NYAME AKUMA

No. 14

May

1979

- - --

Newsletter of t h e Society of A f r i c a n i s t Archaeologists i n America.

Edited by P.L. Shinnie and i s s u e d from t h e Department of Archaeology,
The University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 1 N 4 , Canada. Typing
and e d i t o r i a l a s s i s t a n c e by Ama Owusua Shinnie.

.......................

There h a s been a f u r t h e r drop i n s u b s c r i p t i o n s t o Nyame Akuma

only 91 of t h e 160 subscribing f o r 1978 had s e n t t h e i r s u b s c r i p t i o n
by 1st May 1979. A number of t h o s e known t o be a c t i v e i n African
archaeology a r e amongst t h e non-subscribers.
This may be due t o
l a c k of i n t e r e s t o r p o s s i b l y j u s t t o f a i l u r e t o w r i t e t h e necessary
cheque. I r e a l i s e t h a t f o r those o u t s i d e North America an e f f o r t
i s r e q u i r e d t o g e t t h e necessary d o l l a r s even i n t h o s e c o u n t r i e s
where t h e r e i s easy a v a i l a b i l i t y of hard currency.

D r . Green of Cardiff has agreed t o a c t as agent f o r subscript i o n s from t h e United Kingdom and i f s u b s c r i b e r s c a r e t o send t h e
s t e r l i n g equivalent of $7 t o him he w i l l arrange f o r t h e t r a n s f e r .
The e d i t o r has two 'bees i n h i s bonnet' on which he i n v i t e s
comment - one i s t h e i n c r e a s i n g use of B.P. f o r radio-carbon d a t e s .
What he wonders is t h e r e a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h i s - o t h e r t h a n an
attempt t o appear s c i e n t i f i c . Most ( a l l ? ) of u s who were brought up
on t h e t r a d i t i o n a l d a t i n g system immediately do a small sum t o
convert t o t h e kind of years with which we a r e comfortable. It i s
not even as though t h e P were r e a l l y t h e ' P r e s e n t ' and 1950 i s
receding i n t o t h e p a s t at an uncomfortably f a s t r a t e . If it i s t o
make it c l e a r t h a t t h e d a t e i s a r a d i o carbon one and not n e c e s s a r i l y
a r e a l one t h e i n c r e a s i n g use of t h e lower case s t y l e ( b . c . ; a . d . )
seem t o meet t h e case.
The second matter i s t h e i n c r e a s i n g tendency f o r a u t h o r s t o
quote as evidence and give r e f e r e n c e s t o work which i s not normally
a v a i l a b l e . That i s t o say t o unpublished t h e s e s , depastmental
seminar papers, r e p o r t s t o governments and o t h e r p i e c e s of document a t i o n which a r e e i t h e r a v a i l a b l e only with extreme d i f f i c u l t y i f
a t a l 1 , o r have a r e s t r i c t e d c i r c u l a t i o n . This phenomenon i s
p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t i c e a b l e i n w r i t i n g s concerning West A f r i c a . It i s
not an easy matter t o decide on but t h e u s e of such sources t o
argue a case make it almost impossible f o r r e a d e r s t o reach an
opinion s i n c e much of t h e evidence i s not a v a i l a b l e .

P.L

Shinnie

Report on t h e Plenary Session, S.A.A.A.M.

a t Calgary.

A plenary s e s s i o n took place on A p r i l 21, 1979 and w a s a t t e n d e d

by 30 members of t h e s o c i e t y . The s e s s i o n w a s chaired by Professor
P e t e r Shinnie, who opened with a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e proceedures
he h a s followed i n e d i t i n g Nyame Akuma. There followed a d i s c u s s i o n
of t h r e e agenda items.

1. S t e e r i n g Committee Membership.

The present S t e e r i n g Committee is made up of a chairman, P e t e r

Shinnie, a s e c r e t a r y - t r e a s u r e r , Michael Bisson; and two a t l a r g e
members, John Bower and Maxine n e i n d i e n s t . A l l members expressed
t h e i r w i l l i n g n e s s t o serve a second two year term and a motion t o
re-appoint them w a s c a r r i e d unanimously.
2.

Future of Nyame Akuma

Professor Shinnie r e p o r t e d t h a t a suggestion had been made t o

him t h a t Nyame Akuma be converted from i t s p r e s e n t Newsletter
format t o a formal journal. Reasons f o r t h i s s t e p included long
delays i n t h e p u b l i c a t i o n of Kush, problems i n t h e production of t h e
West African Journal of Archaeology and t h e l a c k of a general
journal covering exclusively African archaeology. There followed a
l i v e l y d i s c u s s i o n i n which t h e assembly concluded t h a t t h e
Newsletter was an important v e h i c l e of communication between
s c h o l a r s which should be r e t a i n e d . Arguments a g a i n s t c r e a t i o n of a
journal included t h e l a c k of s u f f i c i e n t numbers of p o t e n t i a l
s u b s c r i b e r s t o make it economically v i a b l e , t h e danger t h a t a new
journal would undercut p r e s e n t l y s t r u g g l i n g African j o u r n a l s , and a
general f e e l i n g t h a t a new journal w a s not p a r t i c u l a r l y necessary.
A consensus w a s reached t h a t t h e Newsletter format should be
r e t a i n e d although Professor Shinnie agreed t o look i n t o t h e
f i n a n c i a l a s p e c t s of s e t t i n g up a j o u r n a l .
During t h i s discussion a number of t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s of t h e
production of Nyame Akuma were discussed. Up t o now, a l l m a t e r i a l
submitted has been published (although some p i e c e s have been
e d i t e d by P r o f . ~ h i n n i e ) Because submission of r e l a t i v e l y long
a r t i c l e s t h r e a t e n s t o i n c r e a s e production c o s t s above our p r e s e n t
income, it w a s recommended t h a t news items should normally not
exceed two s i n g l e spaced typed pages i n l e n g t h . The assembly
agreed t h a t t h e Editor should r e t a i n d i s c r e t i o n t o accept longer
p i e c e s , but t h a t i n most cases t h e two page l i m i t should be
observed.

3 . Venue f o r t h e 1981 Meetings.

Suggestions f o r t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e 1981 SAAAM Meetings a r e
now being taken. Professor J . D . Clark i n v i t e d t h e s o c i e t y t o meet

i n Berkeley.
F i n a l l y , a unanimous r e s o l u t i o n was passed thanking t h e staff
and students of t h e Department of Archaeology, University of
Calgary, f o r hosting t h e conference.
Michael S. Bisson
Secretary-Treasurer.

Nyame Akuma
Financial Report
This finan
atement includes only those funds received by the
Nyame Akuma account i n Montreal a s of April 16, 1979. Totals a r e expressed
i n Canadian dollars throughout, and the apparent discrepancy between t h e
number of subscriptions and t o t a l income is the r e s u l t of the conversion of
a substantial number of subscriptions from American t o Canadian currency.
Income and expenditures a r e 1 isted by pub1 ication year r a t h e r than t h e normal
f i s c a l year and so subscriptions f o r issues 12 and 1 3 received a f t e r
January 1 , 1979 a r e included i n the 1978 t o t a l s while a l l subscriptions f o r
14 and 15 are i n t h e 1979 t o t a l s .
In come

Expenditures

Back Issues
3 issues
$22.70
1978 (Numbers 12 and 13)
93 subscriptions i n
U.S. $ ($652)
x 1.11 conversion 455.50
2 subscriptions i n
other currency
18.65
Total 1978 Income

$1,197.87

1979 (Numbers 14 and 15)

68 subscriptions i n
U.S. $ ($477)
x 1.11 conversion $529.47
39 subscriptions i n
Canadian dollars
273.00
Total 1979 Income t o date
Advance Payments (1 980)
Z'Canadian, 1 U.S.

