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Music
beyond Ethics
by
ALBRECHT RIETHMULLER
Throughout
and
is a
The two conflicting concepts underpinning music, present since Greek antiquity?ethics
and enjoyment?are not recognized on equal terms.While audiences of both elite- and
popular culture allow that enjoyment is one ofmusic's central features, a vast majority
of music
the disassociation
between music
and morals.
refinesmorals
Adoucit
quoted opinions, one is right to question whether Flaubert himself was convinced of the
The quote itself has at its core the proximity of
ennobling power of theMarseillaise.
1
See A. Riethmuller,
"Stationen des Begriffs Musik"
(1985), Anndherung
and F. Hentschel
(Stuttgart, 2007), pp. 11-45. The Dictionnaire
or montage
of quoted statements rather than definitions.
Itwas written before
M.
Custodis,
an Musik,
ed. I. Bernds,
ismore of an assemblage
1880.
Archiv fur
Musikwissenschaft, Jahrgang65, Heft 3 (2008)
? Franz SteinerVerlag, Stuttgart
170AlbrechtRiethmuller
and ethics. Flaubert's model is not from an operatic or symphonic masterpiece,
as could be expected, but is a national anthem?a highly symbolic song, as simple as
it is popular, a true example of musica politica, which throughout history and together
music
education2 was indeed the central battlefield in the alliance between music
and morals. We do not know how his annotation on music satwith his readers at the end
with music
particular, with those aspects dealing with its inner functioning. Plato mainly addressed
this topic in his political writings Politeia and Nomoi. One generation later,Aristotle
clearly states at the beginning of book iii of his Politica (1337 a 10) that the legislator,
ized in the role itplays inman's existence and in its use in education within the state,
or, the power of music's effects. In a word, the doctrine assumes thatmusic imitates,
represents, and expresses "characters" (rjOrj) in its scales and rhythms, throughwhich
it then forms, educates, and ennobles (i.e. refines) the character of man. (Commonly,
translated intomodern languages by another Greek
theGreek term "ethos"?f\Qoq?is
that
fulfills
these goals is considered valuable, useful, and
word, "character.") Music
ethical, whereas melodies and rhythms thatdo not are deemed injurious. For twenty-five
centuries this belief has been subjected to a myriad of representations in ever-chang
ing variations, parameters, and paradigms. All moralistic views of music and western
conceptions of ethics inmusic have their roots in this early doctrine. Neither church
2
Cf. W. D. Anderson,
Ethos
and Education
1966).
(Cambridge, Mass,
3
Cf. A. Neubecker,
Altgriechische Musik
4
"Die Musiksoziologie
Cf. A. Riethmuller,
i (Laaber,
Handbuch
der Musikwissenschaft,
in Greek Music:
The Evidence
of Poetry
and Philosophy
(Darmstadt,
1977), pp. 18f and 130f.
in: Die Musik
des Altertums
des Aristoteles,"
1989), pp. 216-37.
in:Neues
Tyrannical and fundamentalist state systems, regardless of how perverted they are,
hold the ethical concept ofmusic in particularly high esteem; democracies are less apt
to rely on itdue tomaintaining freedom of artistic expression. Those systems requiring
an adherence to the ethical character ofmusic are often prepared to forbid types of so
called unethical music. This has occured in state and church structures from ancient and
medieval
manifested
tion between music and its supposed ethical character was not his intention.Nietzsche
placed music, to some extent, "beyond good and evil" in his later years.5 And among
the dandies and bards offin de siecle European decadence one finds indications for a
renunciation of ethics inmusic. Despite these instances of revolt, mainstream music
ology has seen no reason to doubt, criticize, or re-evaluate the original tenet.
Hermann Abert referred to thosewho rejected an affiliation between music and ethics
as "ancient Greek formalists." The subtitle "A Contribution to theAesthetics ofMusic
in Classical Antiquity" of his dissertation Die Lehre vom Ethos in der griechischen
In
(1899) reflects his awareness of the deep schism in aesthetics?between
halts- and Formaldsthetik?in
the second half of the nineteenth century and his active
involvement in this critical debate. He points out the deplorable lack of scrutiny on the
Musik
less completely while writings on ancient Greek materialism are almost entirely lost; of
the dozens of books his powerful rival Democritus wrote, only a few fragments exist.
