4102 - Chap 11 - Damage Tolerance PDF

MAAE 4102
Engineering Materials
Strength & Fracture
Chapter 11
Damage Tolerance
Professor R. Bell
Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering
Carleton University
2013
Chapter 11 - Damage Tolerance
Department of Mechanical &

Aerospace Engineering
Fatigue
g Design
g Approaches
pp
Infinite Life
Unlimited safety design stresses below fatigue limit
Safe Life
Finite life safety factor = 20 x design life
Fail Safe
Cracks will exist inspection and repair
Damage Tolerant
Refinement of fail-safe philosophy
Use of FM to predict crack growth

Damage Tolerant Design

Philosophy based on:
Damage will occur despite all precautions taken
Inspection so that cracks can be detected and repairs
made at appropriate time
Adequate residual strength is maintained in the
damaged structure so that during the period between
inspections when damage is undetected ultimate
failure of the structure will not occur
Damage Tolerance

Structure is designed for tolerance of large damage by

using:
Multiple load paths
Aircraft, Offshore structures, bridges
Leak-Before-Break
Pressure vessels
Crack arresters and stiffeners
Multiple load paths

Leak-Before Break

Leak
KI < KC
Break
KI > KC
Crack Arrest

Will the crack arrest?

Dynamic effects
If KI KIC - fracture will continue due to dynamic effects
If KI 0.85 KIC crack may arrest
Assessment require the ARREST TOUGHNESS
Require the Residual Strength Diagrams for
- Part through crack with various a/c ratios
- through crack

Residual Strength Diagram
K C aC

Effect of Stringers on SIF
K ref a
In an unstiffened plate =1
In a stiffened plate as a center
crack grows Load is transferred
to the stiffener
Thus the stress in the plate is
reduced so is reduced
The increased stress in the
stringer is reflected in an increase
in the stress concentration L

Residual Strength of Stiffened Panels
10
Stringer Critical

The stringer failure line is

represented in the residual
strength diagram
The failure stress is the
stringer Yield strength / L
This is the stress necessary
to fail the stringer as various
levels of stress is transferred
from the cracked plate
In the diagram shown a crack
of size as with a stress of
will progress rapidly and will
cause the stringer to fail
The residual strength of the
stiffened panel is thus reduced
to the level of the intersection
of the stringer failure line and
the plate fracture line
This situation is stringer critical
11
Panel Critical

If the stringer is made from a

higher strength material
The failure line is shifted upwards
The intersection with the plate
fracture line moves beyond the
maximum at a/b =1
Thus the arrest capability is restored
because the crack with a stress <
will be arrested before the stringer
fails
This situation is plate critical
12
Broken Stringer

Crack develops at rivet hole at stringer

Stringer breaks carries no load
Load transferred to plate
Therefore plate carries higher load
Thus is greater than 1 as shown
Problem can now be handled as before
Stringer spacing now defined as b
If stringers have higher stiffness or are

more closely spaced they can carry
more load as are thus more effective at
reducing
The smaller the fastener spacing the

more effective the load transfer to the
stringers
13

Fracture and Arrest in an Aircraft Structure
14

Option
Opt
o for
o Improvements
p o e e ts of
o Arrest
est Capability
Capab ty
15
Crack Arrest in a Pipeline

Ductile fractures in natural gas and

other high-energy pipelines could
be arrested by either:
toughness in the pipe body
or by a crack arrestor device
16
Crack Arrest in a Pipeline

17

Crack Arrest in Panels
18

Options for Crack Arrest
19
Stophole

20
Hole Expansion
Two Side Access

One Side Access
21

Damage Tolerance Requirements

To insure damage tolerance the following is required:
1. Residual strength diagram as a function of crack size
2. The permissible crack size
3. The crack growth time H
4. The size of a pre-existing flaw
5 The interval of inspection
5.
inspection, proof testing
testing, replacement
22