1978
Production expenses
Printing
$557.13
Paper
11 .OO
Envelopes
30.00
Postage
281.75
~eroxing
84.85
Phone
16.00
24.00
Clerical (NcGill 1
Equi pment
Filing Cabinet
140.95
Bank Charges
6.19
Total 1978 Expenses

$1,151.87

$802.47
$22.01
Summary

Income
Back Issues
1978 (12 & 13)
1979 (14 & 15)
Advance Payments
Total Income

Expenses (1 978 only)

$22.70
1,197.87
802.47
22.01
$2,045.05

Production (12 and 13)

Equipment
Bank Charges

$1,004.73
140.95
6.19

Total Expenses

$1,151.87

Total Income ( c a r r i e d over

from previous page)
$2,045.05
1,151.87
Less Expenses
BALANCE

$ 893.18
Treasurer' s Statement

Procedures
As 1978 was t h e f i r s t year i n which a s u b s c r i p t i o n f e e f o r Nyame
Akuma was levied, a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e way i n which these funds a r e handled
i s i n order. Subscriptions are deposited i n a Current Account i n the name of
Nyame Akuma a t branch 711 o f t h e Canadian Imperial Bank o f Commerce,
2055 Peel Street, Montreal. I n order t o minimize bank handling charges and
c l e r i c a l costs, checks a r e h e l d u n t i l 25 t o 30 accumulate and these a r e then
deposited as a group. Approximately 60% o f t h e checks have been i n American
do11ars and t h e present favorable exchange r a t e on American currency has
increased our income from these sources by about 10%. The present r i s e i n
t h e value o f t h e Canadian d o l l a r t o t h e American d o l l a r may b r i n g t h i s
s i t u a t i o n t o an end. A s i n g l e m a i l i n g o f r e c e i p t s i s made t o subscribers a t
the end of t h e calendar year.
Production costs f o r Nyame Akuma are i n i t i a l l y c a r r i e d by t h e
Department o f Archaeology, U n i v e r s i t y o f Calgary. The Department i n t u r n
b i l l s t h e Nyame Akuma account.
Discussion
Complete f i g u r e s are only a v a i l a b l e f o r 1978. Subscriptions f o r
1979 are s t i l l coming i n and the production costs o f t h e 1979 issues a r e n o t
y e t a v a i l a b l e . I n 1978 t h e Newsletter operated w i t h a small surplus, w i t h
t o t a l revenues ($1 ,I97.87) exceeding expenses ($1 ,I51.87) by $46. When t h e
onetime expense o f purchasing a f i l i n g cabinet i s subtracted from expenses,
actual production costs o f t h e 1978 issues were $186.95 l e s s than income.
It should be noted, however, t h a t $76.42 o f our 1978 income was gain from
favorable U.S.-Canadian do1l a r exchange r a t e s and without t h i s w i n d f a l l 1978
would have been a d e f i c i t year.
A t t h i s point, 1979 subscriptions seem t o be a r r i v i n g more s l o w l y
than 1978. I n s p i t e o f t h i s over 20 e n t i r e l y new members have subscribed i n
1979. Our main problem seems t o be w i t h e x i s t i n g members e i t h e r dropping
t h e i r subscriptions o r paying very l a t e . Our present balance insures t h a t
Nyame Akuma No. 14 can be p r i n t e d and mailed. We may be unable t o produce
No. 15 unless a minimum o f 30 more subscriptions a r r i v e by December. I f t h e
1978 p a t t e r n of l a t e payments repeats i t s e l f then we w i l l reach t h i s goal,
but even w i t h t h e 1978 surplus, we w i l l again be operating very near t h e
break-even p o i n t .
I t i s impossible t o a n t i c i p a t e p r e c i s e l y how much i n f l a t i o n w i l l
a f f e c t our f u t u r e operating costs. Postage r a t e s are c e r t a i n t o increase, as
are p r i n t i n g and s t a t i o n e r y charges. Nevertheless, as l o n g as we continue
t o have a surplus, there would seem t o be no j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r an increase

i n subscription r a t e s . I t may, however, be necessary t o control production

costs by l i m i t i n g t h e length o f Nyame Akuma.

Michael S. Bisson
McGi 11 Uni v e r s i t y
Treasurer, S.A.A.AM.

NEWS ITEMS

The following report has been received from C.R.A.P.E.

(centre de Recherches Anthropologiques ~rghistoriqueset ~thnographiques)
1) - Depuis 1974 le C.R.A.P.E. poursuit les fouilles du site
prghistorique de Ti-n-Hanakaten (~assili-n-'Aj
jer) , vaste abri, aux
parois couvertes de peintures, qui renferme un dgpot arch6ologique de
plus de 5m d16paisseur. Les peintures appartennent aux diverses phases
reconnues dans la rggion par H. MOTE avec prgdominance des peintures
rgcentes. Les formations arch6ologiques sup6rieures, ngolithiques,
sont ~ 6 ~ a r g ed'un
s niveau atgrien par une formation sableuse st6rile.
Ce niveau se prolonge devant l'abri mettant en relation ce milieu clos
avec les formations extgrieures o; 4 niveaux morphoclimatiques ont gt6
reconnus dont 3 renfermaient du matgriel prghistorique (Atgrien pour
1'un, ~al6olithi~ue
infgrieur pour les deux autres) . .-

Apr& avoir gtabli la stratigraphie du dgpot archgologique, les

fouilles se proposent de rechercher les structures d'occupation du sol.
Les pemiGres campagnes menges dans ce sens ont montrg que les anomalies
peques dans la sgdimentation des dgpots supgrieurs corespendaient $ des
fosses creusges au dgpend de la couche supgrieure. Certaines, scellges
par des lentilles cendreuses avec foyer en place et pierres taillges
sont tr& anciennes, d'autres sont actuelles. Par ce biais la sgquence
d'occupation remonte jusqu'$ nos jours

Le matgriel arch6ologique tail16 dans des microdiorites et quartz

est de qualitg mgdiocre La poterie abonde Des matgriaux pgrissables
vanneries, fruits graines ont
retrouvgs. Des charbons, nombreux et
volumineux ont permis d'identifier un vgggtation tropicale depuis la
base des formations.

Plusieurs squelettes ont 6t6 retirgs du gisement, aucun d'eux

n ' gtait accompag& de mobilier fungraire mais plusieurs reposaient sur
une liti&e fungraire. On ne sait encore quelle position chronologique
leur attribuer

Les dates actuellement connues 8100 130 B.P , 6650 90 BP,

4100 t 70 BP ne concernent que les 2/3 su$rieurs des coucFes
arch&logiques.

2) - Dans 1'Atlas sahazien, l'gtude syst6matique d'un

remblaiement sableux prgcgdemment mis en gvidence sur la marge
mgridionale 2 El-Haouita, a 6t6 entreprise. Les travaux actuels
faits par de jeunes chercheurs du CRAPE A.AMARA, M.AMROUCHE,
N. FERHAT et A. HEDDOUCHE portent sur les environs de Bou-Saada.
Plusieurs industries xattachges 2 l'Ib&omaurusien ont 6t6
retrouvges dans la partie sommitale du remblaiement. Les travaux
font l'objet de publication d a m dans le tome XXV de Libyca.

3) - Une gtude stratigraphique de la c&e 5 l'0uest d'Alger

menge par M. BETROUNI et N. SAOUDI a montrg l'existence de 7 Qtages
successifs parmi lesquels le Harounien est mat6rialisg par une
lumachelle de 2m et le Prgsoltanien par un gr5s massif. Leur Qtude
fera l'objet d'une publication dans le tome XXVI de Libyca.

4)

- Les recherches sur les pal6oclimats 2 partir de charbons

trouves dans les foyers prghistoriques, technique qui paralt riche
d'avenir, ont conduit M. COUVERT publier un Atlas de charbon
prghistoriques (~QmoireXXVI du CRAPE) qui devrait permettre un
dgveloppement plus rapide de cette technique.

5) - Parall&ement 2 ces travaux, G. AUMASSIP termine la mise

au point d'une gtude du Bas-Sahara aux temps pr6historiques.