5
Bose,
6
Cf. A. Riethmuller,
"Nietzsches
Zweifel am Nutzen der Ethik fiir die Musik
(Jenseits von Gut und
in: Intermedialitdt,
ed. G. Schnitzler and E. Spaude
? 255),"
(Freiburg i.Br., 2004), pp. 373-81.
in der griechischen Musik
H. Abert, Die Lehre vom Ethos
1899), p. 39.
(Leipzig,
172 AlbrechtRiethmuller
Power structures throughout history, however, not mere chance or the arbitrary caprice
of fate are responsible for this state of affairs.
Although scholars often quote Abert (most people are unable to obtain the original
Greek texts), themajority ignore the formalists' text sources altogether. Up to today
musicologists, including ancient Greek music specialists, inquire into the one and, for the
most part, ignore the other. Justhow little attention the texts of the so-called formalist
excellent source catalogue
group have received is illustrated inThomas J.Mathiesen's
forRISM (B XI, 1988); whether intentional or not, the formalists are excluded.7 The
relevant texts are also not included inAndrew Barker's two-volume English translation,
Greek Musical Writings (Cambridge University Press, 1984 and 1989),8 one of today's
prominent collections. It is as thoughwe still live under patristic patronage?opponents
are practically censored, declared alien to thefield, or brandmarked as non-experts. Eth
ics committees seem to pop up everywhere nowadays. Are experts forunethical musical
have read the book and some do not even know of the author's
existence.
III. Denial
is the general editor of the book series Greek and Latin Music
Theory (Uni
Conversely, Matheisen
source material, edited and published
Press) inwhich D. D. Greaves, using additional
versity of Nebraska
in 1986.
her translation of Sextus Empiricus's
Adversus musicos
8
are considered.
From
Neither Philodemos's
De musica nor Sextus Empiricus's
Adversus musicos
12 lines are translated. They do not represent the arguments of Sextus
i, p. 30, a mere
on Music
but refer to views of the Pythagoreans.
is translated
Only the short Hibeh Papyrus
i, pp.
184f.).
melody,
emotions, the human body, dance halls, discotheques, the techno scene, even sexual
energies freed by certain rhythms.Only by way of ethical sublimation have austere and
rigorous theorists tolerated sublime modes of pleasure to be a part of sacred, folk, and
artmusic. The unreconciled dichotomies of art and entertainment and of classical and
popular music bears witness to the persistence of the conflict. The fight against hedone
(enjoyment) as the aim ofmusic reaches back to Plato, and it is precisely this conflict,
sociologically no less important than aesthetically, thatprompted theminority status of
the opponents of "ethics inmusic." Disciples of the ethical doctrine viewed certain types
ofmusic (inmedieval times,musica lasciva) as devilish, condemning theirperpetrators
to thewhipping-post, and in the early nineteenth century the accelerated waltz became
a matter of concern for the inspector ofmoral customs. Due to the fact that "music as
enjoyment" falls short of being a needful or useful force in life and society, Abert went
9
De musica,
ed. I. Kemke
Philodemos,
(Leipzig,
versus musicos
vi
of
Adversus
(Book
mathematicos),
und Erbauung,
174 AlbrechtRiethmuller
on to assign the formalists as the founders of a purely aesthetic theory ofmusic,11 in the
sense of a consequential aesthetic conception of artistic autonomy.
3. The most striking aspect of Sextus Empiricus's Adversus musicos is his application
of the aporetic method of ancient skepticism tomusic?a
unique exercise in all ofmu
sic history. Differing from those who dogmatically have tried "to show thatmusic is a
subject not necessary for happiness, but harmful rather,and to prove this both by finding
faultwith the statements made by themusicians and by claiming to refute their leading
arguments," Sextus Empiricus dispelled music theorists' principal assertions {dpxiKcti
examples that, deal with the significant role of the emotions and that question whether
trainedmusicians possess more judgement and a deeper understanding of or feeling for
music than ordinary people (iSicoreig). As can be expected, his arguments deny music's
ability to improveman ethically or transformhis character for the better. He doubts that
certain kinds ofmelodies
strike one against another, a crash is similarly produced (just as when a millstone is
turned round or hands clap), in the same manner, some of themele of music (ret Kara
juovcjiKrjv jueln) are not by nature (ov <j>vaei) of one sort and others of another sort but
are presumed so to be by us."16 One should keep thesewords inmind when reading texts
included, are
pertaining to the theory of ethos inmusic. Many individuals, musicologists
still inclined to hear the epiphany of the gods when juxtaposing their ethical ideas onto
music. Under the auspices of "art religion," sacred and secular music of the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries were considered in thismanner. Associations of every color and
kind were superimposed onto music. These opinions (S6%ai) and convictions based on
arbitrary assumptions would be called ideologies today. They were based on that certain
type of symbolism referred to by Sextus Empiricus as superstition.
