Music and the Education of the Soul in Plato and Aristotle: Homoeopathy and the Formation

of Character
Author(s): Frdrique Woerther
Source: The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 58, No. 1 (May, 2008), pp. 89-103
Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27564125 .
Accessed: 02/10/2014 17:23
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Cambridge University Press and The Classical Association are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve
and extend access to The Classical Quarterly.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 161.116.100.129 on Thu, 2 Oct 2014 17:23:38 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Classical

58.1 89-103

Quarterly

in Great

(2008) Printed

Britain

89

doi:10.1017/S0009838808000074

MUSIC AND THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUL IN

AND ARISTOTLE:
THE FORMATION

PLATO

Studies of how the Greeks understood

have

to focus

tended

influences

the

soul

the

of

two points
as a self-evident

latter

a conception
ethical
considering

instructed
when
and

of

the education

the

he

that

in the education of the soul

started

idea

the

that music

the Pythagoreans,

with

consider

the

and

with

before

As an

'Aristotle's

the intellect is

to bear
will be important
in mind
on music
In fact, Plato's
training
though music.'3
position
to the Laws',
soul evolves
from the Republic
in particular
he
Plato

in the musical

a central
rjOos

makes

statement:

following

education

of young

but not in the Republic. The second general tendency

subject

treat

scholars

be formed by habituation

shares

the role of pleasure

considers

all.2 First,

notion

tendency

that character must

conviction

the role of music

above

AND

the same view of the subject to both Plato and Aristotle.

they attribute
example

on

HOMOEOPATHY
OF CHARACTER1

idea

in musical

as

education,

in the Laws

children

on this

in the scholarship
indicated

by

the

of

titles

the books by Abert and Anderson and by the widespread use of the term ethos in
discussing this subject. In fact, it is only Aristotle, in the Politics, who speaks of rjOos
in his

treatment

of musical

subtle

occasionally

ones,

of

concept

its use

avoiding

to prominence
in the fifth
Plato
interest.
great
provides

development:

an account
requires
or not
to receive, whether

of

citizens

will

set of

sources

the citizens

form

in both

will

the

entail

in the classical period.4 As

the role of music

which

the education

those

differences,

which

education,

of the ideal cities described

the organisation

Laws

century,
a crucial

the

in Plato,

It is also worth specifying how

musical

part of Greek paideia

rose
of

with

out

setting
this question

of

in the Politics.

in connection
rjOos arises
in regard
to Plato.

is a fundamental

Music
sophists
a topic

is worth

the treatments

Republic and the Laws, and Aristotle

the

It

education.

between

part

of

in education

the

became

for understanding

this

in the Republic and the

of

cities

those

the governing

will

class.

have
In this

paper I shall say little about how Plato may have borrowed from the sophists in regard
to musical
music's

education,
role

but will

in education

focus

first

in the Republic

on

the characteristic

and

Laws.

Then

features
I shall

of his

consider

theory of
Aristotle's

approach in the final three chapters of Book 8 of the Politics, where he considers the
role of music

in educating

the soul.

1I
this article into English.
thank Harvey Yunis who translated
2
Ein Beitrag zur Musik?sthetik
in der griechischen Musik.
Cf. H. Abert, Die Lehre vom Ethos
in Greek Music:
Ethos and Education
des klassischen
Altertums
1899); W.D. Anderson,
(Leipzig,
and Philosophy
The Evidence
MA,
1966); A. Barker, Greek Musical
(Cambridge,
of Poetry
'Damon of Oa: a
and His Art (Cambridge,
Vol. I, The Musician
1984); R.W. Wallace,
Writings.
The
and the Muses:
and P. Wilson
in P. Murray
music
theorist
ostracized?',
(edd.), Music
and A. Ford,
in the Classical
Athenian
Culture
249-67;
City
(Oxford,
2004),
of Mousik?
Music
and Wilson,
and the
in Murray
in Aristotle's
'Katharsis:
the power of music
Polities',
309-36.
Muses,
3 A. Ford
(n. 2), 314 (emphasis added).
4
Histoire
de l'?ducation
Cf. H.-I. Marrou,

dans

l'Antiquit?.

Vol.

1: Le Monde

1948).

This content downloaded from 161.116.100.129 on Thu, 2 Oct 2014 17:23:38 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Grec

(Paris,

90

WOERTHER

FR?D?RIQUE
If one

excludes

the brief

remarks

of Protagoras

in the dialogue

named

after

him,5

and those of Socrates in the Crito and Alcibiades,6 it is in the Republic and the Laws
that Plato describes, through the dialogues' characters, the task that falls tomusic in
the education

of

the

out the differences

of music
in the treatment
Before
setting
from
in which
Plato's
for the ways
view evolved
accounting
that concern
it is necessary
to consider
three basic questions

soul.

two dialogues
and
to the Laws,
the Republic
in the

Plato's

overall

view

of music

and

education:

at all in the education of the soul?What

does

one

Once

and

educate

why

by what means?
of conferring
power

the necessity

is it that music

have

should

any

on

the guardians

has

been

established,

interlocutors of the Republic attempt to define and describe the training which
will

guardians

In classical

receive.7

role

type of music does one use and why? Whom

fashion

Socrates

the art

assigns

of

the

the

gymnastic

to

the formation of the body and the art of music to that of the soul.8 Beyond this basic
training, the future guardians will receive higher instruction for the formation of their
as described

minds,
the

very

first

in Books

educational

6 and
influence

7. Yet
which

even

the

before

the

introduction
will

guardians
The word

receive

of

gymnastic,
concerns
the

the term
music.
translates
'music'
through
a large field - 'the art of the Muses'
in its entirety
including
Here
but also that of Aoyot
the art of rhythms
and harmonies,
('discourses').
art
and
we will only be considering
the
in the narrow
that
of
music
sense,
is,
rhythms
are
that
in
of
the
harmonies.
poets
type
poetry,
objects
Questions
particular
regarding
formation

of

piovoiKrj,
not only

which

their

character

covers

obliged to represent in their compositions

represent
treatise

them,

will

the Poetics

be
-

and

left
not

aside.9

Aristotle

in the chapters

and the way in which they are obliged to

takes
of

up

these

the Politics

in a distinct
questions
us here.
that will concern

5
re irnpieXovvrai
326a4-b6:
o? r' av KiOapiorai,
erepa roiavra,
Protagoras
oaxfrpoovvrjs
oiv
iireiS?v
Kal 07TO)S ?v o? vioi pirjSev KaKovpy
7rpos Se rovroi?,
Kidapi^eiv
piad aiv,
v iroir]p,ara
SiS?oKovoiv
?XX v av
v, els r? KiOapiopiara
7T0irjr v ?yad
pieXoiroi
oiKeiovodai
ra?s iftvxa?s
Kal rovs pvdpiovs re Kal ras ?ppbovias ?vayKat.ovGiv
ivreivovres>
r v iraiS
Kal evappioor?repoi
oiv, Kal evpvdpi?repoi
v, ?va rjpiep repoi re
yiyv?pievoi
re
oiv els ro Xiyeiv re Kal np?rreiv
iras y?p 6 ?ios rov ?vOp r?ov evpvdpiias
XprjOipioi
and deter
instill self-control
'The music masters
Selrai.
Kal evappioorias
by analogous methods
the young men from evil-doing. And when they have learned to play the lyre, they teach them the
on the lyre,
the lyrical, which
works
of good poets of another
sort, namely
they accompany
and melodies.
the rhythms
of the children with
the minds
they
By this means
familiarising
in
in themselves
and so more capable
and better adjusted
become more civilised, more balanced,
are essential
to the whole
of
whatever
adjustment
they say or do, for rhythm and harmonious
human
life', (trans. Guthrie)
6 Crito 50d5-el:
are speaking) AXX?
rois ne pi rr?v rov yevopiivov
(The laws of Athens
ov KaXto? irpooirarrov
ov
re Kal rraiSe?av
Kal
iv
rjpL v o? ?ttI
r?
irraiSevdiqs;
f?
rpo(f>r?v
reo oto oe iv piovoiKrj Kal yvpivaorLKjj
r
rovrcp reraypiivoi
rxarpl
v?pioi, rrapayyiXXovres
and
'Have you any [complaint]
naiSeveiv;
against the laws which deal with children's upbringing
to those of us laws which were insti
such as you had yourself? Are you not grateful
education,
education?'
and physical
tuted for this end, for requiring your father to give you a musical
(trans,
AXX? pirjv a ye
Alcibiades
106e4-6:
(Socrates addressing Alcibiades)
adapted from Tredennick).
Tt feat iy
o?Sa' el Si ri ipie XiXrjdev, elrri. "Epuades y?p Sr? ov ye Kar?
piepi?drjKas cr^e?ov
ov y?p Srj avXe?v ye r?deXes
Kal iraXaieiv
Kal Kidapi[,eiv
rr?v ipirjv ypapip^ara
pLV-qpLTjv
let me know. As
more or less the subjects that you learned. If Imissed
anything,
piadelv. T know
far as I recall, you learned to read and write, to play the cithara, and to wrestle;
you refused to
learn to play the flute'.
7
Rep. 2.376c7-8.
8
Rep. 2.376e2-L
9
Rep. 2.376e9-3.398b8.

