Binder 1

Chapter - 2
Introduction to Segmental Bridges

INTRODUTION
2 TO
SEGMENTAL
BRIDGES
2.1 BRIDGES
Bridge is a structure designed to provide continuous passage over an obstacle. Bridges commonly
carry highways, railroad lines, and pathways over obstacles such as waterways, deep valleys, and other
transportation routes. Bridges may also carry water, support power cables, or house
telecommunications lines. Designs of bridges vary depending on the function of the bridge and the
nature of the terrain where the bridge is constructed. A bridge structure is divided into an upper part
(the superstructure), which consists of the slab, the floor system, and themain truss or girders, anda
lower part (the substructure), which are columns, piers, towers, footings, piles, and abutments. The
superstructure provides horizontal spans such as deck and girders and carries traffic loads directly. The
substructure supports the horizontal spans, elevating above the ground surface.
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Construction stage analysis of pre-stressed concrete box girder bridge using free cantilever method
2.2 TYPE OF BRIDGES

Bridge designs differ in the way they support loads. These loads include the weight of the bridges
themselves, the weight of the material used to build the bridges, and the weight and stresses of the
vehicles crossing them. There are basically seven common bridge designs:
¾ Beam Bridges
¾ Cantilever Bridges
¾ Arch Bridge
¾ Truss Bridge
¾ Suspension Bridge
¾ Cable-Stayed Bridge
¾ Moveable Bridge
Combination bridges may incorporate two or more of the above designs into a bridge. Each design
differs in appearance, construction methods and materials used, and overall expense. Some designs
are better for long spans.
2.2.3 BEAM BRIDGE

Beam bridges represent the simplest of all bridge designs. A beam bridge consists of a rigid
horizontal member called a beam that is supported at both ends, either by a natural land
structure, such as the banks of a river, or by vertical posts called piers. Beam bridges are the
most commonly used bridges in highway construction. Single-piece, rolled-steel beams can
support spans of 15 to 30 m (50 to 100 ft). Heavier, reinforced beams and girders are used for
longer spans.
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2.2.4 CANTILEVER BRIDGE

Cantilever bridges are a more complex version of the beam-bridge design. In a cantilever design, a
tower is built on each side of the obstacle to be crossed, and the bridge is built outward, or
cantilevered, from each tower. The towers support the entire load of the cantilevered arms. The
arms are spaced so that a small suspended span can be inserted between them. The cantilevered
arms support the suspended span. and the downward force of the span is absorbed by the towers
.Cantilever bridges are self-supporting during construction. They are often used in situations in
which the use of scaffolding or other temporary supports would be difficult. The largest cantilever
bridge is the 549-metre (1,800 ft) Quebec Bridge in Quebec, Canada.
2.2.5 ARCH BRIDGE

Arch bridges are characterized by their stability. In an arch, the force of the load is carried
outward from the top to the ends of the arch, where abutments keep the arch ends from
spreading apart. Arch bridges have been constructed of stone, brick, timber, cast iron, steel,
and reinforced concrete. Steel and concrete arches are particularly well suited for bridging
ravines or chasms with steep, solid walls. The New River Gorge Bridge in West Virginia is the
longest arch bridge, spanning a gap of 518 m (1,700 ft).
2.2.6 TRUSS BRIDGE

Truss bridges utilize strong, rigid frameworks that support these bridges over a span. Trusses
are created by fastening beams together in a triangular configuration. The truss framework
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distributes the load of the bridge so that each beam shares a portion of the load. Beam,
cantilever, and arch bridges may be constructed of trusses. Truss bridges can carry heavy loads
and are relatively lightweight. They are also inexpensive to build. The Astoria Bridge over the
Columbia River in Oregon has a span of 376 m (1,232 ft).
2.2.7 SUSPENSION BRIDGE

Suspension bridges consist of two large, or main, cables that are hung (suspended) from
towers. The main cables of a suspension bridge drape over two towers, with the cable ends
buried in enormous concrete blocks known as anchorages. The roadway is suspended from
smaller vertical cables that hang down from the main cables. In some cases, diagonal cables
run from the towers to the roadway and add rigidity to the structure. The main cables support
the weight of the bridge and transfer the load to the anchorages and the towers.
Suspension bridges are used for the longest spans. Brooklyn Bridge, which was the world’s
longest suspension bridge at the time of its completion in 1883, crosses the East River in New
York City and has a main span of 486 m 31 cm . While suspension bridges can span long
distances, this design has a serious drawback: It is very flexible, and traffic loading may cause
large deflections, or bending, in the bridge roadway. Suspension design is rarely used for
railroad bridges, because trains are heavier and can travel faster than highway traffic.
2.2.8 CABLE STAYED BRIDGE

Cable-stayed bridges represent a variation of the suspension bridge. Cable-stayed bridges have
tall towers like suspension bridges, but in a cable-stayed bridge, the roadway is attached
directly to the towers by a series of diagonal cables. A cable-stayed bridge is constructed in
much the same way as a suspension bridge is, but without the main cables. Cable-
stayed designs are used for intermediate-length spans. Advantages a cable-stayed bridge has
over a standard suspension bridge include speed of construction and lower cost, since
anchorages are not necessary. There are no massive cables, as with suspension bridges, making
cable repair or replacement simpler. The Pont de Normandie (Normandy Bridge) over the
Seine River near Le Havre in France opened in 1995, with a span length of 856 m (2,808 ft).
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2.2.9 MOVEABLE BRIDGE

Movable bridges make up a class of bridge in which a portion of the bridge moves up or
swings out to provide additional clearance beneath the bridge. Movable bridges are usually
found over heavily traveled waterways.
2.3 SEGMENTAL BRIDGE

