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TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S
A R C W E L D I N G ..................................................................................................................... 1
Arc-Welding Fundamentals ................................................................................................................... 3
Basic Welding Circuit .......................................................................................................................... 3
Arc Shielding ........................................................................................................................................ 3
Nature of the Arc ................................................................................................................................. 4
Arc Welding.............................................................................................................................................. 5
Electroslag Welding............................................................................................................................. 5
Fluxed-Core Arc-Welding .................................................................................................................. 5
Gas Metal-Arc Welding....................................................................................................................... 5
Plasma Arc Welding ............................................................................................................................ 6
Plasma Arc Cutting.............................................................................................................................. 6
Plasma Arc Cutting Advantages ................................................................................................... 6
Rapid Cutting Speeds...................................................................................................................... 6
Plasma Arc Cutting Applications .................................................................................................. 7
Plasma Arc Cutting Economics...................................................................................................... 7
Plasma Arc Cutting Technical Considerations ............................................................................ 8
Plasma Arc Cutting Environmental Concerns ............................................................................ 9
Shielded-Metal Arc Welding.............................................................................................................. 9
Submerged Arc Welding .................................................................................................................... 9
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding ................................................................................................................ 9
Arc-Welding Fundamentals
The Lincoln Electric Company, 1994.
Arc welding is one of several fusion processes for joining metals. By applying intense heat, metal at the joint
between two parts is melted and caused to intermix - directly, or more commonly, with an intermediate molten
filler metal. Upon cooling and solidification, a metallurgical bond is created. Since the joining is an intermixture
of metals, the final weldment potentially has the same strength properties as the metal of the parts. This is in
sharp contrast to non-fusion processes of joining (i.e. soldering, brazing etc.) in which the mechanical and
physical properties of the base materials cannot be duplicated at the
joint.
In arc welding, the intense heat needed to melt metal is produced by
an electric arc. The arc is formed between the actual work and an
electrode (stick or wire) that is manually or mechanically guided
along the joint. The electrode can either be a rod with the purpose of
simply carrying the current between the tip and the work. Or, it may
be a specially prepared rod or wire that not only conducts the current
but also melts and supplies filler metal to the joint. Most welding in
the manufacture of steel products uses the second type of electrode.
The basic arc-welding circuit is illustrated in Fig. 1. An AC or DC power source, fitted with whatever controls
may be needed, is connected by a work cable to the work piece and by a "hot" cable to an electrode holder of some
type, which makes an electrical contact with the welding electrode.
An arc is created across the gap when the energized circuit and the electrode tip touches the work piece and is
withdrawn, yet still with in close contact.
The arc produces a temperature of about 6500F at the tip. This heat melts both the base metal and the electrode,
producing a pool of molten metal sometimes called a "crater." The crater solidifies behind the electrode as it is
moved along the joint. The result is a fusion bond.
Arc Shielding
However, joining metals requires more than moving an electrode
along a joint. Metals at high temperatures tend to react chemically
with elements in the air - oxygen and nitrogen. When metal in the
molten pool comes into contact with air, oxides and nitrides form
which destroy the strength and toughness of the weld joint.
Therefore, many arc-welding processes provide some means of
covering the arc and the molten pool with a protective shield of gas,
vapor, or slag. This is called arc shielding. This shielding prevents or
minimizes contact of the molten metal with air. Shielding also may
improve the weld. An example is a granular flux, which actually
adds deoxidizers to the weld.
Figure 2 illustrates the shielding of the welding arc and molten pool
with a Stick electrode. The extruded covering on the filler metal rod,
provides a shielding gas at the point of contact while the slag protects the fresh weld from the air.
The arc itself is a very complex phenomenon. In-depth understanding of the physics of the arc is of little value to
the welder, but some knowledge of its general characteristics can be useful.
Surface Tension Transfer - a drop of molten metal touches the molten metal pool and is drawn into it by
surface tension.
2.
Spray Arc - the drop is ejected from the molten metal at the electrode tip by an electric pinch propelling it
to the molten pool. (Great for overhead welding!)
If an electrode is consumable, the tip melts under the heat of the arc and molten droplets are detached and
transported to the work through the arc column. Any arc welding system in which the electrode is melted off to
become part of the weld is described as metal-arc. In carbon or tungsten (TIG) welding there are no molten
droplets to be forced across the gap and onto the work. Filler metal is melted into the joint from a separate rod or
wire.
More of the heat developed by the arc is transferred to the weld pool with consumable electrodes. This produces
higher thermal efficiencies and narrower heat-affected zones.
Since there must be an ionized path to conduct electricity across a gap, the mere switching on of the welding
current with an electrically cold electrode posed over it will not start the arc. The arc must be ignited. This is
caused by either supplying an initial voltage high enough to cause a discharge or by touching the electrode to the
work and then withdrawing it as the contact area becomes heated.
Arc welding may be done with direct current (DC) with the electrode either positive or negative or alternating
current (AC). The choice of current and polarity depends on the process, the type of electrode, the arc
atmosphere, and the metal being welded.
Arc Welding
Arc welding is a process utilizing the concentrated heat of an electric arc to join metal by fusion of the parent
metal and the addition of metal to joint usually provided by a consumable electrode. Either direct or alternating
current may be used for the arc, depending upon the material to be welded and the electrode used.