Residual strength diagram as a function of crack size

Select the minimum residual strength
The permissible crack size p is obtained
Larger cracks will result in a residual strength < p
Cracks > ap not permitted
The crack growth time H calculated using a life
prediction program
The size of a pre-existing flaw is necessary to carry out
this calculation
H is the interval of inspection, proof testing,
replacement
23

Fracture Prone Structures
Many low stress fractures during early years of the industrial era
Improvements made because of better materials and better details
Modern
M d
era produced
d
d iincrease iin ffracture
t
prone structures
t t
hostile environments Arctic, offshore
aircraft, nuclear plants
high quality materials and high operating stresses
Refined stress analysis (FEM)
materials used closer to their limits
Remedy
Remed
improve materials
better detail design
Results in a vicious circle leading to increased risk of cracking
24

Options to Improve Damage Tolerance

The time for fracture control is H
ap is permissible crack size
ad is detectable crack size
If H is too short the following ways are
open for improvement
Use of better material with improved properties

Selection of better inspection Procedure
25


Use of better material with
improved properties
Selection of better inspection Procedure
26

Redesign and lower stress
Provision of redundancy and crack arresters
27


I
Lower design Stress
II Smaller Initial flaw size

III Small improvement in
toughness
IV Large
g improvement
p
in
toughness
28


I
Lower design Stress

toughness
IV Large
g improvement
p
in
toughness
29


I
Lower design Stress

toughness
IV Large
g improvement
p
in
toughness
30


I
Lower design Stress

toughness
IV Large
g improvement
p
in
toughness
31


I
Lower design Stress

toughness
IV Large
g improvement
p
in
toughness
32

Aircraft Damage Tolerance Requirements

FAR 25
An evaluation of the strength, detail design, and fabrication
must
ust show
s o that
t at catastrophic
catast op c failure
a u e due to fatigue,
at gue, co
corrosion,
os o ,
manufacturing defects, or accidental damage, will be avoided
throughout the operational life of the airplane.
Commercial Aircraft Requirement:

D
Damage
must b
be sustained
i d without
ih
ffailure
il
untilil the
h component can b
be repaired
i d
Military Aircraft Requirement:

Damage must be sustained without failure until the economic service life has
expired and the aircraft or component is retired
Damage tolerance can best achieved by incorporating fail-safety features
such as: redundancy
multiple load paths
crack arresters
Fail-safe structures can sustain large damage but if not repaired failure will occur
33


Commercial Aircraft FAR 25
Analysis must include:
Typical loading spectra, temperatures and humidities expected in service
The identification of principal structural elements and detail design points,
where failure would cause catastrophic failure of the airplane
An analysis
analysis, supported by test evidence
Inspections or other procedures must be established to prevent catastrophic failure

Inspection thresholds must be established based on crack growth analysis and/or tests
Assumption that the structure contains an initial flaw of the maximum probable size
as a result of manufacturing or service damage
Damage-tolerance evaluation:
The extent of damage for residual strength evaluation at any time within the
operational life of the airplane must be consistent with the initial detectability
and subsequent growth under repeated loads. The residual strength evaluation
must show that the remaining structure is able to withstand loads (considered
as static ultimate loads) limit loads for maneuvering, gust, cabin pressurization
34


Fatigue (safe-life) evaluation option.

Compliance with the damage-tolerance requirements of this section is not
required if the applicant establishes that their application for particular
structure is impractical
impractical. This structure must be shown by analysis
analysis,
supported by test evidence, to be able to withstand the repeated loads
of variable magnitude expected during its service life without detectable cracks.
g must not fall below the limit load PL
In summaryy the residual strength
The limit load can be considered to be the load anticipated to occur once in the
lifetime of the airplane
Thus Ppermissible = Plimit
PP leads to aP - aP is not the critical crack
For failure to occur aP would have to occur at the time as PP low probability
35