BOTSWANA .
Iron Age Research in Eastern Botswana
by
James R. Denbow
Indiana University
Bloomington, Indiana
For the past year I have been conducting archaeological
research in the Serowe - Palapye area of eastern Botswana for my
Ph.D. thesis. This work has been supported by grants from
Fulbright-Hays and the National Science Foundation. Continuing
investigations this year will be sponsored in part by the Botswana
Society.
Since Botswana is relatively unknown archaeologically, the
first stages of research concentrated on locating and collecting
materials from as many prehistoric sites as possible. During the

survey, I benefited from t h e a b l e h e l p , c r i t i c i s m and p e t r o l of a n

amateur a r c h a e o l o g i s t , David Schemers. Early i n t h e reconnaissance
it w a s noted t h a t t h e r e w a s an almost p e r f e c t c o r r e l a t i o n between
dense s t a n d s of cenchrus c i l i a r i s and t h e midden d e p o s i t s on
is r e l a t i v e l y r a r e i n t h e
archaeological s i t e s . Although t h i s grass
surrounding Mopane bushveld, it grows s o t h i c k l y on t h e middens t h a t ,
once e s t a b l i s h e d , it prevents t h e subsequent encroachment of t r e e s
and shrubs. This has enabled me t o use 1:40,000 s c a l e air photographs t o l o c a t e s i t e s s i n c e they show up as ' b a l d s p o t s ' i n t h e
surrounding v e g e t a t i o n . Approximately 150 s i t e s have been
i n v e s t i g a t e d u s i n g t h i s method, and t h e a r t e f a c t s c o l l e c t e d i n d i c a t e
t h a t most were occupied between A.D. 800 - 1300. The m a j o r i t y of
s i t e s a r e s i t u a t e d on h i l l t o p s , but a l i m i t e d reconnaissance of t h e
surrounding f l a t l a n d s suggests t h a t t h i s number r e p r e s e n t s about
75% of t h e t o t a l number of I r o n Age s i t e s i n t h e survey a r e a .
After t h e reconnaissance 4 s i t e s were t e s t e d , two of t h e s e
i n t e n s i v e l y . Excavations a t Taukome, 30 km. N.W. of Serowe,
yielded ceramics similar t o t h e Zhizo phase of t h e Gokomere
T r a d i t i o n i n Rhodesia. Towards t h e t o p of t h e 1$ metre d e p o s i t
t h e s e m a t e r i a l s develop i n t o an assemblage i d e n t i c a l with t h e
The o t h e r i n t e n s i v e l y
e a r l y occupation of Tautswe ( ~ e ~ i o n k1978).
a
excavated s i t e , Thatswane, h a s an e a r l y component a l s o i d e n t i c a l
with Tautswe, and a l a t e r , p o s s i b l y u n r e l a t e d component which may
d a t e c . A.D. 1500. The ceramic s e r i a t i o n I am now engaged i n w i l l
s y s t e m a t i c a l l y demonstrate t h a t t h e Tautswe m a t e r i a l , previously
l a b e l l e d as a 'Leopard's Kopje' v a r i a n t , can be derived from an
Early I r o n Age base r e l a t e d t o t h e Zhizo phase ( c f . Lepionka 1978;
Huffman 1978)

P r e l i m i n a r i l y , t h e excavations a l s o i n d i c a t e t h a t at an e a r l y
d a t e t h e first Early I r o n Age immigrants i n t o Botswana placed
g r e a t e r r e l i a n c e upon animal husbandry than has been demonstrated
f o r comparable s i t e s i n Rhodesia and t h e northern Transvaal. Most
of t h e s i t e s i n c e n t r a l Botswana contain evidence of c a t t l e o r
animal kraals with manure d e p o s i t s up t o 3 f e e t t h i c k . The
excavations at Taukome uncovered t h e o u t l i n e of one such k r a a l a t
t h e base of t h e d e p o s i t which can d e f i n i t e l y be a s s o c i a t e d with
t h e Early I r o n Age occupation of t h e s i t e . The o u t l i n e of a
f l i m s i l y constructed house was a l s o l o c a t e d near t h e k r a a l .
The general i n d i c a t i o n s a r e t h a t as herds of domesticated animals
increased, t h e semi-arid f r i n g e s of t h e Kalahari could be
p r o f i t a b l y u t i l i z e d by Early I r o n Age groups. Moreover, t h e
environment may have been a t t r a c t i v e t o Early I r o n Age 'semip a s t o r a l i s t s ' s i n c e t h e a r e a is b a s i c a l l y sweet v e l d where few
unpalatable o r poisonous s p e c i e s occur i n a r e a s where t h e
vegetation i s undisturbed. Mopane l e a v e s a r e a l s o a high p r o t e i n
browse food used by c a t t l e .

Other m a t e r i a l s recovered from t h e excavations at Taukome and

Thatswane include i r o n and copper t o o l s , animal bone, carbonized
sorghum(?) and cow peas(?) , numerous o s t r i c h egg s h e l l beads, r a r e
g l a s s beads and cowry s h e l l s , and one p e r f o r a t e d conus s h e l l d i s c .
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , most of t h e s e t r a d e i t e m s occur with t h e e a r l i e r
m a t e r i a l , suggesting t h a t a f t e r A.D. 1000 Botswana w a s more
i s o l a t e d from contact with t r a d e goods from t h e c o a s t . A s a
p o s s i b l e c o r o l l a r y , no s i t e s containing M 1 o r ~ a ~ - u n g u b wtey p e
m a t e r i a l s were found i n t h e survey a r e a .
\

The reconnaissance d a t a a l s o suggest t h a t t h e r e may have been

l o n g term f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e climate of Botswana over t h e p a s t
1200 years. C e r t a i n l y t h e densest period of occupation appears t o
have been between A.D. 800 and 1300. Although s i t e s have been
l o c a t e d which d a t e t o l a t e r p e r i o d s , t h e y a r e not as numerous as
s i t e s d a t i n g from t h e e a r l i e r periods. This may mean t h a t between
1300 and 1500 A.D. t h e climate of Botswana w a s s l i g h t l y d r y e r , o r
a l t e r n a t i v e l y , it could i n d i c a t e a s h i f t of t h e T s e t s e f l y b e l t s
i n t o t h e a r e a a t t h a t time. To d r a w a modern p a r a l l e l , it i s known
t h a t t h e s p r i n g s which once f e d t h e t r i b a l c a p i t a l s a t Shoshong and
Serowe 100 years ago a r e now dry. It i s d i f f i c u l t a t t h i s p o i n t ,
however, t o be c e r t a i n whether t h i s w a s t h e r e s u l t of i n c r e a s e d
human a c t i v i t y , gradual environmental change, o r both. There a r e
i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t h e mean annual r a i n f a l l is again decreasing.
L a s t l y , present d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e l i m i t s of t h e 'Tautswe
T r a d i t i o n ' appear t o conform roughly t o t h e l i m i t s of Mopane
bushveld which extends from t h e Makarikari Pans i n t h e west t o
Mahalapye i n t h e south. Archaeological c o l l e c t i o n s from t h e
Mahalapye a r e a suggest t h a t d i f f e r e n t Middle I r o n Age t r a d i t i o n s ,
perhaps r e l a t e d t o o t h e r Early I r o n Age bases, w i l l be found i n
t h e more southern p a r t s of t h e country.

References
Huffman, T.N.

1978

Lepionka, L.
1978

"The Origins of Leopard's Kopje: An 1 1 t h

Century Difaquane", Arnoldia. National
Museums of Rhodesia.
"Excavations a t Tautswemogala". Botswana
Notes and Records.
Botswana S o c i e t y .

The T r e n t U n i v e r s i t y Botswana Archaeological P r o j e c t (TUBAP)

The 19'78 F i e l d Season

by Morgan J Tamplin , P r o j e c t D i r e c t o r
Department of Anthropology, T r e n t U n i v e r s i t y .
The T r e n t U n i v e r s i t y Botswana Archaeological P r o j e c t (TUBAP) ,
i s a long-term m u l t i - d i s c i p l i n a r y r e s e a r c h e f f o r t aimed a t c l a r i f y i n g t h e sequence of p r e h i s t o r i c c u l t u r e s and environmental changes
i n e a s t e r n Botswana.
The g e n e r a l aims of t h e p r o j e c t are:
1. To develop a l o c a l c u l t u r a l chronology.
2.

To i n t e g r a t e environmental d a t a i n t o t h i s
c u l t u r e sequence.

3. To d e f i n e t h e "man-land" r e l a t i o n s h i p s a t

various technological l e v e l s f o r t h e various

time p e r i o d s w i t h i n t h e r e g i o n .

