Biology Revision Photosynthesis + Respiration

Biological processes need energy

Plants- Need energy for things like photosynthesis, active transport, DNA
replication, cell division and protein synthesis
Animals- Need energy for muscle contraction, body temperature, active
transport, DNA replication, cell division and protein synthesis
Photosynthesis stores energy as glucose
Plants are autotrophs they make their food from photosynthesis (make
glucose) (sunlight)
It is the process in which light energy is converted to chemical energy to make
glucose
6carbon dioxide + 6water (energy) Glucose + 6Oxygen
Overall energy is stored as glucose until it is broken down in respiration
Animals are heterotrophs; they cant make their own food but instead obtain
glucose from other plants/animals, then respire the glucose to release energy
Cells release energy from glucose by respiration
This energy is used to power all biological processes in a cell
Aerobic respiration with oxygen
Anaerobic respiration without oxygen
ATP immediate source of energy in cells
A cell cant get energy directly from glucose
Therefore in respiration the energy released from glucose is used to make ATP
ATP is made from nucleotide base adenine, combined with a ribose sugar and
three phosphate groups
It carries energy around the cell to where it is needed
ATP is synthesized from ADP and a inorganic phosphate (Pi) using energy from a
energy releasing reaction
The breakdown of glucose in respiration
The energy is stored as chemical energy in the phosphate bond

The enzyme ATP synthase catalyses the reaction

ATP diffuses to the part of the cell that needs energy
Here its broken back down into ADP and a inorganic phosphate (Pi)
Chemical energy is released from the phosphate bond and used by the cell
ATPase catalyses the reaction
The ADP and inorganic phosphate are recycled and the process starts again
ATP has specific properties that make it a good energy source
It releases small amounts of energy at a time so no energy is wasted
It is a small soluble molecule that can be easily transported around the cell
Its easily broken down so energy can be released
It can transfer energy to another molecule by transferring one of its phosphate
groups
ATP cant pass out of the cell so it always has an immediate supply of energy
Important Terms
Metabolic Pathway A series of small reactions controlled by enzymes
(respiration and photosynthesis)
Phosphorylation Adding phosphate to a molecule (like adding a inorganic Pi
to ADP to make ATP)
Photophosphorylation Adding phosphate to a molecule USING LIGHT!
Photolysis The splitting of a molecule USING LIGHT (remember lysis is
splitting and photo is light)
Hydrolysis Splitting of a molecule using water
Decarboxylation The removal of carbon dioxide from a molecule
Dehydrogenation The removal of a hydrogen from a molecule
Redox Reactions Reactions that involve oxidation (Loss of electrons lost
hydrogen or gained oxygen) and reduction (gain of electrons gain gained
hydrogen or lost oxygen) oxidation of molecule always leads to the reduction of
another molecule

Photosynthesis and Respiration involve coenzymes

The coenzyme is something that aids the function of an enzyme
They work by transferring a chemical group from on molecule to another
A coenzyme used in photosynthesis is NADP
NADP can transfer hydrogen between molecules which means it can reduce or
oxidize molecules
Examples of coenzymes in repiration are FAD, NAD and coenzyme A
NAD and FAD transfer hydrogen from one molecule to another which means it
can reduce (give hydrogen) or oxidize (take hydrogen) from a molecule
Coenzyme A transfers acetate between molecules

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Chloroplasts
They are small-flattened organelles found in plant cells
They have a double membrane called the chloroplast envelope
Thylakoids are stacked up in the chloroplasts into structures celled Grana
The granum = singular
The grana are linked to each other by bits of thylakoids membrane celled
lamella
Chloroplasts contain photosynthetic pigments -> Chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b
and carotene
They are colored pigments, which absorb light energy needed for photosynthesis
These pigments are found in the thylakoids membranes and are attached to
proteins
The protein and pigment are called a PHOTOSYSTEM

The photosystem contain two types of photosynthetic pigments

Primary and accessory pigments
Primary pigments are reaction centers where electrons are excited during the
light dependant stage
Accessory pigments surround the primary pigments and transfer light energy to
them
There are two photosystems used by plants to capture light energy
Photosystem 1 and photosystem 2
Photosystem one absorbs light wavelengths at 700nm
Photosystem two absorbs light wavelength at 680nm
Contained in the inner membrane of the chloroplasts and surrounding the
thylakoids is a gel like substance called the stroma
The stroma contains enzymes, sugars, organic molecules acids, ribosome (so
proteins can be synthesized) and lipid droplets
Carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis and not used straight away are
stored as starch grains in the stroma
Photosynthesis is split into two stages
Light dependant stage
Needs light energy
Takes place in the thylakoids membrane of the chloroplasts
Photosynthetic pigments absorb light energy in the photosynthetic pigments and
convert it into chemical energy
The light energy is used to add a phosphate group to ADP to form ATP
NADP is also reduced to reduced NADP
ATP transfers energy and reduced NADP transfers hydrogen to the light
independent stage
During the reaction water is oxidsed to oxygen