This content downloaded from 161.116.100.129 on Thu, 2 Oct 2014 17:23:38 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

MUSIC

AND

EDUCATION

OF

THE

SOUL

91

The first point to be considered in regard to themusical education of the soul is the
mimetic

of music.

quality

Like

all other

such

arts,

as drawing,

and architecture, but also like nature itself, music

and

qualities
Because

human
has

music

of

imitation

harmonies

purification
is rejected

harmonies

used

suffer

in

of

same

the

and

tending
the warriors

maintained
courageous

and

fate:

and

poetry.

This

these

was

excluded
because
previously
to it.12 The
Ionian
listen
and

harmonies

they

temperate,

imitate

are

which
and
of

the
sounds

the

courage

also

and

ptaXaKat

x?Aa/oat

Kal

('loose'),14
the Phrygian

city. Only
accents
and

temperance

re

being

of
the

takes

in

place

One

of rhythms.
purification
and
mixolydian
straightaway:
syntonolydian.11
and
the type of poetic
threnodies,
composition
who

the

they defined

process

then

to promote
drinking')13
are the guardians
who
because

and

discourse

harmonies,

embroidery,

so by means
of rhythms
and harmonies.10
his interlocutors
seek to purify music

does

Socrates

for narrative

and
lamentation
grief
nor restraint
in those

funereal
courage

music

the same rules as those which were adopted when

by following
principles
two steps:

attitudes;
this property,

weaving,

is capable of imitating moral

of

group
are
These
that

the

expresses

it inspires
neither
harmonies

Lydian

('soft
ovfxrroTtKai
are not suited
for
and Dorian

a man
two virtues

who
of

are
is both

the man

who is philosophical by nature (Rep. 3.399a5-c4):

re
ras ?pptov?as,
?XX? Kar?XetTre
otSa,
iKetvrjv rr)v ?pptovtav,
r) ?v
e<j>r?v iyto,
Kal iv rr?orj ?tatto
TToXepttKrj TTp?Cet ?vros ?vSpetov
ipyaota
TrpeTr?vrojs ?v pttptfjoatro
re Kal
Kal aTrorvx?vros
l?vros rj ets
(f>6?yyovs
TrpootoStas,
r? etc rpavptara
r? eis Qav?rovs
rtva
iv Tr?ot rovrots
Kal Kaprepovvrojs
?XXr)v ovpt(f>op?v Treo?vros,
Trapareraypt?vojs
Kal ?XXrjv av iv elprjvtKjj re Kal ptr) ?talco ?XX3 iv eKOVota rrp?^et
?ptvvopt?vov
rr)v rvxrjv
ti rretdovr?s
re Kal
Kal vovderrjoet
?vroSy
rj et>xfj Oe?v r? StSaxfj
Seopt?vov,
rj rtv?
rovvavrtov
?XXco Seopt?vto rj StS?oKOvrt
eavr?v
Kal
rj pLerarretdovrt
irr?xovra,
?vdpojTTOv, r?
Kara
?k tovtojv
?XX? ot?(f>p?vojs re Kal
vovv, Kal ptr) vrrepr)<f>?vojs exovra,
TTp?Cavra
re Kal r? arro?atvovTa
iv rr?ot rovrots
Svo
Tavras
pterptojs
?yarrojvra.
Trp?rrovr?
atrtves
v, ooj^p?vojv,
eKo?otov,
evrvxovvr
?tatov,
Svotvxovvtojv,
?vSpetojv
?pptov?as,

Ovk

<f)6?yyovs

pttptrjoovrat

K?XXtora,

ravras

Xetire.

I don't know the harmonies,

I said, but leave us that harmony
that would fittingly
imitate the
or in any enforced business,
utterances
and accents of a brave man who is engaged
in warfare
or death or having fallen into some other
wounds
and who, when he has failed, either meeting
fortune with steadfast endurance
and repels her strokes.
in all these conditions
confronts
mishap,
in works of peace, not enforced but voluntary,
either trying
And another for such a man engaged
10
Rep. 3.401al-8.
11
as the 'phrygian
translation
'mode'
The usual
being rendered
<f>pvyiori, for example,
to any Greek word
which
in fact is a
in the text. This translation,
mode' - does not correspond
of O. Gombosi,
if one accepts
the comment
in the eyes of the musicologists
gloss, is incoherent
1949 and cited by
of Musicologists,
'The Greeks knew no modes',
Basel,
(uttered at the Congress
La Musique
J. Chailley,
Grecque Antique
[Paris, 1979], 105), and the paper on the 'mythe des
to the French Society of Musicology
in 1955. The method
modes
grecs' presented
by J. Chailley
'la terminologie
terms adopted
in this paper follows Chailley, who writes
of translating
the Greek
en grec, ce qui est d?j?
avec soin. Le mot
"mode" n'a aucun ?quivalent
doit ?tre auscult?e
tels que r? S piori
r?v?lateur. Le plus souvent, on trouve des adverbes ou adjectifs
substantives,
ou ? p,ei?oXvSios;
ind?ment que des traducteurs
c'est en voulant pr?ciser
trop z?l?s interpolent
ou encore traduisent par "mode" des termes dont le sens est tout
"le mode dorien ou mixolydien",
autre....
pr?cision
?ppiovia
seulement
12
Rep.
13
Rep.
14
Rep.

? la
m?ticuleux
? venir d'?tre particuli?rement
les traducteurs
On supplie
quant
eussent ?t? ?vit?s si rovos ?tait toujours traduit par ton,
des termes; bien des m?comptes
? S pios par "le dorien" (sans interpolation),
etc, et ceci ne vaut pas
par harmonie,
106).
pour le fran?ais' (La Musique
Grecque Antique,
3.387dl-388e4.
3.398e9.
3.398el0.

This content downloaded from 161.116.100.129 on Thu, 2 Oct 2014 17:23:38 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

92

WOERTHER

FREDERIQUE

of something
and imploring him
whether
it be a god, through prayer, or
- or
to another who
admonition
contrariwise
himself
is
teaching
yielding
or teaching
him or trying to change
his opinions,
and in consequence
petitioning
faring
to his wish, and not bearing himself
but in all this acting modestly
and
according
arrogantly,
and acquiescing
in the outcome.
Leave us these two harmonies
the enforced
and
moderately
the voluntary
that will best imitate the utterances
of men failing or succeeding,
the temperate,
the brave
leave us these, (trans, adapted from Shorey)
to persuade
a man,
by

somebody

and

The musical rhythms (pvdptot) that along with harmonies (?pptov?a?) and words
are in turn subject to the same distinction (Rep.
(Aoyot) form melody (jLte'Aos")15
3.399e8-ll):
?v r)pt?v etr] ro rrepl pvdptovs,
fErr?pievov y?p
Sr) rats ?pp^ovtats
StcoKetv ptrjSe TravroSarr?s
?XX? ?tov pvdptovs
ISetv Koopttov
?aoets,
etotv.
For upon harmonies
follow the consideration
would
nor great variety in the basic movements,
but must
orderly and brave, (trans. Shorey)
As

in

the

of

Socrates

there

harmonies,

courage

to Socrates

admits
and

contained
scraps

of

attitudes

Glaucon
detail

case

the

human

recommends

and moderation
that

he

of rhythms; we must not pursue complexity

observe what are the rhythms of a life that is

exists
and

here

too

certain

between
the
similarity
of rhythms,
though

types

not understand
in
this correspondence
have
whose
Damon,16
may
Areopagiticus
a metrical
with
of which
analysis
only a few
not concern
in the Republic
himself
with
the