The p r o j e c t h a s been supported by T r e n t U n i v e r s i t y , t h e

Royal O n t a r i o Museum and e s p e c i a l l y t h e S o c i a l S c i e n c e s and
Humanities Research Council of Canada. I n 1978, t h e f i e l d p a r t y
c o n s i s t e d of t h e f o l l o w i n g persons i n a d d i t i o n t o myself:
C a t h a r i n a van Waarden was i n charge of e x c a v a t i o n s a t t h e
s i t e of Leeukop as p a r t of h e r M . A . t h e s i s r e s e a r c h a t t h e Department of Anthropology, T r e n t U n i v e r s i t y .
N e i l Dunford d i d a groundwater and v e g e t a t i o n s t u d y of t h e
a r e a f o r h i s M.A. r e s e a r c h i n t h e Biology-Geography programme at
T r e n t , and a l s o d i r e c t e d t h e s i t e mapping.
Robin Dods, a Ph.D. c a n d i d a t e at t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto,
v o l u n t e e r e d t o do a p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s of excavated f a u n a l
m a t e r i a l and prepaxe comparative o s t e o l o g i c a l specimens. We a l s o
engaged Hugh Daechsel, an M.A. s t u d e n t a t Mcmaster U n i v e r s i t y as a
general research a s s i s t a n t .
For t h e 1978 s e a s o n , I c o n c e n t r a t e d on two s i t e s n e a r t h e
confluence of t h e Limpopo and Motloutse r i v e r s , on p r o p e r t y owned
by t h e Botswana Development c o r p o r a t i o n , c a l l e d Talana Farms.
One of t h e s i t e s i s a s m a l l , f o r t i f i e d h i l l - t o p c a l l e d Leeukop,
which we wanted t o excavate i n o r d e r t o understand and a n t i c i p a t e
t h e s p a t i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of f e a t u r e s which we might f i n d on l a r g e r
s i t e s t o be i n v e s t i g a t e d l a t e r . Van Waarden's work r e v e a l e d t h e
o u t l i n e s of at l e a s t 43 c i r c u l a r mud-walled s t r u c t u r e s and a number
of s t o n e r e t a i n i n g w a l l s o r f o r t i f i c a t i o n s , on t h e 143 metre-long s i t e .

A s t h e s t r u c t u r e s do not overlap, t h e y were probably contemporaneous.

A r t i f a c t s i n c l u d e ceramics, i r o n , g l a s s and o s t r i c h e g g s h e l l beads,
b r a s s buttons and badges, and v a r i o u s p a r t s of f i r e a r m s .

A British

m i l i t a r y i n s i g n i a d a t e s t h e main component t o t h e l a t e 1 9 t h century

and t h i s i s confirmed by a radiocazbon d a t e of A D

1915 + 45 years!

There was a l s o a poorly-defined e a r l i e r component, radiocarbon

dated a t AD

1665 +_ 45 years.

The bones recovered revealed t h a t a wide v a r i e t y of wild

s p e c i e s were e x p l o i t e d but t h e r e were s u p r i s i n g l y few domesticates.
I n a d d i t i o n t o conducting t h i s preliminary f a u n a l a n a l y s i s ,
M s . Dods prepared over 25 comparative o s t e o l o g i c a l specimens which

a r e housed at t h e National Museum f o r use by u s and o t h e r p r o j e c t s .

Neil Dunford d i r e c t e d t h e mapping of t h e two s i t e s of Leeukop
and Mmamagwa.

The l a t t e r s i t e i s a Leopards Kopje I1 occupation,

radiocarbon d a t e d a t AD 940 4
-. 80 y e a r s with a t least 25 h e c t a r e s
of occupation i n t h e c e n t r a l p o r t i o n , up t o

1.5 m deep.

It w a s

too l a r g e and complex an a r e a t o make a d e t a i l e d contour map i n

t h e time a v a i l a b l e , so we placed p r e c i s e l y measured ground c o n t r o l s
f o r low-level a e r i a l photography planned f o r 1979.

I had hoped t o

do some c o n t r o l l e d s u r f a c e c o l l e c t i n g and a d d i t i o n a l t e s t
excavation as w e l l , but because of delays g e t t i n g i n t o t h e f i e l d ,
postponed t h i s phase and concentrated our resources on t h e more
urgent requirements of t h e s t u d e n t s ' r e s e a r c h .
After completing t h e mapping programme, M r . Dunford d i r e c t e d
h i s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e groundwater and vegetation survey.

He

examined p e r e n n i a l s p r i n g s and t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d p l a n t communities,

both at Talana, and up t h e Motloutse as f a r as Bobonong.

He w i l l

i n v e s t i g a t e methods of d e t e c t i n g and p r e d i c t i n g t h e presence of nears u r f a c e groundwater using various remote sensing techniques.

The

vegetation d a t a w i l l h e l p t o d e f i n e t h e resource p o t e n t i a l of t h e a s e a .
I n 1979, we w i l l r e t u r n t o Mmamagwa with a smaller team, t o cont i n u e mapping t h e c e n t r a l p o r t i o n of t h e s i t e .

I n conjunction with t h e

mapping, we w i l l t a k e s o i l samples t o be t e s t e d f o r phosphates, i n

order t o d e f i n e human a c t i v i t y a r e a s and c a t t l e k r a a l s .

Daniel C a i s t e r r e p o r t s :
Since December, 1978, I have been conducting a n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
survey around Molepolole i n Kweneng D i s t r i c t 50 km west of Gaborone,
Botswana, as t h e first s t a g e i n a s t u d y of t h e p r e h i s t o r y of t h e
Kwena, one of t h e major Tswana chiefdoms i n Botswana. Anthropolog i c a l l y , t h e Tswana a r e i n t r i g u i n g f o r t h e i r extremely nucleated
s e t t l e m e n t systems i n t h e semi-arid peri-Kalahari environment and
f o r t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e complexity of t h e i r chiefdoms. Recent
e t h n o - h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h among t h e Kwena h a s l e d G.Y. Okihiro t o
conclude t h a t t h e i r s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n and p o l i t i c a l complexity
were responses t o a massive nineteenth century i n f l u x of r e f u g e e s
from t h e Difaqane and from Afrikaner s e t t l e m e n t i n t h e Transvaal,
My r e s e a r c h w i l l attempt t o t e s t t h a t p r o p o s i t i o n i n p a r t i c u l a r
and, more g e n e r a l l y , w i l l examine L a t e I r o n Age s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s
and a d a p t a t i o n s i n t h i s u n p r e d i c t a b l e environment.
So far t h i r t y - t h r e e s i t e s have been l o c a t e d through h i s t o r i c a l
r e s e a r c h , i n t e r v i e w s with l o c a l r e s i d e n t s , and ground reconnaissance.
Five of t h e s e s i t e s c o n s t i t u t e a s e r i e s of Kwena c a p i t a l s occupied
s e q u e n t i a l l y s i n c e before t h e Difaqane. They a f f o r d an opportunity
t o study developments i n Tswana s e t t l e m e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n , a d a p t a t i o n ,
and ceramic technology over a century and a h a l f of well-documented
h i s t o r i c a l change.
Twenty-four o t h e r s i t e s , l o c a t e d on h i l l t o p s , a r e much s m a l l e r
t h a n t h e Kwena s e t t l e m e n t s . Many of them contain s t o n e perimeter
w a l l i n g , t e r r a c i n g , o r stone-walled enclosures. Decorated ceramics
a r e r e l a t i v e l y r a r e i n s u r f a c e c o l l e c t i o n s from t h e s e s i t e s , but
many motifs have p a r a l l e l s i n Sotho-Tswana assemblages from t h e
Transvaal and t h e Orange Free S t a t e . Common m o t i f s include rows of
h o r i z o n t a l i n c i s i o n o r s t y l u s impressions on r i m s , herringbone
i n c i s i o n o r comb-stamping on r i m s , notched o r o b l i q u e l y i n c i s e d
r i m s , and i n c i s e d o r comb-stamped chevrons, arcades and t r i a n g l e s
on bowls and t h e shoulders of jars. Red and black burnishing o f t e n
f i l l i n t h e zones defined by t h e s e motifs. Although q u i t e d i s t i n c t
from modern Kwena ceramics, t h e s e assemblages may prove t o be more
s i m i l a r t o nineteenth century Kwena assemblages.
Although t h e survey h a s focussed on t h e h i l l s around
Molepolole, t h r e e I r o n Age s i t e s have been l o c a t e d i n t h e a d j a c e n t
p l a i n s . These v i l l a g e s i t e s have yielded n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l assemblages of p o t t e r y dominated by s p h e r i c a l v e s s e l s with s h o r t e v e r t e d
r i m s decorated only by notching o r i n c i s i n g on t h e l i p . T h i s motif
a l s o occurs i n many assemblages from h i l l t o p s i t e s , but never s o
e x c l u s i v e l y as i n t h e p l a i n s s i t e s . It i s not y e t c l e a r whether
t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n r e f l e c t s chronological o r e t h n i c d i f f e r e n c e s nor
whether t h e c o n t r a s t i n g s i t e l o c a t i o n s s i g n i f y major a d a p t i v e
differences

At this stage of research any conclusions are extremely

tentative, but two points seem clear. First, basic cultural
affinities are oriented toward the south; there is no evidence in
the ceramics of significant interaction with groups in Zimbabwe.
Second, the large nineteenth century Tswana towns seem to have no
precursors in this area. Obviously, either of these statements
may be radically altered by the results of further survey.