Residual strength diagram as a

function of crack size
Select the minimum residual strength
The permissible crack size p is obtained
Larger cracks will result in a residual
strength < p
C k > ap nott permitted
Cracks
itt d
The crack growth time H calculated
using a life prediction program
The size of a pre-existing flaw is
necessary
y to carryy out this calculation
H is the interval of inspection,
proof testing, replacement
36


To meet the requirements the airplane manufacturer must design in such a way
that cracks can be detected before they reach aP and specify to the operator
how often to inspect
The operator is obliged to follow the inspection schedule
Fracture control by FAR rules is exercised by inspection
The requirement forces tolerance of damage large enough for detection, which
promotes fail safe design with multiple load paths and crack arresters
In a competitive field it is in the manufacturers best interest to ensure easy
Inspection designs with high residual strength and large aP which leads to
long inspection intervals
37


Military Aircraft Requirements
Ref: MIL-A-83444 and USAF Damage Tolerance Handbook
The guidelines stipulate that damage is assumed to exist in

each element of new structure in a conservative fashion
i.e., critical orientation with respect to stress field and in a
region of highest stress.
The structure must successfully contain the growth of the initial
assumed damage for a specified period of service, and must
maintain a minimum level of residual static strength both during
and at the end of this period
period.
2 Categories of Defined Damage
Slow Crack Growth - SCG
Fail Safe FS
Multiple Load Path - MLP
Crack Arrest Fail Safe - CAFS
Initial Crack Sizes

Formerly for primary damage assumptions,
initial crack sizes were prescribed for
MLP, CAFS as 0.02 in and SCG as 0.05;
they have since become negotiable.
38


Slow Crack Growth category, SCG
structures are designed such that initial damage will grow at a stable,
slow rate under service environment and not achieve a size large
enough to cause rapid unstable propagation.
damage tolerance (and thus safety) is assured only by
- the maintenance of a slow rate of growth of damage,
- a residual strength capacity and
- the assurance that sub-critical damage
g will either
- be detected at the depot or
- will not reach unstable dimensions within several design life times.
Fail Safe category, - MLP or CAFS
structures are designed such that propagating damage is safely
contained after failing a major load path by load shift to adjacent
intact elements or by other damage arrestment features.
damage tolerance (and thus safety) is assured by
- the allowance of partial structural failure,
- the ability to detect this failure prior to total loss of the structure,
- the ability to operate safely with the partial failure prior to inspection,
- and the maintenance of specified static residual strength through this period
39


Design Limit Load
The intent of the guideline is to provide for at-least design
limit load residual strength capability for all intact structure,
structure
i.e., for sub-critical damage sizes in SCG structure
and damage sizes less than a failed load path in FS qualified designs.
This requirement allows for full limit load design capability and thus unrestricted aircraft usage.
For each structure, evaluation of the following parameters is required:
Design Category
Degree of In-Service Inspectability
Inspection Intervals
Initial Damage,
g , In-Service Damage
g and Continuing
g Damage
g Assumptions
p
Minimum Required Residual Strength
Damage Size Growth Limits
Period of Unrepaired Service Usage
g Structure Damage
g Sizes
Remaining
40


Slow Crack Growth
flaws or defects are not allowed to attain the critical size
required for unstable rapid crack propagation.
Safety is assured for specified periods of usage
depending upon the degree of inspectability.
The strength of slow crack growth structure with
sub-critical damage present shall not be degraded
below a specified limit for the period of unrepaired service usage.
This component has local redundancy at fork end

but must be classed as Slow Crack growth
because of single load path at point B
41


Fail Safe structure
designed and fabricated such that unstable rapid propagation will be
stopped within a continuous area of the structure prior to complete
failure.
Safety is assured through slow crack growth of the remaining
structure and detection of the damage at subsequent inspections.
Strength
g of the remaining
g undamaged
g structure will not be degraded
g
below a specified level for the period of unrepaired service usage.
it was recognized that multiple load path and crack arrest type
structure have inherent potential for tolerating damage by virtue of
geometric design features.
Structure could qualify as