does

consulting

'a study of rhythms,

complete
In any case Plato
survive.'17
does

avrovs
ptr) notKtXovs
re Kal
rtves
?vSpetov

15
Rep. 3.398dl-2.
16
an orderly
Cf. Glaucon
and Socrates on the question
of which
life (Rep.
rhythms produce
ovk exoj Xiyeiv.
v al
AXX? pi? Ai\
K'0n piiv y?p rpC ?rra
iorlv eiSrj ii;
3.400a4-b4):
e^>r?,
irXiKovr ai,
?v
oirep iv rots (f)66yyois r irr apa, odev al ir?oai ?ppioviai,
?aoeis
redeapiivos
, Kal
eiiTOipLi' rro?a Si otto?ov ?iov p,ip,rjpLara, Xiyeiv ovk ex<v. AXX? ravra
p,iv, r?v S* iy
vos ?ovXevoopieda,
s r? piavias Kal ?XXrjs kokios
Kal ^pe
rives re ?veXevBepias
p,er? Aapi
Kal rivas rois ivavriois
Xeirrriov pvdpiovs.
'Nay, in faith, I cannot tell. For
rrpirrovoai ?aoeis,
that there are some three forms from which
the steps are combined,
just as there are four in the
come all harmonies,
notes of the voice whence
and could tell. But
is a thing that I have observed
sort of life, I am unable to say.Well,
which are imitations
of which
said I, on this point we will
to illiberality, and insolence
take counsel with Damon,
too, as to which are the steps appropriate
or madness
or other evils, and what rhythms we must
leave for their opposites'.
(trans, adapted
from Shorey)
17
D. Delattre,
article on Damon,
in R. Goulet
des Philosophes
(ed.), Dictionnaire
Antiques
to F. Lasserre,
De
et
606. According
la Musique:
Traduction
Texte,
(1989),
Plutarque,
sur l'?ducation Musicale
dans la Gr?ce Antique
Commentaire
(Lausanne,
pr?c?d?s d'une ?tude
Damon
three basic
that form
the 'steps' (?aoeis),
among
posited
rhythms
are complex,
such as the enoplion,
and others are simple, such as the epic, the
of rhythms:
Scholars
have tried to reconstruct
Damon's
doctrine
iambic, and the trochaic.
D. Holwerda,
'De Artis Metricae
sunt AAKTYAOE
et ENOTIAIOZ',
Vocabulis
quae
in Honorem,
in KQMQIAOTPATHMATA,
W.J.W.
Koster
Studia
Aristophanea
R.E.H.
di
1967), 51-8; C. Del Grande,
(ed.) (Amsterdam,
Westendorp
'LTnsegnamento
in Enciclopedia
Sezione II: Lingua e Letteratura,
volume V: La Lingua Greca
Classica,
Damone',
to
nei mezzi d?lia sua espressione,
Tomo II : La Metrica
Greca (Turin, 1960), 216-29. According
son importance
E. Moutsopoulos,
the entity known as basis 'pourrait remonter ? Platon, mais
selon diverses combinaisons,
elle engendre
les
pour Platon est purement math?matique,
puisque,
La Musique
divers rythmes' (E. Moutsopoulos,
dans l' uvre de Platon
[Paris, 1959], 78). On the
n.s. 15
cf. V. Palmieri,
'Il Significato
M?trico
di BAZIZ?,
idea of 'steps' (?aoeis),
Vichiana,
del Ritmo en laM?sica
Arsis, Thesis, Ictus, Las Marcas
y en la
(1986), 3-24, and J.L. Moreno,
M?trica
Antiguas
1994).
(Granada,
1954),
which

67-8,
some

This content downloaded from 161.116.100.129 on Thu, 2 Oct 2014 17:23:38 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

AND

MUSIC

EDUCATION

OF

THE

objects of imitation of these rhythms and his account

subject.18
There
in the

is another

education
of

natural

have

the

deficiencies
also

which

way
of

the

to understand

the principle
of
and
the deficiencies

beings
ability

the mechanism

viz.

soul,

to

imitate

human

SOUL

93

remains imprecise on this

that allows
'homoeopathy'.
of objects

to play a role
to the
Compared
made
by craftsmen,
music

music

attitudes,

a supreme

possesses

usefulness which justifies its place in the education of the soul. Music
exercising

a particular

kind

of

beneficial

influence,

grace

namely,

is capable of
(evox^p^oovvq)

(Rep. 3.401d5-el):
eve/ca
iv ptovotKjj rpoc^rj, ort pt?Xtora
TXavKOJV, rovrojv
rjv 83iyoj,
KVptojr?rr]
o re
arrrerat
Kal ippojptev?orara
els to ivros rrjs ^vxrjs
pvdptos Kal ?pptovta,
Kal rrotet evoxrjptova,
i?v rts opdcos rpa(f>fj, et Se ptr],
avrrjs
(j>?povra rr)v evoxrjptoovvqv,
rovvavr?ov;
*Ap3 ovv,
KaraSverat

is it not for this reason, Glaucon,

inmusic
said I, that education
ismost
because
sovereign,
than anything
else rhythm and harmony
to the inmost
find their way
soul and take
it, bringing with them and imparting grace, if one is rightly trained, and
strongest hold upon
the contrary?
otherwise
(trans. Shorey)

And
more

through which music

The mechanism

influences the soul is not made

To

the philosopher's
and complete
clarify
a fragment
is
it
worth
closely,
considering

Plato.
more

account
of Damon

and

to examine

that

explicit by
this process

is preserved

in the De

M?sica

of Aristides Quintilianus. After having defined music and put forward the
principles of his musical theory, Damon considers in his second book the effects on
the

soul

fundamental

that

are

produced
for
discipline

by different
the education

types of music,
of the irrational

DK B7 = Aristides Quintilianus, De M?sica,

and
part

he

views
of

the

music
soul

as

the

(Damon,

2.14):

re ovk ov rjdos ?v re
"Ort y?p oV ?ptot?rrjros
o? <?)o?yyot ovvexovs
pteXcotS?as rrX?rrovo?
rratol Kal rots r)8r) Trpo?e?rjKOot Kal ivSoptvxovv
iC?yovotv,
iSrjXovv Kal o? rrepl A?ptwva
rtov
ore ptev tovs
iv y ovv rais vtt3 avrov
?pptov?ats,
<f>epopt?vojv (f>d?yyu>v
rrapaSeSopt?vats
eortv evpetv rjrot TrXeov?^ovras
ore Se tovs
rj ovS3 oXojs
?ppevas
rj irr3 eXarrov
drjXets
to
SrjXov o?? Kara
rj9os ipvxrjs eK?orrjs Kal ?pptov?as xpr}OLfJL V0^ar]?
rrapetXrjptpt?vovs,
in age the sounds of a
school showed that among children and those who are advanced
Damon's
a character which
fashion through resemblance
continuous melody
they don't have, or bring out
to
a character which
it is possible
that he transmitted,
is latent. With
regard to the harmonies
ones that dominate,
the sounds that are carried both masculine
and feminine
discover
among
of
So it is clear that for the character
that are in the minority,
and that are lacking altogether.
each soul there is also a useful harmony.19
18Lasserre
thus: 'l'impr?cision
voulue de cet expos? donne
the obscurity
l'impression
explains
?tait obscur, ou si diff?rent des notions de Platon et de ses contemporains
que le texte de Damon
en mati?re
la partie technique
et de m?trique
de rythmique
plus accepter
qu'on n'en pouvait
autrement
que comme une curiosit?'
(n. 17, 67).
19From the
have proposed
commentators
for the
which
reconstructions
purely hypothetical
as represented
in Plato, Aristotle,
and Aristides
content
doctrine
of Damon's
Quintilianus,
'd'abord la n?cessit? d'une ?ducation de l'?me par la musique,
D. Delattre
retains the following:
? la
un choix attentif des tonalit?s musicales
? adopter
(...) et ? bannir, pour mener
impliquant
en
de musique
vertu et d?tourner
des vices, et une s?v?re s?lection des instruments
qui les mettent
d'un syst?me de quatre
uvre, ainsi que l'adoption
types de gamme
(ou harmoniai):
lydien,
aux d?pens des premiers. Devait
les deux derniers modes
y
iastien, phrygien et dorien, privil?giant
en
sons
?
des
activit?s
les
chacune
imitant
aussi l'id?e fondamentale
?tre d?velopp?e
propres
que,
un
dans l'?me
et aux sentiments
humaines
provoque
chaque harmonie
qui les accompagnent,
musicale
donn?
il d?coule
D'o?
mouvement
par l'imitation
que le mod?le
correspondant.