CAMEROON
Les activit6s de l'arch6ologie ORSTOM au Cameroun se sont
d6velopp6es selon deux axes de 1968 2 1978.

prospection g6n6rale de la partie Nord du pays: collectes,

m6thodologie, et d6finition de thGmes;

6tudes thgmatiques en fonction

(a) des r6sultats de la prospection (b) des besoins historiques
nationaux au Cameroun.

I
La prospection conduite selon une m6thodologie d'abord
extensive
a permis de recenser.
lato sensu et d'en donner un premigr
des sites pa1601ithiques -cadre g60morphologique
et post-n601ithiques(~~)
des sites 60des rupestres et des mggalithes.
La m6thodologie g6n6rale et les techniques utilis6es sont expos6es
et discut6es dans plusieurs publications. Les r6sultats concernent
N et 8
'
~
.
surtout la r6gion entre les parallsles I'
La prospection a ensuite referm6 ses limites ggographiques et
thgmatiques:
! ~6olithiqueet postn6olithique au Cameroun du Nord (~iamarg,
~6nou6,Mayo Danay et Logone et ~hari): sondages et prospections
I Rupestres de Bidzar: lev6, protection, classement et 6tude.
Une nouvelle m6thodologi.e prospective a permis de recenser environ
80 sites post-ngolithiques surtout au Diamar6 et d'en fournir une
cartographie 2 1/200.000 .I1 est envisag6 en 1979 de publier la
totalit6 des sites et de recenser les thsmes les plus rentables.

1. Conjointement 2 la prospection et afin de poser les premiers

jalons chrono-culturels de notre rggion, des fouilles et sondages
ont 6t6 effectugs:
Pal6olithique be-~cheul6en:Mokorvong
Post-~cheulgen
: Figuil-Louti
Douroum

~golithiqueFinal:Maroua ~sana~a(1)et CFDT

post-ngolithique: Salak
Bidzar-Biou.
Bien entendu ce cadre est encore &he
et attend 5 la fois de
nouvelles fouilles, classificationsA typologies et datations, le
ngolithique restant ma1 defini de meme que le paleolithique final.
Une grande quantitg de sites de surface ou erodes sont classes en
fonction des premiers sondages et exigent de nouvelles recherches.
La prospection s'gtant orientge sur un thGme (NQO et Post
~eolithi~ue)
et sur une zone, les fouilles ont 6tG ~rogrammeesde
f a ~ o n5 prendre cette zone en transect du Nord au Sud. Ainsi aprzs
Salak et Bidzar-Biou, sont prgvus ~a~am/mon~ossi
vers le parallzle
I1 et/ou Nanikalou 11. Nous pensons ainsi obtenir avec une
nouvelle gtude des ateliers de Maroua (~sanagaet CFDT) une image
inter regionale globale du post-ngolithique nord-Camerounais

Une orientation technologique et pal606cologique est programm6e:

(a) mingralogie des terres cuites; micromorphologie des poteries ;
recherche des 6lements majeurs et mineurs (echantillons de 20
tessons par composant de site).
(b) cartographie des sols anthropiques (erodgs, st6rilisgs)
localement visibles sous la forme de planosols et estimation de
1' impact anthropique sur le manteau pgdologique durant les
derniers millgnaires
2.

3 . La liaison ethnologie-archgologie est dgfendue et souhaitge:

(a) gtablissement de corpus de la culture mat6rielle actuelle trGs

ma1 connue;
(b) 6tablissement de corpus de la culture materielle des civilisations pass6es subactuelles et prghistoriques (en cours)
ces deux corpus devraient 2tre uniformis&.
(c) recherches linguistiques, toponymiques et mots de base sur les
langues tchadiques et adamawa.
Alain Marliac
BP 215
~gaoundereCameroon
The original item was fully referenced with a bibliography
of 21 items. These have been omitted for economy but anyone
wishing full details can get them from the editor.

CONGO

D r . Volavka of t h e F a c u l t y of Fine Arts, York U n i v e r s i t y ,

Canada send t h i s r e p o r t :
I n t h e summer of 1978 I worked a g a i n i n c e n t r a l A f r i c a t o
conclude my e n q u i r i e s concerning t h e a n t i q u e Kongo regalia which
I had found i n t h e Congo ( ~ e o ~ l e Republic
's
of congo). I m e t
~ & e~ G d eabout whom I had heard a l r e a d y - as a very knowledgeable
amateur he has been conducting archaeological surveys i n t h e r i c h
but unknown r e g i o n of Bouenza i n t h e N i a r i basin.
The r e g a l i a i n which I am i n t e r e s t e d include both a r t i s t i c
and archaeological items. However I found them i n a museum
( a f t e r f i v e y e a r s of f i e l d search !) and not i n a d i g . I have
them f u l l y documented and analysed and hope t o provide a f u l l e r
r e p o r t i n a l a t e r number of Nyame Akuma.

EGYPT
This item from D r . C . V . Haynes of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Arizona
came j u s t t o o l a t e f o r Nyame Akuma no.13. Although r e f e r r i n g t o
work c a r r i e d out over a year ago it seems of s u f f i c i e n t i n t e r e s t
t o include it now.
"In February and March, 1978, I , with colleagues P e t e r
Mehringer, Donald Johnson, and Robert Giegengack, continued with
my ongoing p r o j e c t of mapping and d a t i n g l a t e Quarternary d e p o s i t s
of t h e Western Desert of Egypt. Emphasis i s being placed on t h e
Holocene playa d e p o s i t s and r e l a t e d s o i l s of t h e Kharga depression
and t h e Dungul-Kiseiba depression i n o r d e r t o b e t t e r understand
p l u v i a l conditions and t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o human occupation of t h e
area.
I n l a t e September and e a r l y October, I p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e
expedition of Farouk E l Baz, Smithsonian I n s t i t u t i o n , t o G i l f Kebir
and Oweinat t o examine d e p o s i t s and geologic phenomena t h a t a r e
considered t o be p o t e n t i a l analogs of s i m i l a r f e a t u r e s of M a r s .
Archaeological observations were made by William McHugh and myself
and s e v e r a l new but small s i t e s ( ~ e o l i t h i c )were found.

I w i l l r e t u r n i n February and March of next year t o continue

my f i e l d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and w i l l j o i n Fred Wendorf i n t h e B i r
Kiseiba a r e a where we have s e v e r a l s i t e s a s s o c i a t e d with l a k e
d e p o s i t s . This work w i l l a l s o be extended t o t h e depressions of
northern Sudan where our v i s i t s of 1976 revealed s i t e s a s s o c i a t e d
with l a k e d e p o s i t s . "

Dakhleh Oasis P r o j e c t 1 9 8 Season.