The Light Dependant Reaction

Also known as the Calvin cycle doesnt use light energy (but does rely on the
products of the light dependant reaction)
Takes place in the stroma of the chloroplasts
Here ATP and reduced NADP from the light dependant reaction supply energy
and hydrogen to make glucose from carbon dioxide
The light-dependant reaction ATP is made via photophosphorylation
In the light dependant reaction the light energy absorbed by photosystems is
used for
Making ATP from ADP and a inorganic phosphate. This reaction is called
photophosphorylation
Making reduced NADP from NADP
Splitting water into protons, electrons and oxygen. This is called
photolysis
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation produces ATP, reduced NADP and
Oxygen

Light energy is absorbed by photosystem 2

The light energy excites electrons in chlorophyll
The electrons move to a higher energy level
The high energy electrons move along the electron transport chain

Photolysis of water produces protons, electrons and water

As excited electrons from chlorophyll leave the photosystem 2 to move
along the electron transport chain theyre replaced
Light energy splits water into protons, electrons and oxygen
The reaction is H2O -> 2H+ + 1/2O2
Energy from the excited electrons makes ATP
The excited electrons lose energy as the move along the electron
transport chain
This energy transports protons into the thylakoid form the stroma, so the
thylakoids has a higher concentration of protons than the stroma
This forms a proton gradient across the membrane
Protons move down their concentration gradient, into the stroma, via an
enzyme ATP synthase
The energy from this movement combines ADP and inorganic phosphate
to form ATP
Reduced NADP is generated

 Light energy is absorbed by photosystem one, which excited the electrons

to a even higher energy level
Finally the electrons are transferred to NADP, along with a proton from
the stroma, to form reduced NADP
Cyclic Photophosphorylation only produces ATP
It only uses photosystem one
Cyclic because the electrons from the chlorophyll molecule arent passed onto
the NADP, but are passed back to photosystem one via electron carriers
This means electrons are recycled and can repeatedly flow through photosystem
one
This process doesnt produce any reduced NADP or oxygen, only small amounts
of ATP
Light Independent reaction
Also known as the Calvin cycle
Takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast
Makes triosephosphate from carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate
Triose phosphate can be used to make glucose and other useful organic
compounds
This stage needs ATP and hydrogen ions
Ribulose bisphosphate is recycled
Carbon dioxide is combined with Ribulose bisphosphate to from two
molecules of glycerate-3-phsophate
Carbon dioxide enters the leaf through the stomata and diffuses into the
stroma
Here it combines with the Ribulose bisphosphate (5 carbon compound) to
make a six carbon compound (which is very unstable) and quickly breaks
down into two molecules of 3-carbon compound called glycerate-3phosphate
Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (rubisco) catalyses the reaction
between carbon dioxide and Ribulose bisphosphate

ATP and reduced NADP are required for the reduction of glycerate-3-phosphate
into triose phosphate
ATP from the light dependant stage provides energy to turn the 3-carbon
compound, glycerate-3-phosphate into a different 3 carbon compound
called triose phosphate
This reaction requires hydrogen ions, which are provided from the
reduced NADP
The reduced NADP is recycled to NADP
Triose phosphate is converted into many useful compounds
Ribulose bisphosphate is regenerated
Five out of every six molecules of triose phosphate produced in the cycle arent
used to make hexose sugars, but to regenerate Ribulose bisphosphate
Regenerating Ribulose bisphosphate uses the rest of the ATP produced by the
light dependant reaction
Triose Phosphate and glycerate-3-phosphate are converted into useful organic
compounds
They make carbohydrates, lipids and proteins
Joining two triose-phosphate molecules together makes carbohydrates- Hexose
sugars. Joining hexose sugars together in different ways makes larger
carbohydrates
Lipids- made using glycerol, which is synthesized from glycerate-3phosphate
Some amino acids are made from glycerate-3-phsphate
The Calvin cycle needs six turns to make one hexose sugar
Three turns of the cycle produces six molecules of triose phosphate
Two molecules of triose phosphate are made for every one carbon dioxide
molecule used
Five out of six of these TP molecules are used to regenerate RuBP
This means three turns of the Calvin cycle only makes one TP
A hexose sugar, however, is made of 6 carbon so two molecules of TP are needed
This means the cycle must turn six times to produce two molecules of TP that
can be made to produce one hexose sugar