This content downloaded from 161.116.100.129 on Thu, 2 Oct 2014 17:23:38 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

94

WOERTHER

FREDERIQUE
virtue

By

of

music
imitates
(opioi?rrjs)
same qualities
to the soul,

resemblance

in imparting

succeeds

those

certain
or

rather,

thus

and

qualities,
to judge

from

this

fragment, it imparts them to the person's character (rjOos).This principle, which we

call

to C.W

in reference

'homoeopathy'

M?ller's

of

study

the opioiov-opiol

principle

in pre-Platonic philosophy,20 derives in all probability from the idea of Pythagorean

origin21
that of

that

there

the

human

follows:

a person's

a certain
which

a mysterious

exists

soul.22
sounds

practical
consists
of

homoeopathic
and vocal
(<j>06yyoi)
become

activity

connection

The

harmony,

rhythm,

between

the world
can

mechanism
modulations

the object
of
and speech.

and

sounds
up

as

in respect

to

summed
Siai)

(rrpoo

a musical
The

of

be

pii?xr?ois (representation),
mimetic
elements

musically

of

harmony, rhythm, and speech are absorbed by the ifjvxh (soul), and more particularly
and when
they
(character),
they are heard,
and speech
imitative
the
conveyed
by
harmony,
rhythm,
at the same
Laws
and
The
time
revises
extends
the

rjOos

Republic;

also

the Laws

seeks

to be,

if not

the practical

stimulate

realisation

least the first step in the direction of such a realisation.23With

of

of

the education

Republic

in certain

the

soul

through

music,

the Laws

the

virtues

of

a model

in question.
the position

nevertheless

sketched

that

are

in

the

polis,

at

regard to the question

diverges

from

the

respects.

en sens inverse
et parvient
? les corriger en l'entra?nant
l'?me des mauvais
d?tourne
exemples
une ?tude des rythmes,
son discours
aussi dans
probablement
(...). Damon
d?veloppait
une th?orie ?thique,
il reste quelques
bribes
dont
(...). Enfin,
par une m?trique
compl?t?e
et m?trique,
cette th?orie musicale
? laquelle
devait accompagner
pythagoricienne,
d'inspiration
tout son sens' (Delattre
elle donnait
[n. 17], 605-6).
20
Denkens
C.W. M?ller,
Gleiches zu Gleichem. Ein Prinzip fr?hgriechischen
(Wiesbaden,
1965),
von "?hnlichkeit"
f?r
und "Verwandtschaft"
thus: 'bei dieser Bedeutung
xii, defines the principle
es
der Griechen
Denken
das vorphilosophische
nahe, auch den naturphilosophischen
liegt
zu Gleichem
einzordnen.
Hier wie dort wird der
in diesen Zusammenhang
Gleiches
Grundsatz
?ber eine
und Artverwandte
die das Gleiche
Kraft
eine besondere
Gleichheit
beigemessen,
und in dieser als Identit?t empfundenen
raum-zeitliche
Verbindung
hinweg verbindet
Trennung
und
l??t. Beide, Ahnlichkeitszauber
Art entstehen
eine Kausalit?tsbeziehung
sympathetischer
in dem, was Cassirer
vorsokratisches
Ursprung
-P?mzip, haben ihren gemeinsamen
opioiov-opioi
in der Gedankenverbindung
Gleichheit-Verwandschaft
Bewu?tsein"
das "mythische
nennt,
.
Zugeh?rigkeit-Identit?t'
21
as a Pythagorean,
it is worth
to regard Damon
to be customary
it used
Although
source expressly
connects
that school. The connection
him with
that no ancient
emphasising
cf. T. Cardini
has been doubted;
(1988) as cited by
(1989), and B. Gentili
(1969), A. Barker
avec les pythagoriciens
a bien en commun
de consid?rer
Delattre
que les
(n. 17), 602: 'Si Damon
il s'en distingue
des changements
in?vitablement
entra?nent
musicales
innovations
politiques,
et des affections
en ce qu'il ?tablit le lien de lamusique
de l'?me non sur une base
radicalement
et de l'exp?rimentation
sur un base empirique,
celle de la perception
(aisth?sis)
abstraite, mais
des genres musicaux,
de sorte que sa classification
harmoniai,
(peira) des diff?rentes musiques,
v?cue. Quoi qu'il
mais sur l'exp?rience
rythmes, etc, reposait non sur des a priori math?matiques,
en soit, l'aspect fondamentalement
continue ? para?tre une
de son ?thique musicale
pythagoricien
?vidence ? tous
22
Cf. Abert

modernes'.
les commentateurs
ist dieselbe
wie bei den
Lehre
der ganzen
(n. 1), 11: 'die Voraussetzung
der Welt der
das zwischen
n?mlich die Annahme
Bandes,
jenes geheimnisvollen
Pythagoreern,
besteht und jene wunderbaren
Seelenleben
T?ne und dem menschlichen
erzeugt,
Wirkungen
in der sittlichen Erziehung
Faktor
als den bedeutendsten
die Musik
in ihrer Gesamtheit
welche
auf
Einflu?
?bt einen bestimmten
lassen. Jedes Melos,
erscheinen
des Menschen
jeder Rhythmus
ohne weiteres der Sinn f?r
unsern Charakter
aus; umgekehrt wohnt dem sittlich-guten Menschen
inne'.
die richtige Art der Musik
23
sur
Cf. A. Laks, 'Prodige et m?diation:
esquisse d'une lecture des Lois', in D'une cit? possible,
sous la direction
de J.-F. Balaud?, Le Temps Philosophique
les Lois de Platon,
1995),
(Nanterre,
11-28.

This content downloaded from 161.116.100.129 on Thu, 2 Oct 2014 17:23:38 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

AND

MUSIC

First

of

the Laws

all,

OF

EDUCATION

the

presents

and

rhythms

THE

SOUL

95
of musical

harmonies

education

with much less precision than the Republic. In Book 2 of the Laws the Athenian
Stranger limits himself to the following comments (Laws 2.669c3-d2):
to
rrore rooovrov
coore
Trotrjoaoat
y?p ?v e/cefvat ye i^apt?prot?v
prjptara ?vSptov
au /cat
Kal pt?Xos iXevd?pojv
ovvdetoat
Xpc?pta yvvatKOJv Kal pt?Xos ?iroSovvat,
oxeara
ovS3 av pvdptovs
Kal ox^l^o. iXevd?ptov
SovXojv Kal ?veXevd?pojv
pvdptovs
rrpooapptorretv,
ert Se drjpi v
rots pvdptots,
arroSovvat
VTTodetoat pt?Xos rj A?yov
ivavr?ov
<j)OJv?s Kal
ravrov
ovk ?v rrore ovvdetev,
Kal Tr?vras
ojs ev Tt
?vdpc?TTOJv Kal opy?vojv
ifj?(f>ovs eis
jLttjLtou/xevat.

Ov

so far as to assign a feminine gesture and melody

to verses
the Muses would never blunder
for men, or to fit the rhythms of captives and slaves to gestures framed for free men,
composed
or conversely,
to assign to the rhythms a
after constructing
the rhythms and gestures of free men,
ever combine
or speech of an opposite
in a single piece the
the Muses
melody
style. Nor would
and noises of all kinds, by way of representing
cries of beasts and men, the clash of instruments,
a single object, (trans, adapted from Bury)
For

In sum, melodies,
to each

rhythms,
discussion

This

other.

and
will

speech must
be resumed

to and

correspond
in Book

7, where

be

correctly
the Athenian

adapted
assigns

to the elders the task of selecting the type of songs and dances that will be used in
the children,
that means
them or correcting
defective
whether
eliminating
as necessary.
At
the Athenian
this point,
between
songs
compositions
distinguishes
to their particular
that suit women
and those
and
that suit men
harmonies
according
educating

rhythms.24
But
the way

in which

the Laws

if one

understood

also

of musical

conceives

in relation

difference

fundamental

the manner

considers

education

presents

in which

Plato

introduces

a more

can only be

to the Republic. This difference

the notion

of

r)Sovr? (pleasure) as part of the anthropological aspect of the Laws. Elaborating the
institutions of this second-best city, which is defined by its closer alignment to the
realities
than

complex
irrational
however

the human
condition
than is the Republic,
the Laws
of conceiving
the Republic
with
the ramifications
reason
in which
with
the irrational
unities
coexists

of

does

part
diverse

of

soul

the

they may

is itself
be,

are

a composite
nevertheless

deals

more

of

human
of

practically
the

as
beings
soul. The

part
the manifestations
of which,
entity,
to the
in the last instance
reducible

pursuit of pleasure and the flight from pain, while reason manifests itself not in
regard to pleasure, but in regard to the good. Thus in Book 1 of the Laws
(644cl-645c8) a human being is compared to a davpta (puppet) which is subject to
both the pull of the golden thread of reason, precious but without strength, and the
iron

sinews

of

astonishing
can
iron

in

impulses.
reason
and

of

(the primary
in
effect,

convergence
children

young

education

irrational
forces

contradictory

has

sense

of

Just

because

non-reason,
Oavpta)

a human
human

in so far as

is the locus of these

being
can be prodigious
and
beings
harmony:
they attain
gold and

same
This
in the
direction.
pull
in the pleasure
for example,
which
in dance
the mature
citizen
feels in his joy, if his
and which
experience
in the
in the cycle
of choruses
he participates
been
when
successful,

between

the

certain
two

circumstances,

tendencies

occurs,

24
rrov
ovv Kal ro npos rrjv ?vSpeiav
ro Si) p,eyaXorrpenes
Laws 7. 802e8?11:
pirrov ?ppev
ro Si npos ro Koopiiov Kal o ^pov pi?XXov ottokXivov
s ov
OrjXvyeviorepov
(f>ariov efvGu,
ev re r
v?pito Kal X?yco. 'Now we may affirm that what is noble and of a manly
rrapaSoriov
is to be
while
rather to decorum
and moderation
inclines
is masculine,
that which
tendency
(trans, adapted from Bury)
regarded rather as feminine both in law and in discourse',

