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Abstract
The cooling applications in machining operations play a very important role and many operations cannot be carried out efciently
without cooling. Application of a coolant in a cutting process can increase tool life and dimensional accuracy, decrease cutting
temperatures, surface roughness and the amount of power consumed in a metal cutting process and thus improve the productivity. In this
review, liquid nitrogen, as a cryogenic coolant, was investigated in detail in terms of application methods in material removal operations
and its effects on cutting tool and workpiece material properties, cutting temperature, tool wear/life, surface roughness and dimensional
deviation, friction and cutting forces. As a result, cryogenic cooling has been determined as one of the most favourable method for
material cutting operations due to being capable of considerable improvement in tool life and surface nish through reduction in tool
wear through control of machining temperature desirably at the cutting zone.
r 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Cryogenic cooling; Liquid nitrogen; Machining processes; Tool life; Surface roughness
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1. Cutting uids (coolants) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cryogenic cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1. Heat generation in machining process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1. Temperature distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cryogenic cooling approaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1. Cryogenic pre-cooling the workpiece. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2. Indirect cryogenic cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3. Cryogenic spraying and jet cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4. Cryogenic treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Miscellaneous effects of the cryogenic cooling in machining processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1. The effect of cryogenic temperature on material properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2. The effect of cryogenic cooling on cutting temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3. The effect of cryogenic cooling on tool wear and tool life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4. The effect of cryogenic cooling on surface roughness and dimensional deviation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5. The effect of cryogenic cooling on friction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6. The effect of cryogenic cooling on cutting forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 3122 028 686; fax: +90 3122 220 059.
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1. Introduction
Excessive heat and consequently wear formation are the
most important factors affecting performance and productivity of metal cutting operations. Different methods,
i.e. hot machining [1], high-pressure coolant application
[2], application of minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) [3]
have been tried by researchers to enhance machining
performance. One of these methods is conventional cutting
uid application.
1.1. Cutting fluids (coolants)
Conventional cutting uids were classied into three
groups as seen in Fig. 1 [4]. Water soluble uids were
dened suitable for operations where cutting speeds were
very high and pressures on the tool were relatively low.
Neat cutting oils are straight mineral oils, or mineral oils
with additives. They were preferred when cutting pressures
between chip and tool face were very high and where the
primary consideration was lubrication. It was determined
that cutting uids cannot penetrate the chiptool interface
at high-cutting speeds [5]. Gaseous lubricants were seen
very attractive when the cutting uid penetration problem
was considered but the high cost of gases made them
uneconomical for production applications.
The purpose of the application of the cutting uids in
metal cutting was stated as reducing cutting temperature by
cooling and friction between the tool, chip and workpiece
by lubrication [6]. Chip formation and curl, which affects
the size of the crater wear and the strength of the cutting
tool edge, is also affected when coolant is carried out
during machining. Generally, a reduction in temperature
results in a decrease in wear rate and an increase in tool life.
However, a reduction in the temperature of the workpiece
can increase its shear stress, so that the cutting force
may be increased and this can lead to a decrease in tool
life [7]. For instance, Seah et al. examined water-soluble
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cooling over conventional emulsion cooling were determined such as longer tool life, better chip breaking and
chip handling, higher productivity, lower productivity cost,
better work surface nish, environmentally safer, healthier
for the worker. For instance, when compared with
conventional emulsion cooling, cryogenic machining had
productivity gains of up to 21.36% in machining of AISI
304 stainless steel for different speeds as seen in Fig. 2.
In this study, cryogenic cooling application methods and
their effects on production in machining operations have
been reviewed in detail. Most of cryogenic cooling
applications in machining studies have been examined in
turning operations even though there were its applications
in other machining operations such as grinding [1619],
drilling [20] and milling [2123]. Contrary to turning
operations, cryogenic cooling has been investigated less
by the researchers in milling operations due to possibility
of thermal cracks on cutting tool in intermittent cutting
operations and difculties in practice. However, exceptional improvements over dry cutting and emulsion cooling
were achieved with cryogenic cooling by Hong et al. in
milling processes [24,25]. For example, in milling of A390
with high-speed steel cutting tools, the tool life ratio over
dry cutting was found bigger than 1000% by cryogenic
cooling.
2. Cryogenic cooling
Cryogenics express study and use of materials at very
low temperatures, below
150 1C. However, normal
boiling points of permanent gases such as helium,
hydrogen, neon, nitrogen, oxygen, normal air as cryogens
lie below 180 1C. Cryogenic gases have a wide variety of
applications in industry such as health, electronics,
manufacturing, automotive and aerospace industry particularly for cooling purposes. Liquid nitrogen is the most
commonly used element in cryogenics. It is produced
industrially by fractional distillation of liquid air and is
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Fig. 4. Isotherms of the temperature rise in the chip, the tool and the work material: (a) conventional machining of steel with carbide tool, (b) machining
of aluminium with a single-crystal diamond tool [35].
Fig. 5. Temperature distribution: (a) rake face, (b) ank face [36].