Six turns of the cycle needs 18 ATP and 12 reduced NADP from the lightdependant reaction

Limiting Factors Of Photosynthesis

Optimum conditions Light to provide energy for LI stage. Higher intensity of
light the more energy it provides. Certain wavelengths of light are used for
photosynthesis. Chlorophyll a, b and carotene absorb red and blue light
Temperature if temp falls below 10 degrees the enzymes become inactive, but
if the temperature becomes more than 45 degrees the enzymes will denature.
Furthermore at high temperatures the stomata will close to avoid losing much
water. Causes photosynthesis to slow down because less carbon dioxide is
entering the plant
Carbon dioxide at 0.04% - carbon dioxide makes up 0.04% of the atmosphere.
Increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide increases the rate of
photosynthesis. Any higher however and the stomata starts to close.
Light, temperature and carbon dioxide are limiting factors of
photosynthesis
All three need to be at the right level to allow photosynthesis to occur properly
If any one of these is to low or too high, it will limit photosynthesis
Even if two of them are optimum, if the other one isnt photosynthesis will still
be limited (regardless of the other factor)
On a warm, sunny, windless day, carbon dioxide is the limiting factor. At night
light intensity is the limiting factor
How limiting factors can be investigated
Light intensity, temperature and carbon dioxide are limiting factors which means
they can all effect the levels of glycerate-3-phosphate, Ribulose bisphosphate and
triose phosphate in the Calvin cycle
1. Light intensity
In low light intensity the products of the light dependant stage will be in short
supply (reduced NADP and ATP)

This means the conversion of glycerate-3-phosphate to triose phosphate and

Ribulose bisphosphate is slow
Therefore the levels of glycerate-3-phosphate will be high because it is still being
made
And the levels of RuBP and TP will fall, as theyre used to make glycerate-3phosphate
2. Temperature
All the reactions of the calvin cycle are catalysed by enzymes (rubisco)
At low temperature the reactions will be slower because the enzymes are
working more slowly
This means the production of Ribulose bisphosphate; triose phosphate and
glycerate-3-phosphate will fall
GP, TP and RuBP will do the same at very high temperatures because the
enzymes will start to denature

3. Carbon Dioxide Concentration

At low carbon dioxide concentration, the conversion of RuBP to GP is slow
This is because there is less carbon dioxide to combine with RuBP to make GP
So the levels of GP will rise as it is still being made and the levels of GP and TP
will fall (as theyre being used up to make Ribulose bisphosphate)

How limiting factors can be investigated using pondweed

Pondweed can be used to measure the limiting factors of carbon dioxide, light
intensity and temperature on the rate of photosynthesis
The rate at which oxygen is produced by the pondweed can be easily measured
and corresponded to the rate of photosynthesis
How to investigate?
1.
2.
3.
4.

Test tube with pondweed is connected to a capillary tube with water

Tube is connected to a syringe
Source of white light is placed at a specific distance from the pondweed
The pondweed is left to photosynthesise for a set amount of time

5. As it photosynthesises the oxygen realised will collect in the capillary

tube
6. At the end of the experiment the syringe will draw up the oxygen and
volume will be measured
7. Variables needed to be controlled temperature, time the weed is left to
photosynthesise
8. The experiment is repeated and a average is calculated to make the
experiment more reliable
9. The whole experiment is then repeated with the light source placed at
different distances

Respiration
Glycolysis Takes place in the cytoplasm
Stage 1 Phosphorylation Glucose is phosphorylated by adding 2
phosphates from two molecules of ATP. Creates 1 molecule of Hexose
bisphosphate and two molecules of ADP. Then two molecules of hexose
bisphosphate is split into two molecules of triose phosphate
State 2 Oxidation Triose Phosphate is oxidised (losing Hydrogen) which
forms 2 molecules of pyruvate. The triose phosphate is oxidised by NAD,
collecting the hydrogen ions and forming 2 molecules of reduced NAD. In the
process 4 ATP are produced, but 2 were used up in the phosphorylation stage, so
the net gain is two ATP.
Summary- Glucose is phosphorylated to triose phosphate using ATP. Triose
phosphate is oxidised, releasing ATP, and 2 pyruvate molecules are produced.
Net gain of 2ATP.
Link Reaction Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix
Pyruvate is decarboxylated one carbon atom is removed in the form of carbon
dioxide
NAD becomes reduced NAD as it collects hydrogen from pyruvate, changing it to
acetate
Acetate is combined with coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A
No ATP is produced in this reaction
The link reaction occurs twice for every glucose molecule
Two pyruvate molecules are made for every glucose molecule that enters
Glycolysis