The various forms of arc welding can be reviewed here:
1.
Electroslag Welding
2.
Fluxed-Core Arc-Welding
3.
4.
5.
6.
Electroslag Welding
Electroslag Welding (ESW) deposits the weld metal into the weld cavity between the two
plates to be joined. This space is enclosed by water cooled copper dams or shoes to
prevent molten slag from running off. The weld metal is produced from a filler wire that
forms an initial arc with the work piece until a sufficient pool of liquid metal is formed to
use the electrical resistance of the molten slag.
This process requires special equipment used primarily for horizontal welds of very large
plates up to 36 inches or more by welding them in one pass as in large machinery and
nuclear reactor vessels.
There are also variations of ESW where shielding is provided by an appropriate gas and a continuous arc is used
to provide weld metal. These are termed Electro gas Welding or EGW machines.
Fluxed-Core Arc-Welding
Fluxed-Core Arc-Welding (FCAW) uses a tubular electrode filled with flux that is
much less brittle than the coatings on SMAW electrodes while preserving most of its
potential alloying benefits.
The emissive fluxes used shield the weld arc from surrounding air, or shielding gases
are used and none missive fluxes are employed. The higher weld-metal deposition
rate of FCAW over GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding) has led to its popularity in
joining relatively heavy sections of 1" or thicker.
Another major advantage of FCAW is the ease with which specific weld-metal alloy
chemistries can be developed. The process is also easily automated, especially with
the new robotic systems.
GMAW may be easily automated, and lends itself readily to robotic methods. It has virtually replaced SMAW in
present-day welding operations in manufacturing plants.
Advantages
Applications
Economics
Technical Considerations
Environmental Concerns
Easy to Use
Plasma cutting requires only minimal operator training. The torch is easy to operate, and new operators can make
excellent cuts almost immediately. Plasma cutting systems are rugged, are well suitable for production
environments, and do not require the potentially complicated adjustments associated with laser cutting systems.
Economical
Plasma cutting is more economical than oxyfuel for thicknesses under 1 inch, and comparable up to about 2
inches. For example, for inch steel, plasma cutting costs are about half those of oxyfuel.
Plasma cutting systems are also used in the heating, ventilating, and air conditioning industry to cut
complex duct work.
Plate Thicknesses
Industries involved in cutting plate thicknesses also find many applications for plasma cutting. Plasma systems
cut plate thicknesses from 1/8 to 3 inches, but the most common applications are for carbon steel plate to inch
thick.
Steel service centers cut large plates of steel down to size with plasma.
Makers of large construction machinery, mining equipment, and material handling equipment utilize
plasma cutting to produce cranes, bulldozers, and other large equipment.
Plasma cutting also produces structural steel framework for railroad cars, trucks, and other heavy
equipment.
Other applications include cutting metal for ship building and the production of pressure vessels.
Other Applications
Plasma cutting is not limited to flat sheets of metal. Plasma torches placed on robots are being used increasingly
for contour cutting of pipes and vessels, removal of sprues and risers from castings, and cutting of formed shapes,
angles, and curves in various planes.
Cut Quality
Cut quality is affected by type of metal and cutting speed. Process variables, such as cutting gas, power, and
cutting speed are adjusted to provide the optimum cut for each metal type. Although the size of the power supply
is also a factor, cuts in metals up to 2 in. thick tend to be smooth while cuts in thicker sections may be rougher but
still clean.
Cutting Specifications
For applications where high-quality cuts are needed, determine your requirements for a) tolerances, b) amount of
bevel, c) dross, and d) heat-affected zone
Plasma cuts to closer tolerances than flame processes like oxyfuel because of the faster cutting speeds heat the
work piece less, resulting in less distortion. Plasma is capable of tolerances to 1/32 in. in materials under in., but
the tolerance achieved depends on material type, thickness, and power supply.
Plasma cutting produces a beveled cut, forming a wider cut at the top of the work piece than at the bottom. The
bevel can easily be corrected or reduced with special techniques or equipment. Generally the amount of bevel is
less for thinner materials. The amount of dross or oxidation on the surface of the work piece depends mainly on
cutting speed, type of gas, and arc voltage. Using the manufacturers guidelines for these variables can produce
dross-free cuts. The high speeds of plasma cutting minimize the amount of distortion and heat-affected zone
(HAZ). HAZ width is affected by material type and thickness, conductivity, and torch design.
Cutting Gases
The cutting gas selected depends on the speeds and quality of cut desired. Several
cutting gases can be used in a plasma system to improve cut quality and speed.
Nitrogen is widely used because it is relatively inexpensive and can be used on many
materials and thicknesses. Special mixtures of argon and hydrogen can improve
cutting speed and quality on thicker metals and those other than carbon steels. Oxygen
is used in combination with other gases to improve cut quality by increasing heat,
improving cutting speed, and/or reducing power requirements. Compressed shop air is popular for many
applications because it is inexpensive and provides good quality cuts on thicknesses under 1 in., especially on
carbon steels.
Power Supply
The power supply required depends on the material thickness and cutting speeds desired. Increasing the power
increases the cutting speed or enables thicker metals to be cut without slow down. Power ratings are commonly
between 20 and 200 kW.