Fail-Safe Multiple Load Path
Damage
g in skin could be arrested at spar
p
Before coming critical
Design might also tolerate failure of one spar cap
Prior to catastrophic failure
42


Inspection Categories and Inspection Intervals
In-flight evident inspectable - If the nature and extent of damage occurring in flight
will result directly in characteristics which make the flight crew immediately and
unmistakably aware that significant damage has occurred and that the mission
should not be continued.
Ground evident inspectable - If the nature and extent of damage will be readily
and unmistakably obvious to ground personnel without specifically inspecting the structure
for damage.
Walkaround inspectable - If the nature and extent of damage is unlikely to be
overlooked by personnel conducting a visual inspection of the structure. This inspection normally shall
be a visual look at the exterior of the structure from ground level without removal of access panels or doors
without special inspection aids.
Special visual inspectable - If the nature and extent of damage is unlikely to be overlooked by personnel
conducting a detailed visual inspection of the aircraft for the purpose of finding damaged structure.
The procedures may include removal of access panels and doors, and may permit simple visual aids
such as mirrors and magnifying glasses. Removal of paint, sealant, etc. and use of NDI techniques
such as penetrant, X-ray, etc., are not part of a special visual inspection.
Depot or base level inspectable - If the nature and extent of damage will be detected utilizing one
or more selected nondestructive inspection procedures. The inspection procedures may include
NDI techniques such as penetrant, X-ray, ultrasonic, etc. Accessibility considerations may include
removal of those components designed for removal.
In-service non-inspectable structure - If either damage size or accessibility preclude detection
d ring one or more of the abo
during
above
e inspections
inspections.
43


Inspection Categories and Inspection Intervals
Typically, these intervals will be approximately
1/4 of the design service life
Visual inspection preferred
44


Initial Damage Assumptions
Initial flaws are assumed to exist in the structure.

These flaws are assumed to exist initially in the structure as a result of material and structure
manufacturing
f
i and
d processing.
i
S
Smallll iimperfections
f i
equivalent
i l
to a 0
0.005
00 (0
(0.127
12 mm))
radius corner flaw shall be assumed to exist in each fastener hole of each element in the structure.
It must then be shown that this initial crack will not grow to a maximum permissible size aP within the
economic service life for CAFS and MLP structures or within twice the life for SCG structures
Formerly for primary damage assumptions, initial crack sizes were prescribed for MLP, CAFS as 0.02
in and SCG as 0.05; they have since become negotiable.
The flaws are assumed to be located in the most unfavorable orientation with respect to applied
stresses and material properties
45


Continuing Damage Assumption
As the primary damage progresses in both the skin and stringer,

eventually the radial crack in the stringer will extend to the edge of
the stringer, shown in cracking sequence (ii).
At this time, a new crack, equivalent to the 0.005 inch radial crack
flaw plus the growth prior to the primary element failure, is assumed
to exist on the diametrically opposite side of the failed hole
hole, as
shown in cracking sequence (iii).
This continues the growth process until the complete stringer fails,
shown in cracking sequence (iv).
46


Minimum Residual Strength
The residual strength capability is defined as the
amount of static strength available at any time during
the service exposure period considering that damage
is initially present and grows as a function of service
exposure time.
The residual strength
g g
guidelines are specified
p
in
terms of the minimum internal member load Pxx that
must be sustained. The load Pxx is intended to
represent the maximum load that the aircraft might
encounter during the time interval between
inspections.
inspections
The required Pxx is at least design limit load for all
intact structure whether the structure is being
qualified as Slow Crack Growth or Fail Safe. The
required Pxx is also at least design limit load when the
only planned safety inspections are at the depot
47


Minimum Residual Strength
The value of Pxx is established from load spectra data derived from a
mission analysis of the particular aircraft
One way to determine the level of Pxx required is to hypothetically increase the
service exposure time for the aircraft between inspections by a factor of M.
The values of M are summarized in the Table
For example, under the ground-evident level inspectability category,
the PGE load is the maximum load expected to occur once in 100 flights
(M x inspection
i
ti iinterval
t
l = one fli
flight
ht x 100).
100)
48