I n t h e autumn of 1978 t h e combined RCW-SSEA p r o j e c t i n t h e
Dakhleh Oasis of t h e Egyptian Western Desert had its first season
of i n t e n s i v e f i e l d work. The a r e a s e l e c t e d f o r t h e beginning of
t h e survey phase of t h e p r o j e c t was at t h e extreme western end of
t h e o a s i s , i n a region known as Maohoub. We managed t o completely
cover an a r e a of 120 square kilometres within which f i f t y s i t e s
were recorded. We have a l s o begun s t u d i e s of t h e f l o r a , fauna and
geology of t h e o a s i s .
The e a r l i e s t m a t e r i a l i n our h i e w is represented i n t e n
s i t e s of varying s i z e . Unfortunately, heavy d e f l a t i o n has occured
i n t h e azea and t h e s e Neolithic s i t e s a r e now only s u r f a c e
s c a t t e r i n g s of E t h i c s . Three phases of t h e N e o l i t h i c seem
i n d i c a t e d by t h e technologies, t h e l a t e s t having t h e a d d i t i o n of
ceramics. Preliminary i n d i c a t i o n s a r e t h a t t h e s e N e o l i t h i c remains
cannot be d i r e c t l y a s s o c i a t e d with developments i n t h e N i l e Valley.
P o s s i b l y , a l s o , t h e l a t e s t of t h e s e Neolithic remains comes down t o
2300 B.C. o r s o , when we have t h e establishment of t h e next
recognizably d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e . That is t o be found at Balat, i n
e a t e r n Dakhleh, where t h e Egyptians of t h e l a t e s i x t h dynasty
In
founded an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c e n t r e of considerable magnitude.
Maohoub t h i s season, we have recorded e i g h t o t h e r s i t e s of t h i s
same period- f o u r of them cemeteries and t h e l a r g e s t s e t t l e m e n t
covering over e i g h t y h e c t a r e s . The reasons f o r t h e establishment
of t h e s e s i t e s a r e not y e t apparent, but it does seem c l e a r t h a t
t h e y f e l l i n t o d i s u s e by t h e Middle Kingdom.
Of t h e remaining thirty-two s i t e s , twenty-five d a t e t o t h e
Roman occupation and t h e r e s t t o t h e subsequent Coptic and e a r l y
I s l a m i c p e r i o d s . The preservation of t h e s e s i t e s i s e x c e l l e n t , i n
marked c o n t r a s t t o t h e e a r l i e r ones, and we have mud b r i c k
farmhouses standing above ground and preserved well i n t o t h e second
s t o r e y . Textual r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e development of a g r i c u l t u r e i n
t h e o a s i s seem well borne o u t by t h e archaeological evidence. The
general small s i z e , numbers, and f a i r l y even d i s t r i b u t i o n of
a r c h i t e c t u r a l s i t e s as well as t h e extensive system of aqueducts
and f l o r a l f i n d s a l l support t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The subsequent
C h r i s t i a n s i t e s a r e a l s o well preserved, but far fewer i n number,
a f a c t which may be a r e f l e c t i o n of changed conditions due,
probably, t o a combination of o v e r - u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e a r e a by t h e
Romans and some s l i g h t c l i m a t i c change.

A. J M i l l s
Royal Ontario Museum.

GHANA

Professor J Sutton of t h e Department of Archaeology,

University of Ghana sends t h i s r e p o r t :
The rescheduling of t h e academic calendar, r e s u l t i n g from
c e r t a i n l o c a l t r o u b l e s , made f i e l d research i n 1978 d i f f i c u l t . It
w a s however p o s s i b l e t o continue c e r t a i n p r o j e c t s , notably i n t h e
Accra region, and t o undertake e x p l o r a t o r y work elsewhere.
Mr.J.R. Anquandah has pursued h i s p r o j e c t on t h e Accra p l a i n s
(see N .A. 1 2 , p. 24-7) , with f u r t h e r excavations a t Ladoku n e a r t h e
c o a s t and a t Cherekecherete at t h e southern end of t h e Shai h i l l s .
This work i s helping t o r e f i n e t h e l a t e r I r o n Age sequence f o r t h e
region - and maybe t o extend it back i n t o t h e e a r l i e r h a l f of I r o n
Age. He i s continuing t o c o r r e l a t e with t h e s e f i n d i n g s
ethnographic and o r a l - h i s t o r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s among t h e G a and
Dangme people.
Meanwhile, D r . Joanne Dombrowski has undertaken a second
season of work at Gao Lagoon (by Tema, 0' 03 'E) with i t s LSA
s h e l l accumulations and p o t t e r y . ( s e e N .A. 1 0 , p .31-4; 11,p. 29-30)
A radiocarbon d a t e of some 6,000 years ago (N-3213) has been
obtained from t h e peaty c l a y underlying t h e c u l t u r a l m a t e r i a l .
D r . Dombrowski h a s a l s o t e s t e d a v i l l a g e s i t u a t e d on t h e a d j a c e n t
c l i f f (between t h e lagoon and t h e s e a ) . Radiocarbon r e s u l t s show
t h a t t h i s extends back t o q u i t e e a r l y i n t h e I r o n Age ( t h e
it shows promise of t i e i n g i n t o
e a r l i e s t c e n t u r i e s A.D.):
M r . Anquandah's sequence.

Over t h e y e a r s a considerable amount of palaeoecological/

environmental work has been undertaken on both t h e Stone Age and
t h e I r o n Age i n Ghana through t h e keen c o l l a b o r a t i o n of s c i e n t i s t s
i n a v a r i e t y of d i s c i p l i n e s with a r c h a e o l o g i s t s . It i s hoped t o
strengthen such cooperation a t t h i s p o i n t ; and t h e I n t e r - U n i v e r s i t y
Council ( i n on don) has agreed t o provide some e s s e n t i a l equipment
t o t h e University of Ghana f o r t h i s purpose. Although we a r e not
planning a formal conference a t t h i s s t a g e , we do have i n mind t o
maintain a l o c a l informal seminar s e r i e s , while c e r t a i n a s p e c t s of
palaeoecology and p a s t environments i n Ghana w i l l be t r e a t e d i n
communications t o conferences o u t s i d e t h e country. Beside t h e
p r o j e c t s mentioned above, Professor J.E.G. Sutton i s i n t e r e s t e d i n
t h e i n d i c a t i o n s of environmental change i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e Kintampo
c u l t u r e of t h e second millennium B.C., and has begun some
preliminary fieldwork on t h i s s u b j e c t .
E s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g f o r t h e post-Pleistocene sequence a r e
t h e l e v e l s of Lake Bosumtwi near Kumasi
D r . M.R Talbot (now of
Leeds u n i v e r s i t y ) r e t u r n e d t o Ghana t h i s year t o c o l l e c t samples

w i t h D r . J . Maley ( ~ a l y n o l o g i s t from c.N.R.s.).

( s e e N.A. 1 0 , ~ ~ 3 4 - 5 . )
On t h e c o a s t moreover another d e p o s i t of p e a t o r peaty mud has been
l o c a t e d at Ada ( 0 ~ 3 8 ' by
~ ) t h e Volta e s t u a r y (by D r . K i m Ly,
g e o l o g i s t at t h e University of ~ h a n a ) . It u n d e r l i e s t h e beach and is
exposed at low s e a - l e v e l . It is d o u b t l e s s p a r t of a former lagoon
over which t h e beach h a s r e t r e a t e d through t i d a l p r e s s u r e s . It seems
t o be s i m i l a r t o t h e d e p o s i t recorded i n t h e 1950s by D r . O l i v e r
Davies at Takoradi (145'~)- but s i n c e destroyed by marine e r o s i o n from which a radiocarbon d a t e ( ~ r o - 1 1 % ) almost 6,000 years o l d w a s
obtained. (see Davies , Quaternary i n t h e Coastlands of Guinea,
Glasgow, 1964, p.159; and WAJA I , 1971, p.94.) It is i n t e r e s t i n g t o
note t h e closeness of t h i s d a t e t o t h a t r e c e n t l y obtained by
D r . Joanne Dombrowski at Gao lagoon (noted above)
It i s hoped t o
o b t a i n a radiocarbon d a t e from t h e Ada d e p o s i t , as well as macrob o t a n i c a l and palynological i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s . There must be many
such lagoonal peaty d e p o s i t s along t h e Ghana coast: t h e y should h e l p
i n providing a background t o s e a - l e v e l s , c o a s t a l e r o s i o n , e s t u a r y
formation and indeed s e t t l e m e n t h i s t o r y close t o t h e shore during t h e
post-Pleistocene. It i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e l i e and l e v e l s of t h e s e
peaty d e p o s i t s have been a f f e c t e d by r e c e n t t e c t o n i c a c t i v i t y : t h e r e
i s t h e r e f o r e a community of i n t e r e s t between u s and a team of
seismologists ( a t Legon and Chelsea College, l on don) undertaking a
micro- earthquake survey i n t h e Accra region.

Miss Signe Nygaard r e t u r n e d t o

complete h e r study of t h e Stone Age
'Sangoan' m a t e r i a l s ( a s o t h e r s have
Asokrochnna. ( s e e WAJA, V I , 1976,

Ghana during t h e year t o

collections, including t h e
described them), excavated at
.l3-l9)

During t h e first q u a r t e r of 1979, Professor Merrick Posnansky

(now at U.C .L.A.) i s r e t u r n i n g f o r a f u r t h e r season of excavation
at t h e l a t e r I r o n Age t r a d i n g town of Begho, concentrating on t h e
Kramo q u a r t e r . Furthermore, Mr. Rudolf Gerhars (Frankfurt A-M) i s
studying archaeological i r o n o b j e c t s of which t h i s Department has
a f a i r c o l l e c t i o n , d a t i n g mostly t o t h e middle and l a t e r periods of
t h e I r o n Age.
M r . E.N.O. Quarcoopome has been appointed Demonstrator i n t h e
Department. H i s s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i s i n art h i s t o r y : he has a l r e a d y
made a comparative study of Ghanaian t e r r a c o t t a f i g u r i n e s , and i s
hoping t o pursue h i s s t u d i e s both l o c a l l y and overseas. Meanwhile,
one of t h e Ghanaian l e c t u r e r s , M r . L.B. Crossland, has r e t u r n e d
from study l e a v e at Arizona S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y (where he w a s supported
by a Fulbright fellowship). The Chief Technician, Mr .D .K AgyeiHenaku, moreover, has completed a course i n conservation at t h e
I n s t i t u t e of Archaeology i n London University l e a d i n g t o t h e
c e r t i f i c a t e of t h e Museums Association. The a s s i s t a n c e of t h e
Inter-University Council f o r Higher Education Overseas i n t h i s i s
very much appreciated.