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Fig. 7. Diagram of worn cutting tool, showing the principal locations and
types of wear that occur [39].
Fig. 6. (a) Distribution of temperature on the rake face of a tool, (b) distribution of temperature on the rake face of the tool when cutting highconductivity copper [29].
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Table 1
Cryogenic characteristics of some materials
Material
Hardness
Impact strength
Toughness
Elongation
Reduction in area
AISI 1008
AISI 1010
AISI 1070
AISI E52100
AISI 304
A390
Ti6Al4V
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
k
2
k
k
k
k
m
m
m
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Table 2
Tool wears in machining of different materials
Material
Cutting tool
Cutting condition
RBSN
CBN50
Ti6Al4V
Dry
Cryogenic
Oil cooling
Cryogenic
Dry
Cryogenic
Dry
Cryogenic
30
80
46
46
62
110
52
158
2
0.88
1.1
0.22
0.85
0.6
0.45
0.28
Inconel 718
Tantalum
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protection from oxidation, corrosion, adhesion and absence of BUE formation. Remarkably reducing of ank
wear by SNMM insert was attributed to its geometric
structure having deep grooves parallel to the cutting edges
helping entry of larger fraction of the liquid nitrogen jets at
the ank surfaces [62,63,76].
In another cryogenic jet cooling application, best tool
life result was obtained in using only Z nozzle on the rake
face. For instance, tool life improvement was 67% at speed
of 3.82 m/s and 43% at the 3.40 m/s by this approach when
compared with conventional emulsion cooling. But it was
also seen at low-cutting speeds that emulsion cooling
worked slightly better than any cryogenic method [60].
In simultaneously using of two micro-nozzles that spray
LN2 to the tool rake and tool ank, tool life was up to ve
times longer than in conventional machining as shown in
Fig. 16 [52].
In a cryogenic cooling design [59], the effect of nozzle/
chipbreaker positioning as seen in Fig. 17 on tool life
was also studied. Among tested, six positions for
length of l and angle of l (1.75 mm151, 1.5 mm151,
1.25 mm151, 1.25 mm201, 1.25 mm101, 1 mm101)
high rate of ank wear was obtained with Position No. 1
(1.75 mm151) and No. 2 (1.5 mm151). These results
were attributed to being chipbreaker far from the cutting
edge, failing in lifting up the owing chip and hindering of
the reach of LN2. Consequently, it was found that Position
No. 3 (1.25 mm151) showed the lowest rate of ank wear.
Crater formation was also investigated with a cryogenic
jet cooling in machining of titanium alloy and the
percentage reductions in amount of maximum crater wear
with machining of 5 min were seen 33% for 70 m/min, 20%
for 85 m/min and 77% for 100 m/min by cryogenic cooling
as compared to dry machining [64].
In spite of advantages of the cryogenic jet cooling
method cited in plenty of studies above, one of the studies
[85] showed that when a TiB2-coated carbide was employed
under cryogenic cooling in turning of titanium alloy
(Ti5Al5Mo2SnV), severe abrasion, adhesion and
diffusion were found on cutting tool.
In cryogenic treatment method, Yong et al. [69] analysed
the differences in tool performance between cryogenically treated and untreated inserts depending on different
Fig. 15. (a) Average ank wear, VB and (b) average auxiliary ank wear, VS, for 30 min [83].
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Fig. 16. Tool life comparison for cryogenic jet cooling and emulsion
cooling curve on loglog scale [52].
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Fig. 18. (a) Surface roughness and (b) variation in change in dimension [63].
Table 3
Surface roughness values
Material
Cutting condition
Cutting tool
RBSN
LN2
Dry
LN2
Dry
LN2
Dry
CBN50
160
30
30
6
70
8
3.2
20
7.8
25
6.7
22
LN2
Dry
LN2
Dry
LN2
Dry
108
40
65
1.9
15
1.5
7.8
0.9
3.8
Ti6Al4V
Inconel 718
Tantalum
VC734
VC722
25
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Fig. 17, on friction between the chip and the tool also
examined in cryogenic jet cooling and the lowest friction
coefcient on the toolchip interface was observed with
Position No. 3 (1.25 mm151) as seen in Fig. 21. In
addition, an arrangement was made between dry cutting
and cryogenic jet cooling methods according to friction
coefcient as dry cutting4cryogenic ank cooling4cryogenic rake cooling4both rake and ank cooling.
4.6. The effect of cryogenic cooling on cutting forces
Energy consumption in a cutting operation was associated with friction and cutting forces [5]. So, it is
signicant being cutting forces less in terms of productivity
and production cost in any machining process. Bhattacharyya et al. [48] cooled the Kevlar composite workpieces
by cryogenic freezing and continual ooding methods
during machining. They measured the cutting forces and
they found that the cutting forces were about 50% higher
with cryogenic freezing of the workpiece, compared with
those obtained in ooding. In addition, cutting forces
recorded with chipbreaker tool were lower than those with
a non-chipbreaker tool. On the other hand, shearing force
Fs was calculated for comparison of cryogenic chip cooling
and workpiece pre-cooling from the measured force
components Fc, Ft and Ff as seen in Fig. 22. Both cryogenic
chip cooling and cryogenic workpiece pre-cooling produced an increased shear force compared to dry cutting,
but by different margins. For instance, at a cutting speed of
6 m/s, the shear force increased less than 8% in chip
cooling, while with workpiece pre-cooling the increase was
more than 37%. However, pre-cooling the workpiece
caused more increase in shear forces than the chip cooling.