This content downloaded from 161.116.100.129 on Thu, 2 Oct 2014 17:23:38 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

96

WOERTHER

FR?DERIQUE

calendar of religious festivals.25 The conflict of being pulled in opposite directions

surmounted
If

when

the pleasure
that
a primary
assigns

the Republic

true

as

philosophers,
reestablishes
and

pleasure

the

an

largely

is a rational
experiences
pleasure.26
in so far as the
role to the rational
component
of the ideal city, possess
all power,
the Laws

guardians

in so far as

equilibrium

since

pain,

they

is

one

necessarily

a degree
to
of legitimacy
of human
the humanity

it accords
of

part

comprise

beings (Laws 5.732e4-7):

Treiov
pi?Xiora
Srj <f>voei ?vdp
rjSoval
uav
ov
s o?ov i?rjprrjodal
t,
?rexv
dvrjrov
'
p,ey ior ais

v
ro
Kal Xvrrai Kal iiridvpiiai,
i?
av?yKrj
re Kal
elvai
rais
orrovSais
iKKpepi?pievov

"Eonv

Pleasures,
pains, and desires are by nature especially
creature is, so to say, suspended
mortal
and dependent
Bury)
The

constitutive
role,

conducts

education

to children.

only

an

plays

as

First

parts

education

scientific

for

of

of

citizen's

the balance

musical

education

knows
pleasure

of

attention

considerable

pays

far as childhood, during which

the Laws

life.

music
music

dance,

Through
and
pleasure

and

the

which

pain

tends to grow lax.27On the other

citizen received during his childhood and which

hand,

In

as

gymnastic,
childhood

after

place
dialectic.

addressed

longer

with

along

take

towards

the

in which
is no

education
music,

every
(trans.

an
plays
the Laws

henceforth

pleasure
the manner

education

progresses

throughout
and reorients

this

all,
viewed

role

reestablishes

where

beings,

consequences
in effect,

Republic,
the essential

educational

continually

human

important
through music.

The
since

propaedeutic,
adolescence

of

bipolarity

entails

essential

human; and from these, of necessity,

by the strongest cords of influence,

to the notion

of

In so

pleasure.

there is neither reflective thought nor true opinion,

of pleasure
the sensations
only
and pain
that souls primarily

and
come

and
pain,
to have

because
their

it is in the domain
sense

of

virtue

and

of
vice,

education will consist of a regulated discipline of the irrational tendencies, that is, of
pleasures

and

By using

pains.

praise

and

blame

to habituate

young

to love what

souls

they should love and to hate what they should hate, education will make possible the
emergence of an irrational kind of virtue, one that is independent of reflective
thought.28
The manner

in which

better how music

and

harmonies

education

is envisaged

in the Laws

enables

us

to understand

is to be used in shaping the souls of children. Musical

have

the

same

mimetic

status

in the Laws

which

they

had

rhythms
in the

25 If
cannot be assuaged
the rational and irrational tendencies
the conflict between
spontane
a violence
that constrains
irrational
reason,
ously, the law intervenes
by imposing,
through
desires.
26 Laws
2.664e-665a.
27
as envisaged
If childhood
has an essential place in education
in the Laws, that is because
it is
'? l'origine d'une vertu des affects qui se prolonge
et se
dans l'?ge adulte, tout en s'estompant
a ?galement
son impor
d'ailleurs
de multiples
fa?ons au cours de la vie. L'enfance
corrompant
et sa port?e philosophique
tance comme p?riode de la vie, mais ce qui lui conf?re son originalit?
ce dont
elle est le lieu, ? savoir
le surgissement
d'une
certaine
vertu'
r?side dans
(A.
et
?tre philosophe?
'Comment peut-on
La notion platonicienne
de paideia
Castel-Bouchouchi,
n.
son ?volution de la R?publique
aux Lois', in Balaud?
(ed,
23), 65).
28When
in adults by an accord (ovpt^ovia) with reason,
this irrational virtue is supplemented
is distinct
from the irrational
it becomes
virtue (ovptrraoa
virtue
complete
?perrj). Complete
virtue of childhood,
it derives, to the extent that a reflective person will be able to
from which
account for the correctness
of his feelings.

This content downloaded from 161.116.100.129 on Thu, 2 Oct 2014 17:23:38 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

AND

MUSIC

they

Republic:29

OF

THE

that

follow

EDUCATION

are representations

(pLipLrjptaTa)

SOUL

97
norm

the moral

which

the

elders of the third chorus see fit to assign to them.30A proper regulation of praise and
blame

allows

encounter

to

them
the

habituate

to

souls

young

representations

pleasing

conveyed

when
pleasure
they
experience
as the Athenian
the music,

by

Stranger explains to Clinias in book 7 (798d6-e7):

?

T? ovv; Tots

ots iX?yoptev cos r? nepl rovs pvdptovs Kal

?ptrrpoodev X?yots Trtorevoptev,
Kal x^tpovojv ?vdpojrrojv;
*Httojs;
ptovotKrjv iortv rp?rrcov pttptrjptara ?eXrtovcov
s ?XXcos neos to ye Trap3 rjpttv S?ypta e^ov ?v etr?.
OvSapt
Ovkovv,
(f>apt?v, ?rraoav
ptrjxoLvrjr?ov ptr?xoLvr)v ottojs ?v r)pttv o? 7rat?e? ptrjre irrtdvptcootv
?XXcov pttptrjpt?rcov ?nreodat
Kara opxrjoets
rre?or?
rj Kara pteXcoS?as, ptrjre rts avrovs
rr?oav

?
?

rrpoo?ycov
-

navro?as

then, do we

Well,

still put our

matters

of rhythm
how do we stand?

and music

view at least remains

Our
We

rjSov?s;

assert,

desiring
tempting

trust in those

to copy

statements

of ours,

of the manners

different

models

them by the inducement

not only to prevent our children

be employed,
or singing, but also to prevent
in dancing
anyone
of pleasures
of all sorts, (trans. Bury)

a major
of musical
has undergone
education
conception
as
so
to
in
Laws
the
the
far
later
dialogue
employs
pleasure
Republic
nature
But
from
the imitative
of human
that departs
the Republic.
as the homoeopathic
mechanism
to assess
in which
order
the manner

well

in Politics

said that

or bad men? Or

must

The

education

we

in which

of good

unaltered.

that every means

then,

former

are imitations

generally

8.5-7,

described
Aristotle

it is necessary

above
follows
to consider

in force

remains
Plato

and
the

change
as part

from
from

from
of

the

a view

of music

as

in the Laws.