This type of bridge has become popular in recent years because of its aesthetic appeal and ease
of construction. Typically, large concrete segments are cast at a yard and are shipped to the
project site where they can be erected quickly with an overhead gantry. The bridges are
especially popular in congested urban areas and on environmentally sensitive sites.
The segmentally constructed bridges have been successfully developed by combining the
concepts of prestressing, box girder, and the cantilever construction [2, 20]. The first
prestressed segmental box girder bridge was built in Western Europe in 1950.
The selection between cast-in-place and precast segmental, and among various construction
methods, is dependent on project features, site conditions, environmental and public
constraints, construction time for the project, and equipment available.
The prestressed segmental bridgeswith precast or cast-in-place segmental can be classified by
the construction methods: (1) balanced cantilever, (2) span-by-span, (3) incremen-tal
launching, and (4) progressive placement.
Table 10.2 lists the range of application of segmental bridges by span lengths [20].
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Design Consideration
Compared to reinforced concrete, themain design features of prestressed concrete are that
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stresses for concrete and prestressing steel and deformation of structures at each stage (i.e.,
during construction, stressing, handling, transportation, and erection as well as during
the service life) and stress concentrationsneed to be investigated.
10.7.5 Box Girder

Structural configuration of box girders is illustrated in Figure 10.39. Since the box girder is a
closed section, its resistance to torsion is high with no loss of strength in bending and shear.
On the other hand, plate girders are open sections generally only considered effective in
resisting bending and shear. Steel plates with longitudinal and transverse stiffeners are often
used for decks on box girder or thin-walled structures instead of a concrete slab (Figure
10.39b) although a concrete slab is permissible.
Torsion is resisted in two parts: pure torsion (St. Venant torsion) and warping torsion. The pure
torsional resistance of I-plate girders is negligible. However, for closed sections such as a box
girder,the pure torsional resistance is considerable, making them particularly suited for curved
bridges or long-span bridges. On the other hand, the warping torsion for box sections is
negligible. The I- section girder has some warping resistance but it is not large compared to the
pure torsion of closed sections.
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12.3-Segmental construction
12.3.1 General-Main longitudinal elements, comprising a partial or complete transverse
cross section of a bridge,may be precast in lengths shorter than the span. Such shorter
elements are erected and prestressed together longitudinally to act as an integral unit.
These shorter elements are an ex-ample of transverse segments as referred to in section 12.1.
This method is known as segmental construction.
construction methods:
(1) balanced cantilever,
(2) span-by-span,
(3) incremen-tal launching, and
(4) progressive placement.
4.1 DEVELOPMENT OF PRESTRESSED SEGMENTAL BRIDGES
Application of prestressed concrete for bridge construction was developed by French engineer
Eugène Freyssinet, as described in Section 2.1.6, and has spread widely thereafter. Only
prestressing made the slender, long-span concrete bridges of today possible. The basic
principle of prestressing is to induce an initial compressive force in the concrete that will
balance tensile stresses that occur in the member under service conditions before any tensile
stresses occur in the concrete and cause cracking. Menn (1990, p126) names the two methods
of inducing these stresses in the structure:
· By imposed forces from reinforcing steel that is prestressed to a certain degree;

· By imposed “artificial displacements of the supports”, e.g. bearings.
The second method according to Menn (1990) is much less used because of high losses of the
prestressing force due to concrete creep and shrinkage. Prestressing tendons that are used for
the first method consist of high-strength steel and are fabricated as wires, strands, or bars
(Nilson andChapter 4: The Construction Process of Segmental Bridges 158 Winter 1986). For
a continuous beam on several supports, most tension will occur in the lower fibers of the cross-
section around midspan and in the upper fibers above intermediate supports. It is therefore
most useful to place tendons in the locations where tensile stresses will occur in the structure
under service. This thought naturally leads to the idea of implementing longitudinal tendons in
the beam that are not simply straight but follow a curve from the top above supports to the
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bottom at midspan and back to the next support. In Balanced Cantilever Construction the top
cables in reaching out from the cantilever base to support the cantilever dead load are called
cantilever beam cables; the bottom cables in the middle of the span are called integration
cables (Mathivat 1983).Prestressed concrete, compared with normal reinforced concrete has a
higher degree of sophistication and causes higher cost for labor and for the prestressing
tendons; on the other hand it saves cost through more economical use of material. Only
prestressing makes long and slender concrete spans possible at all.
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Before the advent of segmental construction, concrete bridges would often be made of several
precast
girders placed side by side, with joints between girders being parallel to the longitudinal axis of the
bridge. With the modern segmental concept, the segments are slices of a structural element
between
joints which are perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the structure.
When segmental construction first appeared in the early 1950s, it was either cast in place as used
in Germany by Finsterwalder et al., or precast as used in France by Eugène Freyssinet and Jean
Muller. The development of modern segmental construction is intertwined with the development
of balanced cantilever construction.
By the use of the term balanced cantilever construction,we are describing a phased construction
of a bridge superstructure. The construction starts from the piers cantilevering out to both sides in
such a way that each phase is tied to the previous ones by post-tensioning tendons, incorporated
into the permanent structure, so that each phase serves as a construction base for the following one.
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Chapter - 2

Introduction to Segmental Bridges

2.2 TYPE OF BRIDGES

2.2.3 BEAM BRIDGE

2.2.4 CANTILEVER BRIDGE

2.2.5 ARCH BRIDGE

2.2.6 TRUSS BRIDGE

2.2.7 SUSPENSION BRIDGE

2.2.8 CABLE STAYED BRIDGE

2.2.9 MOVEABLE BRIDGE

2.3 SEGMENTAL BRIDGE

10.7.5 Box Girder

· By imposed forces from reinforcing steel that is prestressed to a certain degree;

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