11
H.Abert,
op. cit., p. 43.
Sextus Empiricus, Adversus
13
Cf. ibid., vi, 30 and 36.
14
Cf. ibid., vi, 29.
15 Cf.
18.
ibid.,vi,
16
Ibid., vi, 15, transl. by D.D.
12
mathematicos
Greaves,
vi, 4-5,
transl. by R.G.
141 and
Bury.
143.
end
Richard Wagner's
antisemitic writings do not, diplomatically speaking, show him in
an ethically favorable light. Two weeks after having been confronted in the classroom
with the initial paragraphs ofDas Judentum in derMusik (1850, second edition 1869),
a young musicology student declared that she could no longer bear to listen to Tristan
and Isolde. Unable to separate Wagner's convictions and behaviors from his musical
creativity, she could not fathom the coexistence of his musical genius and this character
flaw. The fairlywidespread linkage between the two is no doubt dependent on the cele
brated, nonetheless precarious, interface between biography and work. Or it subcon
sciously rests on the irrational fear that someone who publishes antisemitic pamphlets
would also compose antisemitic music, which leads to yet another common, erroneous
assumption about artists and theirwork. To contend that antisemitic notes exist is as
preposterous as believing philosemitic ones do. But ifnotes are unable to express this,
then the concept that sounds in and of themselves are ethical begins to totter.
A German proverb says: "Wo Musik ist,da lass' dich ruhig nieder, /bose Menschen
singen [kennen] keine Lieder" (where music is, you may abide, / evil people do not
sing [know] songs). But we have to agree thatHitler and Stalin, despite theirwicked
natures, were both music lovers, just as millions of listeners and amateurs are. Most
likely, they enjoyed music as all others do, yetmusic was unable to transform them into
better individuals or hinder them from their crimes. Even the SS had itsown Liederbuch.
But the proverb alludes to something else: in order to be a good person, you yourself
have to sing, not just listen.While it is true barking dogs do not bite, one cannot sing
continually every day of one's life.But if the emotions excited by music actually could
empower man to improve ethically, one would have to assume that two countries so
proud of theirmusical tradition reaching from Bach, Mozart, and Haydn to Beethoven,
Schubert, and Brahms would have benefited from it.Or to put itmore bluntly, if the effect
ofmusic was ethical at all, then the countries producing so many musical masterpieces
for two centuries, Germany and Austria, could hardly have organized and carried out the
Holocaust. Seeing Dr. Goebbels in a propaganda film shaking hands with Furtwangler,
his star conductor, after a performance of Beethoven's Ninth in a hall festively adorned
with the swastika leaves one with second thoughts.All thewhile, theNazis never tired
of stressing the ethical nature ofmusic.
To doubt the ethical qualities of music by no means diminishes, for example, the
important efforts and remarkable improvenents music therapy has been able to achieve
with autistic children. But thismedical assistance, helping individuals in some cases to
react to a few sounds, lies far beyond music as an art form, centering rather on music
as a trigger for emotions. Thus, the use of music in therapy is an ethical act without
proving thatmusic has ethical powers. One may actually disavow an inherent bond
between music and goodness or reject the unprovable belief thatmusic as such can
influence human character for better or worse for ethical reasons. When scholars play
unwittingly with these emotional issues, one should at least cast a wary glance, which
176 AlbrechtRiethmuller
is not to say that one should scold the poets for doing so. At least the best ones count
both sides of the coin, as inMeasure for Measure
(iv, 1): "Music oft hath such a charm
/To make bad good, and good provoke to harm."