Two t h e s e s r e c e n t l y completed s u c c e s s f u l l y i n t h e Department

c o n t r i b u t e valuably t o knowledge of t h e I r o n Age i n t h e f o r e s t
edge region i n Brong-Ahafo and c o r r e l a t e not only with each o t h e r
but a l s o with t h e Begho p r o j e c t . They a r e by J . Boachie-Ansah,
'An archaeological c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e h i s t o r y of Wenchi' (M .A. ) ,
and K. Effah-Gyamfi, 'Bono Manso: a n archaeological i n v e s t i g a t i o n
of e a r l y Akan urbanism' (I3 .D )

..

Among t h e s e s being prepared a r e Mrs. B. P r i d d y ' s ethnographic

s t u d i e s of Ghanaian p o t t e r y and Mr.T.F. G a r r a r d ' s survey of b r a s s
i n Akan s o c i e t y t o t h e nineteenth century. It may a l s o be noted
t h a t M r . Garrard's book on Akan weights and t h e gold t r a d e i s about
t o be published by Longmans.
Readers of Nyame Akuma w i l l be wondering what i s happening with
Sankofa ( t h e Legon archaeological j o u r n a l ) , t h e first two volumes of
-('for
1975 and 1976) were e d i t e d by James Anquandah
Unfortunately t h e c o s t s and p r a c t i c a l problems of l o c a l p r i n t i n g
have increased p r o h i b i t i v e l y , s o t h a t t h e Department h a s r e l u c t a n t l y
decided t o suspend Sankofa as a formally p r i n t e d journal f o r t h e
time being. I n s t e a d we i n t e n d t o produce a c y c l o s t y l e d n e w s l e t t e r
of Archaeology i n Ghana each year, mainly f o r l o c a l consumption, and
t o continue t o send d i g e s t s and notes on i n t e r e s t i n g developments t o
Nyame Akuma. Important a r t i c l e s and research r e p o r t s on Ghanaian
archaeology w i l l , we hope, continue t o be c a r r i e d i n WAJA and o t h e r
international journals.

D r . Debrah, a c t i n g Keeper, sends news of t h e Ghana National Museum.

A preliminary archaeological survey of a cave has been undertaken by Mr.J.E.Turkson, at a l o c a l i t y c a l l e d Likpe i n t h e Volta
Region. The name "Likpe" i n t h e vernacular means "sharpeners of
s t o n e " , which a l s o suggests makers of polished s t o n e axes ( c e l t s )

The people of Likpe a l s o c a l l e d Bakples claim t o have

o r i g i n a t e d from a hole - t h e cave - i n t h e Togo Ranges and used
sharpened stone t o o l s a l s o f o r g u e r r i l l a a c t i v i t i e s .
Some p o t t e r y w a s c o l l e c t e d at t h e p r e c i n c t s of t h e cave, but
a t e s t p i t when sunk i n t h e cave would s t a n d i n a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n
t o say whether o r not t h e Bakples have any d i s t a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p
with L a t e r Stone Age c u l t u r e .
Movements: Mr.E.K. Agorsah formerly Acting Keeper of t h e C e n t r a l
Museum i n Accra, i s now i n t h e U.S.A. persuing a Ph.D. course a t
t h e Department of Archaeology, U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , Los Angeles.
Dr.I.N.Debrah formerly of t h e Volta Regional Museum h a s taken over
as Acting Keeper i n t h e C e n t r a l Museum, w h i l s t Mr.J.E.Turkson has
gone t o t a k e over as A s s i s t a n t Keeper i n Charge of t h e Volta Regional
Museum.

KENYA

M r . C h i t t i c k , D i r e c t o r of t h e B r i t i s h I n s t i t u t e i n Eastern
Africa sends t h i s r e p o r t on Excavations a t Manda 1978.
The period of work at Manda r a n from 3rd August t o 1 7 t h
October. An average of between f i f t y and s i x t y persons were
employed on t h e excavations; t h e supervisory staff numbered nine.
The s i t e l i e s near t h e northern end of Manda i s l a n d . On i t s
western s i d e it f a c e s onto a wide creek, t h e Mto Manda. To t h e
n o r t h , separated from t h e town s i t e by a narrow, minor, c r e e k , is
a wide s a n d s p i t , terminating i n t h e K i t w a cha Manda. To t h e s o u t h ,
another creek reaches n e a r l y t o t h e Indian Ocean, The town w a s
t h u s s i t u a t e d on a peninsula. Previous work had i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e
town was e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e n i n t h century; it i s t h u s t h e e a r l i e s t
town s i t e t o be i n v e s t i g a t e d on t h e East African c o a s t . Remains of
t h e town ( a l l periods) extend over 15 h e c t a r e s .
The main periods d i s t i n g u i s h e d a r e based on t h e d a t i n g of t h e
imported ceramics, t o g e t h e r with invaluable but r a r e evidence from
c o i n s . Period I i s believed t o extend from an u n c e r t a i n p o i n t i n
t h e ninth century i n t o t h e e a r l y eleventh. It i s sub-divided on
s t r a t i g r a p h i c grounds i n t o Periods Ia, I b , I c and I d . Period I1
begins with t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of s g r a f f i a t o ware, a s c r i b e d t o t h e
second q u a r t e r of t h e eleventh century, and extends t o about t h e
beginning of t h e t h i r t e e n t h century, though most of t h e remains a r e
ascribed t o t h e e a r l y p a r t of t h i s p e r i o d . Period I11 i s t h a t of
t h e l a t e s t poor s g r a f f i a t o wares and of t h e black-on-yellow, t h e
l a t t e r being c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e f o u r t e e n t h century. Period I V
i s one of poverty, covering t h e f i f t e e n t h i n t o t h e e a r l y s i x t e e n t h
century. The succeeding Period, V , lasts up t o t h e time when t h e
town w a s d e s e r t e d i n t h e eighteenth century.
The chief e f f o r t i n t h e present season w a s devoted t o
e l u c i d a t i n g t h e problem of t h e purpose of t h e 'megawalls', as we
have termed them, and e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e i r plan. These a r e w a l l s of
massive c o r a l blocks, which i n p l a c e s run along t h e beach, p a r a l l e l
t o t h e s h o r e , and i n p l a c e s r e t u r n inland. Nearly f o r t y t r e n c h e s
were dug t o t h i s end, including a number c h i e f l y aimed a t e l u c i d a t i n g t h e topographical questions with which t h e problem of t h e s e
w a l l s i s connected.
It i s now e s t a b l i s h e d with t o l e r a b l e c e r t a i n t y t h a t t h e whole
of t h a t p o r t i o n of t h e i s l a n d t h a t l i e s t o t h e north and north-east
of t h e town s i t e (including t h e s a n d s p i t and t h e low-lying land t o
t h e south) is an a c c r e t i o n of t h e l a s t few c e n t u r i e s . The shore
on t h e western s i d e of t h e town faced onto open water (whereas at
t h e present day it i s f r i n g e d with mangroves). This Mto Manda w a s

