osteocytes housed in Concentric Lamellae
Canaliculi canals between all the lacuna that allow for nutrients and other things can
travel through the central canal

SIDE NOTE: OSTEITIS DEFORMANS (or Pagets disease) is an imbalances between osteoclasts and
osteoblasts what happens is bones are being built up and torn down way too fast and the resulting
bone is unstable. This causes bowed limbs and pain and is incurable
There are several other structures of bone that arent included in the osteon; these include
Perforating canals resemble central canals because they also carry blood vessels and nerves,
but instead of parallel, they run perpendicular to osteons; creating a web of nutrients, blood, and nerves
Circumferential lamellae rings of bone that run the entire circumference of bone internal to
the periosteum and the endosteum
Interstitial lamellae leftovers of lamellae that have been partially resorbed they often look
like they have bite marks taken out of them
STUDY TIP: think of the internal part of an osteon like a target. The target is the osteon, the
circumferential lamellae are the rings, and the bulls-eye is the central canal
Spongy Bone and Microscopic Anatomy
*Spongy bone contains no osteons. Instead its composted of parallel lamellae.
Osteoclasts lay in the parallel lamellae of spongy bone and diffuse nutrients through the
canaliculi
6.4
Ossification development and formation of bone tissue
Ossification begins as an embryo and continues throughout life, even after reaching adulthood
Intramembranous Ossification means bone growth within a membrane
It produces the flat bones of the skull and some facial bones
Its steps are as follows
1. Ossification centers from within thickened regions of mesenchyme
At the 8th week of development, some cells become committed cells and
differentiate into osteoprogenitor cells which become osteoblasts which then secrete semisolid organic
material that forms the osteoid
2. Osteoid undergoes calcification
Following the osteoblasts, the cells quickly harden with calcification, entrapping
the osteoblasts and forming osteocytes
3. Woven bone and its surrounding periosteum form
Initially, the bone that forms is not immature and is called woven bone (or
primary bone) which is replaced by lamellar bone (secondary bone) later in development. The cells
surrounding the bone begins to thicken and change into the periosteum. As the bone grows, more
osteoblasts become entrapped and are produced at the same time
4. Lamellar bone replaces woven bone, as compact bone and spongy bone form
Lamellar bone replaces the woven bone and the spaces are filled, forming
compact bone. Resulting is the 2 compact bones sandwiching the spongy bone between in the skull
Endochondral Ossification is the way most bones form; they start as cartilage and morph into bone
1. The fetal hyaline cartilage model develops
Between the 8th and 12th week of development, the chondroblasts secrete cartilage
matrix thus forming hyaline cartilage. Trapped in the cartilage are chondrocytes that were
chondroblasts. This is all enclosed within the developing perichondrium
2. Cartilage calcifies and a periosteal bone collar forms
As the bones age, the cartilage begins to be eaten away while bone is put in its place by
chondrocytes
3. The primary ossification center forms in the diaphysis

A growth of capillaries and osteoblasts penetrate the periosteum and form blood
vessels and start to build osteoids; this is called the primary ossification center. Bone then extends in
both directions toward the epiphysis, as this occurs, healthy bone tissue replaces all the cartilage
4. Secondary ossification centers form in the epiphysis
5. Bone replaces cartilage, except the articular cartilage and epiphyseal plates
6. Epiphyseal plates ossify and form epiphyseal lines
***Intramembranous Ossification comes from a growth of stem cells, forming a spongy bone layer
sandwiched by compact bone cells while Endochondral Ossification comes from cartilage cells that
spread in each direction and harden (cartilage is replaced with bone) like the long bones of the body
Epiphyseal Plate Morphology
There are 5 layers of bone growth in an epiphyseal plate. The first layer is the newest cells
furthest away from the diaphysis and is composed of cartilage. The 5th layer is bone and is closest to the
diaphysis. The 3 layers in between are all cartilage cells ossifying into bone
Growth of Bone
A bones (or cartilages) growth in length is called interstitial growth while its growth in thickness
is appositional growth
Interstitial growth happens at the epiphyseal plates
Appositional growth happens with the periosteum
Bone Remodeling
As bones age, calcium and phosphorus is constantly being added and taken away. This is called
bone remodeling
Its estimated that 20% of bones are replaced yearly
The distal part of the femur is changed every 4 to 6 months while the diaphysis
may not be replaced in an entire lifetime
Blood Supply and Innervation
Bone is highly vascularized and in a bone such as the femur, has 4 cell types
1. Nutrient Arteries and Nutrient Veins cells that supply the diaphysis of a long bone
Typically, a long bone will only have 1 nutrient vein and artery foramen
2. Metaphyseal Arteries (and Veins) closest to the diaphysis side of the bone and
supply the new, developing epiphyseal cells with blood
3. Epiphyseal Arteries (and Veins) supplies the epiphyseal side of bones with blood as
the bone is separated by the epiphyseal plate in children; as the bone ossifies, it interconnects with the
metaphyseal arteries and veins
4. Periosteal Arteries (and Veins) supply the exterior surface of bones with blood
through the periosteum; many entry points
Nerves travel through the blood vessel foramen they mainly sensor when
damage to the skeletal system has occurred
6.5
MAINTAINING HOMEOSTASIS AND PROMOTING BONE GROWTH
Hormones
Hormones almost control everything about bones; from how much calcium is deposited to how
much is resorbed, to how active your epiphyseal plates are and growth
Exercise
Exercise promotes healthy bone activity through normal stress and increases the bones mass
Fracture Repair
A stress fracture is a thin fracture caused by a repetitive process like sprinting or weight lifting
A pathologic fracture is a fracture caused by bone weakening due to a disease
In a simple fracture, the bone does not penetrate the skin

In a compound fracture, the bone breaks the skin and surrounding tissue
A simple fracture takes 2-3 months while a compound can take much longer
In children, a fracture can heal in 3 weeks and takes longer as we age
Fractures are repaired in the following steps
1. A fracture hematoma forms
Fracturing causes bleeding, and a hematoma forms under the skin
2. A fibrocartilaginous callus forms
The hematoma is penetrated with blood vessels to form an actively growing tissue
called a procallus. The procallus produces collagen fibers to bring the broken ends together.
Chondroblasts in the periosteum and endosteum start to build new tissue
3. A hard callus forms
The callus replaces the soft callus and blood vessels begin to penetrate the diaphysis
again and heal back to the way they were over several months
4. The hard callus is slowly removed and replaced with compact bone. This takes 3 to 4 months
to complete

Latin meanings
Cyto cell
embryon young one derma - skin
Histo tissue pathos disease
glyph - carve
Periteino to stretch over
papilla - nipple
Hypo under chondr cartilage
Derma skin corneus horny

Foramen hole for a nerve or blood vessel through blood

Condyle a mass at the end of a bone mostly for a joint
Process a mass of bone
Lamellae rings around an osteon (think of it as rings around a tree trunk, as it ages and gets stronger
more rings form)
Lacunae spaces in bones for osteocytes and other things specialized cells to form
Osteocytes cells in mature bone that detect stresses on the bone and maintain bone they relay
mechanical stresses on bones to osteoblasts, which in turn form more bone mass
Foramen Lacerum- mostly filled with cartilage, internal carotid artery
Foramen Ovale- mandibular nerve
Foramen Spinosum- middle meningeal artery
Foramen Rotundum- maxillary nerve