Residual Strength
The residual strength of a component is determined by the crack at the most critical
location.
The damage tolerance requirements specify that the residual strength must have a
magnitude exceeding that of the maximum loads, PXX between service inspections.
These loads are determined on the basis of the inspectability and the average
maximum load that occurs once during a period of M times the inspection interval.
The loads, PXX must, however, always be larger than the design limit load.
Thus the minimum residual strength allowed is given by PXX.
Thus,
The residual strength, Rs , at any time during a service life may be expressed in
terms of the crack size, a , and the fracture toughness, KIC . Deterministically:
K IC Y (a ) R a
R is the residual strength per unit
area
Areff is a reference area
Y(a) is the geometric factor
1
R K IC
Y (a ) a
RS R Aref K IC
Aref
Y (a) a
49


Commercial Requirements FAA
Residual strength shall not fall below Limit Load

Promotes Fail Safe design with multiple load paths and crack arrest features
F t
Fracture
control
t l exercised
i d by
b iinspection
ti
Inspection period <H/2
Arrest of 2 bay crack
50


Military Requirements
Multiple Load Path or
Crack Arrest Fail Safe
or
51


Military Requirements
Slow Crack Growth
Non Fail Safe
or
52
References

MIL-A-83444 (USAF), Military Specification - Airplane Damage

Tolerance Requirements, (2 July 1974).
Gallagher,
g
J.P., Giessler, F.J., Berens, A.P., Engle,
g Jr.,
R.M. and Wood, H.A., USAF
Damage Tolerant Design Handbook: Guidelines for the
Analysis and Design of Damage Tolerant Aircraft Structures,
AFWAL-TR-82-3073, Wright-Patterson
g
Airforce Base,
Ohio, 45433, (May 1984).
U.S. FAA, Airworthiness Requirements, FAR 25b, (1978).
53

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MAAE 4102

Department of Mechanical &

Department of Mechanical &

Damage Tolerant Design

Chapter 11 - Damage Tolerance

Department of Mechanical &

Structure is designed for tolerance of large damage by

Chapter 11 - Damage Tolerance

Multiple load paths

Chapter 11 - Damage Tolerance

Department of Mechanical &

Department of Mechanical &

Chapter 11 - Damage Tolerance

Department of Mechanical &

Will the crack arrest?

Department of Mechanical &

Residual Strength Diagram

Department of Mechanical &

Effect of Stringers on SIF

Chapter 11 - Damage Tolerance

Department of Mechanical &

Residual Strength of Stiffened Panels

Chapter 11 - Damage Tolerance

Department of Mechanical &

The stringer failure line is

Chapter 11 - Damage Tolerance

Department of Mechanical &

If the stringer is made from a

Chapter 11 - Damage Tolerance

Department of Mechanical &

Crack develops at rivet hole at stringer

If stringers have higher stiffness or are

The smaller the fastener spacing the

Chapter 11 - Damage Tolerance

Department of Mechanical &

Fracture and Arrest in an Aircraft Structure

Chapter 11 - Damage Tolerance

Department of Mechanical &

Chapter 11 - Damage Tolerance

Crack Arrest in a Pipeline

Department of Mechanical &

Ductile fractures in natural gas and

Chapter 11 - Damage Tolerance

Crack Arrest in a Pipeline

Chapter 11 - Damage Tolerance

Department of Mechanical &

Department of Mechanical &

Crack Arrest in Panels

Chapter 11 - Damage Tolerance

Department of Mechanical &

Options for Crack Arrest

Chapter 11 - Damage Tolerance

Chapter 11 - Damage Tolerance

Department of Mechanical &

Department of Mechanical &

One Side Access

Chapter 11 - Damage Tolerance

Department of Mechanical &

Damage Tolerance Requirements

Chapter 11 - Damage Tolerance

Department of Mechanical &

Damage Tolerance Requirements