Consequently, cutting forces will increase with any
cryogenic workpiece or chip cooling approaches.
Fig. 20. Five cases of LN2 application: (a) specimen under LN2 cooling/bath to study the effect of cryogenic temperatures on the tool material; (b) sample
disk under LN2 cooling/in LN2 saturated enclosure to study the effect of cryogenic temperatures on the workpiece material; (c) LN2 jetting between
specimen and sample disk to study hydrodynamic effects on the contact and local cooling; (d) jetting and cooling a specimen to study the combined effect
of the hydrodynamic lm and the low temperature tool; (e) specimen and sample disk under LN2 cooling without LN2 at contact for comparison with the
results from (a) and (b). A dry run friction test was also conducted for comparison [94].
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Fig. 23. Cutting forces in different cooling condition at 1.5 m/s [65].
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5. Conclusions
The aim of this study is to analyse and point out the
effect of cryogenic liquid nitrogen cooling on cutting
performance in material removal operations and its
application methods. Other conventional coolants, heat
generation and temperature distribution in a cutting
process have been also discussed. Following consequences
can be drawn from this review.
Cryogenic cooling in metal cutting has been studied
nearly for six decades, however, many of the studies
and most remarkable of them particularly in terms of
application methods have been done in last decade
and striking results have been achieved. Cryogenic cooling
is still attractive and has been examined in material
cutting eld.
Almost all type of materials from ductile to hard and
brittles have been machined in cryogenic cooling studies by
many miscellaneous cutting tools. However, different kinds
of steels were used widely in tests; non-ferrous metals, nonmetallic and composite materials should be examined
more. In addition, most of the studies have included
turning operations. Other machining operations such
as milling and drilling could be attempted more with
cryogenic cooling.
When compared with dry cutting and conventional
cooling, the most considerable characteristics of the
961
Table 4
The evaluation of the cryogenic cooling studies
Cryogenic cooling
method
Workpiece material
Cutting tool
Machining
method
Investigation topics
Authors
Cryogenic workpiece
and chip cooling
Kevlar reinforced
plastics (KFRP)
Uncoated carbide
(TPUX
160304TPUN
160304)
Carbide
(CNMA432KC850)
Turning
Turning
AISI 4340
Carbide (SNMG
120408-26)
Turning
Stainless steel
Ceramic (RBSNreaction bonded
silicon nitride)
Diamond tools
PCBN50
(polycrystalline cubic
boron nitride)
Turning
Turning
Evans [44]
Wang and Rajurkar
[54,56]
Ti6Al4V
Inconel 718
Tantalum
AISI 4340
Cemented carbide
WG 300 ceramic
AISI 1008
Indirect cryogenic
cooling
Carbide (SNMG
120408-26)
TiCN-coated carbide
Turning
Al2O3 ceramic
(alumina ceramic)
PCBN
(polycrystalline cubic
boron nitride)
Turning
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Table 4 (continued )
Cryogenic cooling
method
Workpiece material
Cutting tool
WC-Co
PCD (polycrystalline
diamond)
Titanium alloy
Stainless steel 202
Cryogenic jet cooling
AISI 1060
AISI 1040
E4340C
AISI 4140
AISI 4320
AISI 4037
AISI 304 stainless
steel
Ti6Al4V
AISI 1018
Ti6Al4V
Ti5Al5Mo2SnV
AISI 1018 and 4140
Cryogenic treatment
Ti 6-4
Al 6160
A390
PVC
Stainless steel
ASSAB 760 medium
carbon steel
Thermoplastic
composites
Fiberboard
Machining
method
Investigation topics
Authors
Carbide (TPUN
160304)
Turning
Carbide (SNMG
120408-26, SNMM
120408-26)
Turning
Carbide (SNMG
120408-26)
Carbide (CNMG
432)
Turning
Uncoated carbide
(CNMA 432-K68)
Turning
Microcrystalline
uncoated carbide
(SNMA 120408)
TiB2-coated carbide
M7 HSS
Turning
Turning
Turning
Dhar and
Kamruzzaman [63]
Hong and Broomer [60]
Milling
Tool life
Tool ank wear, tool life
Chatterjee [87]
Yong et al. [69,86]
Carbide
Drilling
Turning
Milling
Drilling,
Milling
Drilling
Carbide
Turning
Tool wear
Stewart [89]
HSS
Carbide (SNGG
230408)
HSS
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to express their gratitude for nancial
support of the cryogenic machining project by The
Scientic and Technological Research Council of Turkey
(TUBITAK), Project no. 106M473.
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