Therefore the link reaction and Krebs cycle happen twice for every glucose
molecule
Two molecules of acetyl coenzyme A go into the Krebs cycle
Two carbon dioxide molecules are released as a waste product of respiration
Two molecules of reduced NAD are formed to go to the last stage
Krebs Cycle Takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria
1. Acetyl coenzyme A from the link reaction combine with oxaloacetate to
form citrate. Coenzyme A goes back to the link reaction to be used again.
2. The 6-carbon citrate molecule is converted to 5-carbon compound.
Decarboxylation occurs and a carbon dioxide is removed.
Dehydrogenation also occurs where hydrogen is removed. Then hydrogen
is used to produce reduced NAD from NAD.
3. The 5-carbon compound is converted to a 4-carbon compound.
Decarboxylation and dehydrogenation occur. One molecule of reduced
FAD and two molecules of reduced NAD are produced. ATP is also
produced by the direct transfer of phosphate group to intermediate
compound to ADP. When a phosphate group is directly transferred from
one molecule to another its called substrate-phosphorylation. Citrate has
been converted into oxaloacetate.
Products of the Krebs cycle
1 coenzyme A reused in the next link reaction
Oxaloacetate Regenerated and used in the next Krebs cycle
2 carbon dioxide released as a waste product
1 ATP used for energy
3 reduced NAD to oxidative phosphorylation
1 reduced FAD to oxidative phosphorylation

Oxidative Phosphorylation produces lots of ATP

Process where energy carried by electrons from reduced coenzymes (reduced
NAD and reduced FAD) us used to make ATP

How does oxidative phosphorylation actually work?

1. Hydrogen atoms are released from reduced NAD and reduced FAD as
theyre oxidised to NAD and FAD. The hydrogen atom splits into protons
and electrons
2. The electrons move along the electron transport chain, which lose energy
at each carrier
3. The energy is used by the electron carriers to pump protons from the
mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space
4. The concentration of ions is now higher in intermembrane space than in
the mitochondrial matrix this forms a electrochemical gradient
(concentration gradient of ions)
5. Protons move down the electrochemical gradient back into the
mitochondrial via a ATP synthase. This movement drives the synthesis of
ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate
6. The movement of hydrogen ions across a membrane which generates
ATP, is called chemiosmosis
7. In the mitochondrial matrix at the end of the transport chain, the protons,
electrons and oxygen from the blood combine to form water. Oxygen is
the final electron acceptor.
32 ATP is produced from one glucose molecule

Respiration Experiments
Evidence to support the chemiosmotic theory
1- Low PH
The PH of the intermembrane space is found to be lower than that of the
mitochondrial matrix. The lower PH means the intermembrane space is acidicand therefore a higher concentration of hydrogen ions. This observation shows
that a proton gradient exists between the intermembrane space and the matrix
of the mitochondria.
2- Artificial vesicles
Artificial vesicles were created form phospholipid bilayers to represent the inner
mitochondrial membrane. Proton pumps and ATP synthase were added. The
proton pumps had light beamed on them and they started to pumps hydrogen
ions across their membrane. When ADP and Pi were added to the outside ATP
was synthesized. This shows that a proton gradient can be established however
it doesnt show that it happens in mitochondria
3- Mitochondria

Mitochondria were put in a alkali solution. They were left till they became alkali.
When the mitochondria were given ADP + Pi no ATP was produced. Then the
mitochondria were transferred to a more acidic condition. The outer membrane
is permeable to protons so they moved into the intermembrane space creating a
proton gradient across the inner membrane. In the presence of ADP + Pi, ATP
was produced. The experiment shows a proton gradient can be used by
mitochondria to make ATP.
4- Uncouplers
Uncouplers are substances that destroy the proton gradient across the inner
mitochondrial membrane. A uncoupler was added to a mitochondria along with
ADP + Pi and no ATP was produced. This shows that a proton gradient is
required to synthesize ATP in mitochondria
The rate of respiration can be measured using a respirometer
The volume of oxygen taken up or volume of carbon dioxide produced indicates
the rate of respiration. The respirometer measures the rate of oxygen being
taken up, the more oxygen taken up the faster the rate of respiration.
How would you do this?
1. Two test tubes. One is the test tube, one is the control tube. Both
connected to a calibrated scale. The test tube has a syringe going into it
and the control tube a water tap.
2. Each tube contains potassium hydroxide solution which absorbs carbon
dioxide
3. The control tube is set up in exactly the same way as the test tube but
without woodlice to make sure the results work only due to woodlice
respiring. The syringe is used to set the fluid in the manometer to a
known level.
4. The apparatus is left for a period of time
5. During that time there will be a decrease in volume of air