In

role

conceives

vocabulary

of musical
used

in the

Republic and the Laws to designate the different aspects of the entire scheme that has

29
ri Si Sr) ro KaXov xPV (f>?vai ox^jpia rj piiXos eivai
For example, Laws 2.654e9-655b2:
re Kal i'oois
Kal SeiXrjs iv rois avrois
iv rr?vois ixopiivrjs
TTore; &ipe,
?p'
avSpiKrjs fax^S
ir s, ore ye
Kal
Kal r? (j>diypiara ovpi?aivei
opioia r? re ox^piara
yiyveo?ai;
pirjSi r?
s ye,
KaX
piev Kal piiXrj eveoriv,
Xp piara;
eraipe. ?XX' iv y?p piovoiKrj Kal ox^piora
ore
evxpoov
ovorjs rr)s piovoiKr?s,
evpvdpiov piev Kal ev?ppioorov,
Trepl pvdpiov Kal app,oviav
ovk eoriv aneiKaoavra,
Si piiXos r) oxrjpa
?neiKa^ovoiv,
onep o? x?P?SiS?oKaXoi
opO s
eoriv
ro Si rov SeiXov re Kal ?vSpeiov
s
re, Kal opd
0^77/xa
rj piiXos
(f>6iyyeo6ai'
v /ca?a, r? r v SeiX v Se
'Well then,
e^et r? piev r v ?vSpei
TTpooayopeveiv
aloxp?.
soul is
of posture or of melody? Come, consider: when a manly
shall we define goodness
however
and utter
soul by troubles identical and equal, are the postures
beset by troubles, and a cowardly
even their complexions
ances that result in the two cases similar?
How
could they be, when
do exist in
and melodies
Well
differ in colour?
said, my friend. But in, fact, while postures
or
so that one can rightly speak of a melody
music, which deals with
rhythm and harmony,
one cannot rightly apply the choir masters' metaphor
or harmonious,
posture being rhythmical
to melody
and posture; but one can use this language about the posture and melody
well-colored
of the brave man and the coward, and one is right in calling those of the brave man good, and
v iorl r? irepl r?s x?Peta?
those of the coward bad'. Also Laws 2.655d5:
pupirjpiara rporr
are representations
of character',
'choric performances
(trans, adapted from Bury)
30
choices for
the appropriate musical
and make
The elders will be able to adjust the melodies
cf. Laws
wisdom
because
moral
education
they possess
(?vSpeia,
(<f>p?vqois) and courage
in regard
an especially fine sensibility
and have acquired
through their own education
2.659a4-5),
As the Athenian
to matters
of rhythms and harmonies
Stranger
7.802a-e).
(Laws 2.669b-670e,
that
that is experienced,
it is the moral criterion, not the pleasure
in Book 3 (699d-701b),
explains
guides

the choice

of music.

This content downloaded from 161.116.100.129 on Thu, 2 Oct 2014 17:23:38 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

98

WOERTHER

FREDERIQUE

been under discussion. A consideration of all the passages in both dialogues that treat
education

musical

to the following

leads

- The
objects represented by music

i/jvxr?
Further,

(soul),36most

qualities:

to an aspect
of
indirectly,
tat (sounds
and vocal

or

rrpoocoS

(type of life),33 rjdos (character),34 rporrot (dispositions),35

?ios

the

suppose

terms

these

of

are designated by terms that, in spite of their

reference,
directly
always make
of these terms
Kal
(??oyyot

nevertheless
diversity,
All
human
morality.

modulations),32

summary:31

of a morally
presence
are accompanied
by

(courageous),38

?vSpetos

that

being.37
to ethical

refer

Kooptios

(temperate),39

ooj<f>pojv

human

competent
adjectives

(orderly),40

?yad?s (virtuous).41

In both

the Laws

and

the Republic

these moral

imitates

music

qualities

by means

of

pt?Xos (melody),42 which is composed of ?pptov?a (harmony)43 and pvdpt?s

(rhythm).44 The Republic also introduces the notions of ?aoets (steps)45 and rrovs

are connected
to rhythm,
(foot)46 which
seems
to prefer
music
the Laws
the word

to designate
to the word

while
prjpta

the words

in a piece

of

X?yos41

Finally, the third term of thismechanism is the subject that undergoes the influence
of music. This subject is the^XQ
(soul) in both the Republic and the Laws,4*
one
in
the
in
passage
Republic the word rjBos (character)49 is used to
though

react to Plato's ideas

in chapters 5-7 of Book 8 of the Politics, does Aristotle

How,

and

music

about

questions: What
receives

this

its role

that music

and

education,

The

answer

to this question

he

by what

means?

soul,

says,

and more

through

music

raises

kind

of music

does

in education, Aristotle
that

precisely
we acquire

three

further

in the education of the soul?Who

What

to justify the role of music

the

affects

the soul because,

in education?

reasons justify the use of music

why?
In his first move

8.5,

influence.

of music's

the recipient

designate

it affects
certain

the

qualities

one

use

and

demonstrates

rjdos (character)
of character

of
(Pol.

1340a8-12).

^
rroto? rtves,
AXX? ptr)v art ytyv?pteda
(?>avepov ?t? 7toAAcl?v ptev Kal er?pcov, ovx r)KLOra
rrotet ras
/cat 8t? Tcov 3OXvptrrov pteXc?v ravra y?p ?ptoXoyovpt?vcos
iftvx?s ivdovotaortK?s,
rov rrepl rr)v ipvx'rjv rjdovs irados ior?v.
? S3 ivdovotaoptos

31
Laws
3.700a7-701b3;
2.654a9-671al;
7.522a2-bl;
4.424c-425a;
3.398cl-403c8;
Rep.
812b2-813a7.
7.798d7-804cl,
6.764e3-765al;
32
399c2-3
(in the latter passage
<?>06yyoi alone).
E.g. Rep. 3.399a7-8;
33
E.g. Rep. 3.399el0-ll;400a7.
35
34
7.798d9.
E.g. Laws 2.655d5;
E.g. Rep. 3.400b2; 401a8.
36
IS implied by the context.
E.g. Laws 7.812c3, where
i/^x7?
37
at Laws 2.655a9.
substantives
6 8etA?s" re Kal ?vSpeios
Cf. the adjectival
38
2.655a9
3.399elO-ll;Lav^
3.399c2-3;
E.g. Rep. 3.399a7-8;
39
3.401a8.
E.g. Rep. 3.399c2-3;
41
40
E.g. Rep. 3.400b2.
E.g. Rep. 3.399el0-ll.
42
Laws
2.654e4; 2.656c4; 2.660a7; 2.669b2.
3.400al,
2;
E.g. Rep. 3.398dl-2;
43
3.398e9; 3.399a5, 6; Laws 2.655a5; 2, 660a7; 7.802el.
E.g. Rep. 3.398d8; 3.398el;
44
2.669c6,
10; 3.400b4; 3.400c3; Laws 2.655a5; 2.656c4; 2.669b2;
3.399e9,
E.g. Rep. 3.398d8;
7, 8; 2.669d6; 7.798d8; 7.802e2.
46
45
3.400a5; 3.400b3.
Rep. 3.400a2; 3.400c2.
Rep. 3.399el0;
47
E.g. Laws 2.656c5; 2.669b2; 2.669c4.
48
E.g. Rep. 3.401d7; Laws 2.659d4; 2.659e6; 2.664b5; 7.812c3; 7.812c6.
49
Rep. 4.424d8.

This content downloaded from 161.116.100.129 on Thu, 2 Oct 2014 17:23:38 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

AND

MUSIC

EDUCATION

THE

OF

SOUL

99

are so affected
in
cf. 1340a7] is proved
r? rjdrj, are affected,
[i.e. that our characters,
the melodies
of Olympus
and not least by the power which
exercise; for beyond
of the soul.50
and enthusiasm
is an emotion
of the character
they inspire enthusiasm,
question
(trans, adapted from Jowett)

That

we

many

ways,

This passage suggests the first difference between Aristotle and Plato: that which
music influences is no longer thefax?] as a whole, but just one part of it. In the Ethics
rjOos designates that part of the desiring soul which, being irrational by nature,
a share

has

nevertheless

Aristotle

Secondly,

in reason

to the extent
that music

establishes

reason

it takes

that

into

account.51

the rjOos to acquire

allows

that

the virtue

is proper to it (?perr) r)0iKr?,ethical virtue), and that themusic which is employed in

as

education

consists,

intended

to habituate

manner

8.5,

(Pol.

Plato

already

young

in

claimed

people

in a discipline
in the
pain

the Laws,

to experience

pleasure

and

is

that
correct

1340al4-18):
etvai rr)v puovoiKrjv r v r)8i vy rr)v 8J ?perr)v ne pi ro ^atpetv
opO s
ovr
s
s ro Kpiveiv
Kal ovveSi^eoOai
Sei SrjXov?ri piav?aveiv
pirj?ev
rois imeiKioiv
rjOeoiv Kal rais KaXais rrpa?eoiv.

iErr el Si ovpi?i?rjKev
(f)iXeiv Kal puoeiv,
ro
xoipeiv
opd s Kal

Kal

in rejoicing and loving and hating rightly,

consists
and excellence
is a pleasure,
Since then music
to acquire and to cultivate as the power
there is clearly nothing which we are so much concerned
in good dispositions
and noble actions,
and of taking delight
of forming right judgments,
(trans.
Jowett)
The

on

similarity

this

with

point

the Laws

not

should

a deeper

obscure

coherence

between the Politics and the Ethics. First of all, the notion of eOos (habit) was
identified in the Nicomachean Ethics as the condition through which one acquires
ethical

As

virtue.

to dianoetic

opposed

virtue,

as

is acquired

which

result

the

of

instruction, ?perr) f)0iKr? (ethical virtue) is considered in effect the result of practice
and habitation
(?i/z.Mc. 2.1, 1103al7-18):
(H S' tjBikt)

?|

odev

Kal rovvopia

edovs

nepiyiverai,

comes

also its name

about as a result of habit, whence
the word for 'habit'.52 (trans. Ross-Urmson)

eox^Ke

piiKpov

irapeKKXivov

?no

rov

rjBovs.
excellence
Moral
a slight variation
The

Ethics

also

from

attests

to

the presence

of

and

pleasures

pains

is one

that is formed

by

in the definition

of

ethical virtue. If the latter is in effect a disposition acquired through the repetition of
specific actions, it really becomes virtue only from themoment when it is practised in
the

manner

same

that

pleasure
dispositions,
undertakes

50 Cf.

as an
is proper

inborn
to

disposition,
best
it. The

that

sign
and
is the pleasure
says Aristotle,
or vicious
actions
virtuous
(Eth.Nic.

of

is, without
any pain
a person's
virtuous

pain

which

2.2,

1104b3-8):

he

and

experiences

or

with

the

vicious
when

he

ort SuvaTat
e/c
ovv rovrcov
rrot?v rt ro rrjs
<f>avepov
p,iv
on rrpooaKr?ov
et Se rovro
Svvarat
rrotetv,
SrjXov
napaoKev?^etv,
ijjvxrjs r?dos r) ptovotKr)
iv avrfj rovs v?ovs. 'Enough has been said to show that music has a power of
Kal TratSevr?ov
of the young',
into the education
and should therefore be introduced
the character,
forming
also Pol.

8.5,

1340M0-13:

(trans. Jowett)
51 Cf.
: at? eorco <ro>
Eth. Eud. 2.2, 1220b5-7
ipvxrjs Kara irrtraKriKov
rjdos 'trovro'f,
then
reo X?yco Trot?rrjs.
'Consider
S3
?KoXovdetv
<rov
?X?yov
Svvapt?vov
pt?v,>
X?yov
reason belonging
to the irrational part of
with governing
to be a quality in accordance
character
is yet able to obey the reason', (trans, adapted from Solomon)
the soul which
52 Cf. the
parallel passage at Eth. Eud. 2.2, 1220a39-b5.

This content downloaded from 161.116.100.129 on Thu, 2 Oct 2014 17:23:38 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

FR?D?RIQUE WOERTHER

100

? ptev
rcbv e^ecov rr)v iTTtytvoptivrjv r)Sovr)v rj XvTrrjv rots epyots'
Ur?p,etov Si Set notetodat
rovrco x&?pcov oco<f>pcov} ? S3 ?xd?ptevos
tojv ocoptartKcdv
yap arrexoptevos
rjSovc?v Kal avroj
? Si
Kal o jLtevvnoptevcov r? Setv? /cat xa^POJV V i^7) Xorrovptevos ye ?vSpetos,
aKoXaoros,
XvTTovptevos SetAo?.
We must
abstains

on acts; for the man who

or pain that supervenes
take as a sign of states the pleasure
the man who is
in this very fact is temperate, while
and delights
from bodily pleasures
and he who stands his ground against things that are terrible and
at it is self-indulgent,
is a coward,
is brave, while the man who is pained
in this or at least is not pained
(trans.

annoyed
delights
Ross-Urmson)

This detour into the Ethics allows us to understand

view

for Aristotle's

of musical

it consists

education:

that is the basis

the mechanism
of habituating

young

to

persons

experience pleasure for the things that they are not yet capable of judging rationally
and

whose

on
or ill, they cannot
yet understand
good
as a result of the mimetic
of music.
feature
about

for

habituation

value,
comes

that music

possesses

that

and melodies

rhythms

constitute

their

own.53

in fact

This

affirms

Aristotle

tojv

?ptoicoptaTa

r)dojv (resemblances to characters) (Pol. 8.5, 1340al8-21):

3'Eart Se ?ptotc?ptara
(f>voets iv rois pvdptots Kal rots
pt?Xtora
rrap? ras ?Xrjdtv?s
en S3
Kal rr?vrcov rcov ivavr?cov
Kal oaxppoovvrjs
Kal
?vSpe?as
Trpa?rrjros,
?pyijs
Kal rcov ?XXcov r)dcov.

pt?Xeotv
rovrots

are very close to the actual affections,

which
and melodies
supply resemblances,
Rhythms
and of all the qualities
and also of courage and temperance,
contrary
anger and gentleness,
these and of the other qualities of character,
(trans, adapted from Jowett)

Thus, rhythms and melodies

is, to infer

that
ethical

from Aristotle's

dispositions,

whether

possess

of
to

the property of imitating r?dr?(characters),

own

the character
examples,
or vicious.54
Aristotle
virtuous

traits

that

seems

to

are

in fact

the

to

the

revert

mimetic value of music that was broached in the Republic and the Laws. But Aristotle
goes

farther

in so far

from
distinct
radically
can
characters
imitate
53

as he
the

affirms
pulpen

directly.55

that music

a is of

the other

Painting

and

is a pulpen o is (representation)
mimesis
musical
arts because
sculpture

represent

the

is

that
alone
signs

of

to control
the
the rational capacities
develop with age and they allow the individual
human beings do
Aristotle
in
to
the
on
own.
As
and
his
Laws,
opposed
pain)
(pleasure
passions
The
childhood.
education
their lives and musical
not stay children
only concerns
throughout
the
in orienting
consists
and whose function
rational norm, which in effect guides this education
remains exterior to the person only for a time; during that
and pains felt by children,
pleasures
But once the person has
in the choice of musical
time it is located
rhythms and harmonies.
does not
childhood
an adult, the ethical virtue that has developed
become
during the person's
it would be too fragile. Rather, ethical virtue will be sustained by right reason,
remain irrational;
norms to observe
virtue), which will offer the person the rules and
?perr) Siavor)riKr? (dianoetic
in regard to the passions.
54
Eth. Eud.
3.3,
in Eth. Nie.
1125b26-1126bl0;
is discussed
4.5,
7Tpa6r7)s (gentleness)
in Eth. Nie.
is analysed
3.6, 1115a4-10,
(courage)
1.22, 1192b23-38.
1231b5-26; MM
avSpeia
o <f>poovvr?(moderation)
Eud. 3.1,1228a26-1230a36;MM1.20,1190b9-1191a35.
\Ul?2\;Eth.
MM
1.21,
1119M8; Eth. Eud. 3.2, 1230a36-1231b4;
is studied in Eth. Nie.
3.10, 1117b23-12,
But

1191a36-b21.
55
The nature

in Greek by the word opioi pia, is discussed

of this musical
piipi^Gis, expressed
? propos de De Interpretatione
1, 16
'OMOIQMATA.
UHMEIA,
by J. P?pin ('EYMBOAA,
und
I. Band, Aristoteles
Werk und Wirkung.
in Aristoteles
a 3-8 et Politique
8, 5, 1340 a 6-39',
translates
pia as
J.Wiesner
1985,
seine Schule,
opioi
22-^-4), who
(ed.), Berlin, New York,
ne sont pas des
that 'les formes produites
and explains
par les plasticiens
'correspondance',
mais celles-ci
aux dispositions
morales;
vraiment
n'ont rien qui corresponde
?jnoi piara, elles
sur le corps.
naturellement
sont signal?es ? l'ext?rieur par les formes et couleurs qui se produisent

This content downloaded from 161.116.100.129 on Thu, 2 Oct 2014 17:23:38 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

AND

MUSIC

THE

OF

EDUCATION

101

SOUL

character by the intermediary device of figures and colours. The specific quality of
musical mimesis is expressed in the Greek text by the use of the term opioi pia
(resemblance). Aristotle explains that the visible objects which painting or sculpture
by way

produce

"En Si ovk eon

r
Kal xp?)piara
Figures

of

are not

imitation

ravra
6pLOi p,ara
v
v.
r)6

and colours

opioi

are not resemblances,

piara

8.5,

(Pol.

1340a32^1):

rjO v, ?XX? or?pie?a pi?XXov r? yiyv?pieva

but signs, of characters,

from Jowett)

(trans, adapted

but opioi
not mediated
the extent
that music
produces
representations,
to the music's
imitative
or pain
in listening
that one will
experience
pleasure
and pain felt in a real situation.
will be the same as the pleasure
and melodies

To

the soul to experiencing

education of the rjOos consists in habituating

when
is produced
and melodies
rhythms
that

In other

characters.

certain
are

types

rhythms

are

and melodies
to

which

those

correspond
education
makes

musical

words,

of

virtue

the

ox^piora

piara,

the pleasure

heard,

virtuous

attractive.

the

rhythms
Musical

and

these

types
By means

of
of

imitation it produces in the souls of auditors dispositions that are identical to those
which are imitated by the music's rhythms and melodies.56 For this reason it is
to choose

necessary

Since
to the

the

carefully

and

of melodies

types

rhythms

that will

be made

to young

available

music
type

necessary
implements

people.57
use of
makes

of music

which

character

likenesses,

they are made

of music
kinds

some
to accept
a primary
distinction

among

auditors

to listen
and

reject

harmonies,

to. To
others.
one

will

be

affected

according
it is
people,
Aristotle
For this purpose
that relies on the type of

educate

young

affection that they create in the souls of auditors (Pol. 8.5, 1340a40-1340b5):
ore aKovovras
Kal pir) rov
v SiiorrjKe
r v
?XX s SiarideoOai
(f>vois,
?ppiovi
y?p r)
s Kal
avr
?XX?
ivias
v,
piev
irpos
rip
eKaorrjv
oSvpriK
exeiv
irpos
rp?irov
s
s pi?XXov, o?ov irpos rr)v pii^oXvSiorl
irpos Si r?s piaXaK rip
KaXovpiiviqv,
ovveorrjKOr
s pi?Xiora npos eripav,
s Si Kal KaOeonrjKOr
o?ov irpos r?s ?veipiivas,
piio
rr)v Si?voiav,
S* r) (f>pvyiori.
v, ivdovoiaoriKOVS
o?ov SoKei TTOieiv r) S piorl pi?vr] r v ?ppiovi

Evdvs
avrov

The
of
the
the

affected by each. Some

nature of harmonies
differs, and those who hear them are differently
like
the mind,
others enfeeble
them make
[men] sad and grave, like the so-called mixolydian,
to be
a moderate
and settled temper, which appears
relaxed ones, another, again, produces
the Phrygian
(trans, adapted from Jowett)
inspires enthusiasm,
peculiar effect of the Dorian;

et peintres
finiront
des signes naturels,
par imiter
sculpteurs
par le truchement
(...) Ainsi,
Il en va tout
sans toutefois parvenir ? en r?aliser des ?ptotc?ptara.
les sentiments,
indirectement
et que
morales
les dispositions
dont on a vu qu'elle imite directement
de la musique,
autrement
elle en offre, elle, des ?ptotc?ptara. C'est ? ?tablir cette diff?rence
penser)
(de ce fait, peut-on
sur les arts visuels, ainsi d'ailleurs
voulait en venir dans cette apparente
digression
qu'Aristote
de ce que la
On y trouvera confirmation
les interpr?tes modernes.
compris
que l'ont g?n?ralement
r?ductible ? celle d'image;
car, bien que relay?e, l'imitation
notion ?'optoiojpta n'est pas partout
ce
d?nu?e de valeur d'illustration;
des sentiments
par le peintre ou le sculpteur n'est nullement
lui reproche, mais bien de ne pouvoir
n'est d'ailleurs
agir sur les dispositions
pas ce qu'Aristote
en raison de cette correspondance
le peut, pr?cis?ment
alors que lemusicien
privil?gi?e,
morales,
et qui s'exprime par le nom ?'optoicopia
ne la produit,
(p. 28).
qu'il exploite plus qu'il
56
and
to the harmonies
the soul is related
notes at the end of the chapter,
As Aristotle
rhythms.
57
the works of Polygnotus
to observe
For the same reason young people must be encouraged
the best rjdr),
rather than those of Pauson. The former is an ethical painter, that is, he represents
and Pauson at
of Polygnotus
the opposition
also mentions
endowed with ethical virtue. Aristotle
1448al-9.
Poetics!,

This content downloaded from 161.116.100.129 on Thu, 2 Oct 2014 17:23:38 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

102

WOERTHER

FREDERIQUE

In chapter 7 of Book 8 of the Politics, Aristotle divides melodies into three kinds,58
rjdiK? (ethical), rrpaKTiK? (practical) and ivOovoiaoriKa (enthusiastic), each of
which

to a particular
harmony.
a role,
and
among
play

corresponds
harmonies

ethical

With
the

to education,
only
regard
the Dorian
ethical
harmonies

the
is

foremost (Pol. 8.7, 1342M2-17):

cos oraotptcor?rrjs
Kal pt?Xtora
Si rrjs Scoptorl
rr?vres ?ptoXoyovotv
ovorjs
rjdos
Tlepl
Kal xpr)vai
3/Ert Si irrel to pt?oov ptev tojv VTrep?oXcov irratvovptev
?vSpe?ov.
ixovorjs
on
StcoKetv (f)apt?v, r) Si Scoptorl ravrrpv e^et rr)v <f)VOtvrrpos ras ?XXas ?pptov?as,
<?>avep?v
r? Acopia pt?Xrj np?ire? TraiSeveodai
pt?XXov ro?s vecor?pois.
we say that the extremes
And whereas
is the gravest and manliest.
All agree that the Dorian
is a mean between
the other
and whereas
the Dorian
should be avoided and the mean followed,
melodies,
it is evident
that our youth should be taught the Dorian
harmonies,
(trans, adapted
from Jowett)

For his ideal city in the Republic Plato rejected all harmonies apart from the Dorian
and
allows

harmony

is rejected

because

uses the same distinction

Oi

to be even more

but Aristotle
here seems
the Phrygian,
because
the Dorian
harmony,
only

it imitates

it is connected

with

severe

courage,
and

frenzy

than

his

he

teacher:

while

the Phrygian
Aristotle
enthusiasm.59

in regard to rhythms (Pol. 8.5, 1340b8-10):

o? Si KivrjrtKOVy Kal rovrcuv

ptev y?p rjdos exovot
oraoiptc?repov
ras Ktvijoeis
o? Se iXevde picor? pas.

o? ptiv

(f>opriKcor?pas

?xovot

Certain
rhythms have a character of regularity,
have a more vulgar, others a nobler movement,

of motion,

others

(trans, adapted

and of these
from Jowett)

latter again,

some

Although Aristotle does not say so explicitly, in view of his preceding statement on
it seems that the rhythm which is most useful for the
harmonies and melodies
education

of

young

people

is the one whose

character

is regular.

The passages of the Politics that have been cited allow us to affirm that at every key
point inAristotle's account of the educational influence of music the word fjdos plays
a major

role.

It refers

to:

the quality of the desiring part of the soul as itwas defined in the Ethics and which
is influenced by music;

character

the different
and

the different

which

harmonies

characters

traits which

which

the character which education

means

can

music

represent

by means

of

the rhythms

the music;

constitute

and

harmonies

rhythms

have;

is supposed to bring about in young listeners by

of music.

a person's
education:
of musical
account
sum up Aristotle's
of the mechanism
rjdr]
means
and
of
the
in
music
have
rhythms
by
(resemblances)
(characters)
?ptoicoptara
its particular
has
and harmonies
of
these
Each
harmonies.
rjdos which
rhythms
are heard.
and harmonies
the rhythms
that rjdos when
the soul with
imbues

To

Three
Aristotle's

in conclusion.
First,
points
of
the education
Politics

'homoeopathic'
58
Pol.
59
Pol.

8.7,
8.7,

mechanism

which

in Plato's
the

soul

presupposes

as in Book
and Laws
Republic
comes
about
by virtue
by music
a kind
whose
of music
rhythms

1341b32-34.
1342a32-bl2.

This content downloaded from 161.116.100.129 on Thu, 2 Oct 2014 17:23:38 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

8 of
of
and

MUSIC AND EDUCATION OF THE SOUL

harmonies
two

authors

possess

a mimetic

property.

whose

purposes

and

Second,
are very

aims

beyond
different,

the continuity
the manner

education is envisaged by both depends on an anthropological

the role of pleasure
the citizens
which

in the human
of

the Laws

soul

will

be

103
of

in

this model

in which

musical

point: Plato's view of

had

consequences
important
educated
the entire
during

for

the manner

course

of

their

in
lives.

Third, the last chapters of the Politics make clear the great care with which Aristotle
appropriated

Plato's

for musical

scheme

education

in

the Republic

and

Laws.

In

reorganising that scheme around the central concept of rjOos,which he defined in the
Ethics,

Aristotle

which

he

succeeded

integrated
and
reappropriation

into

in giving
own

his

resystemisation

a coherent
systematic
of the

interpretation
set of views.
Platonic

of
This

inheritance

traditional

elements

same

process
of
by means

of
the

concept of rjOos is also at work if one considers the political value of the term.
Centre Jean P?pin, CNRS (Villejuif France)

FR?D?RIQUE

WOERTHER

frederiquewoerther

This content downloaded from 161.116.100.129 on Thu, 2 Oct 2014 17:23:38 PM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

@y

ahoo.

fr