very probably of considerable depth, whereas now it d r i e s a t low

water s p r i n g t i d e s . The shore w a s some f o r t y metres e a s t of i t s
p r e s e n t p o s i t i o n at t h e t i m e of t h e first s e t t l e m e n t .
The e a r l i e s t s t r u c t u r e brought t o l i g h t (Period 1a) i s of
burnt b r i c k on s t o n e f o o t i n g s , a l l s e t i n mud mortar. The
b u i l d i n g , of which only p a r t was exposed, w a s constructed on a
sand-dune which w a s e v i d e n t l y adjacent t o t h e shore.
Subsequently a w a l l w a s b u i l t on t h e beach, more o r l e s s
p a r a l l e l t o t h e s h o r e l i n e (Period 1 b ) . This appears t o have been
constructed p a r t l y t o reclaim t h e f o r e s h o r e , and p a r t l y t o provide
a more s o l i d b a s i s f o r buildings t h a n t h e n a t u r a l sandy s o i l , t h e
space behind it having been f i l l e d up. F u r t h e r extensions were
subsequently made i n a seaward d i r e c t i o n . The system of s e a w a l l s
as i t f u r t h e r developed incorporated r e t u r n s running i n l a n d , t h u s
forming r e c t a n g u l a r t e r r a c e s p r o j e c t i n g on t o t h e f o r e s h o r e . The
l a t e s t of t h e s e works i s t o be d a t e d t o Period 11.
The House of t h e Tanks is a b u i l d i n g of unique p l a n , c o n s i s t i n g
e s s e n t i a l l y of rooms arraged around a courtyard beneath which t h e r e
a r e c i s t e r n s . This building w a s excavated i n 1970; it i s a s c r i b e d
on t h e b a s i s of p o t t e r y and coin f i n d s t o t h e end of Period I ,
during t h e l a t t e r p a r t of t h e t e n t h century. A s a r e s u l t of work
c a r r i e d out i n t h e c u r r e n t season it can now be shown t h a t t h e
house w a s constructed on one of t h e s e t e r r a c e s , t h e western p a r t
of which p r o j e c t e d on t o t h e shore. It w a s a l s o a s c e r t a i n e d t h a t
t h e house was approached by a f l i g h t of s t e p s on t h e seaward s i d e .
One end of a b r i c k b u i l d i n g , a s s o c i a t e d with t h e s e a w a l l of
Period I b , had been exposed i n previous work. The remainder of
t h i s s t r u c t u r e w a s excavated, but with disappointing r e s u l t s , as
it had been h e a v i l y robbed. It appears t o have served as a c i s t e r n .
A s t o n e - b u i l t s t r u c t u r e i n l a n d from t h e main landing-place
s i t e was excavated. This proved t o be a house arranged around a
sunken courtyard, t o which s t e p s gave access from surrounding
t e r r a c e s . A p o r t i c o r a n round t h e t e r r a c e . The b u i l d i n g i s
p r o v i s i o n a l l y dated t o t h e e a r l y p a r t of Period I1 (eleventh o r
e a r l y t w e l f t h century). If t h i s d a t i n g proves c o r r e c t on f u r t h e r
examination of t h e f i n d s , it w i l l be t h e e a r l i e s t example of t h e
type of house with a sunken courtyard, a type which occurs a t
Husuni Kubwa ( f i r s t h a l f of t h e f o u r t e e n t h century) and i n numerous
o t h e r l a t e r c o n t e x t s , down t o t h e s i x t e e n t h century. The upper
p a r t s of t h i s house had been very r e c e n t l y robbed.

There i s l i t t l e evidence of occupation i n t h e northern p a r t

of t h e s i t e a f t e r t h e t w e l f t h century. One curious b u i l d i n g , of
which two p i e r s with s p r i n g s of a r c h e s projected above ground,
was excavated and proved t o have been i n use i n t h e f o u r t e e n t h

century. It is of v e r y unusual d e s i g n , i n i t s o r i g i n a l form having

c o n s i s t e d of a s i n g l e chamber surrounded by an arcade on a t l e a s t
t h r e e s i d e s . I t may have served as a meeting p l a c e , open on all
s i d e s t o t h e breeze, not d i s s i m i l a r i n c h a r a c t e r t o t h e modern baraza.
Following on a period during which t h e town seems almost t o
have ceased t o e x i s t , t h e r e was a considerable r e v i v a l (Period V )
There a r e numerous s t a n d i n g r u i n s d a t i n g from t h i s time; a l l except
one mosque ( t h e n o r t h e r n , which probably belongs t o t h i s p e r i o d ) l i e
on t h e southern p a r t of t h e peninsula. These r u i n s were c l e a r e d of
bush and planned; some clearance of s u r f a c e s o i l w a s c a r r i e d out t o
e s t a b l i s h l i n e s of walls. To judge from t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e of t h e
(southern) mosque i n t h e c e n t r e of t h e s e t t l e m e n t of t h e p e r i o d , and
t h e s t y l e of masonry (much i n f e r i o r t o t h e e a r l y work), t o g e t h e r with
t h e evidence of imported p o t t e r y found i n t h e a r e a , and a probable
a s s o c i a t i o n with t h e r u i n s , t h i s r e v i v a l centred on t h e seventeenth
century. The town of t h i s period i s surrounded by a w a l l , t h e whole
c i r c u i t of which we were a b l e t o e s t a b l i s h . The w a l l i s provided
with h o l e s f o r muskets; it a l s o incorporated two round towers i n i t s
c i r c u i t ( t h e s e a r e believed t o be t h e only such of t h i s ~ e r i o d ) .

Why t h e town should have moved southwards a t t h i s period i s

uncertain.
A s t o f i n d s , t h e l a r g e proportion of luxury goods (glazed
p o t t e r y , i n c l u d i n g YUeh stoneware and g l a s s ) i n d e p o s i t s of t h e
e a r l i e s t period ( n i n t h century) i s n o t a b l e . Such goods a r e more
p l e n t i f u l than at any o t h e r period o r any o t h e r s i t e y e t examined.

The b a c k - f i l l i n g of t h e t r e n c h e s i s a t t h e time of w r i t i n g
near1y f i n i s h e d .

A preliminary r e p o r t on Chesowanja
by
and
J.A.J. Gowlett
J.W.K. H a r r i s
TILLMIAP, Nairobi.
U n i v e r s i t y of Cambridge.
This b r i e f r e p o r t d e s c r i b e s new d i s c o v e r i e s from r e c e n t
palaeoanthropological s t u d i e s undertaken a t Chesowanja which i s
s i t u a t e d on t h e e a s t s i d e of Lake Baringo i n t h e Gregory R i f t
Valley of Northern Kenya ( s e e map)
Chesouan ja' s importance l i e s
i n t h e evidence f o r a very long d a t a b l e c u l t u r a l sequence
r e p r e s e n t i n g a time span of n e a r l y two m i l l i o n y e a r s ; t h e s i t e ' s
geographical l o c a t i o n approximately midway between e a r l y P l e i s t o c e n e
l o c a l i t i e s i n t h e Lake Turkana b a s i n - t h e Omo and Koobi Fora and those i n northern Tanzania - Olduvai Gorge and P e n i n j , and i t s

MAPS (1) Inset, right: Map shows Chesowanja's (CH)

geographical relationships to Koobi Fora

,J

(KF) and Olduvai (Old)

(2) Chesowanja locality map shows location

of archaeological occurrences in different
I I

I----I
----MAP
----I
-----I
I -----

CHESOWANJA
LOCALITY
Oldowan
Acheulian

t
t

bCH g a u ~ r w

areas of exposures.

KENYA

ecological and cultural relationships to other important localities

in the Baringo basin, which will provide in the future a more
complete understanding of the prehistory of human occupation within
this particular area of Kenya.
The primazy purpose of our first field season was to test
trench promising localities to discover whether well preserved fauna
and artefacts could be recovered from stratified occurrences,
especially in the older beds of the sedimentary sequence. We
wished to recover sufficient samples of stone artefacts so as to
understand the range of variation in assemblage composition and in
a preliminary way to define the cultural entities present.
Furthermore, we hoped to document the context, nature and character
of these occurrences in an effort to shed further light on the ways
of life of early hominids.
With grants from the L.S.B. Leakey Foundation and the WennerGren Foundation, we were able to undertake small scale field
investigations during January and February, 1978. These field
studies were followed up by laboratory analysis of the finds at
the International Louis Leakey Memorial Institute for African
Prehistory in Nairobi.
Previous studies
Geological investigations carried out in the early 1970's by
the late Professor W.W. Bishop and his colleagues had shown the
potential of this area for detailed palaeoanthropological studies
i is hop et al, 1978). Mapping, preliminary microstratigraphic and
palaeontologic studies and radiometric age determinations indicated
a long geological sequence of sedimentary deposits. It was
believed based on the nature and character of the surface finds well preserved fossil fauna, including early hominid remains,
together with cultural materials - that these were eroding out of
beds ranging in time from a Lower Pleistocene age (circa 1.5
million years) through to the present.
Results of the 1978 season
A . Chemoigut Formation

The basal sequence of beds has been called the Chemoigut

Formation. There are 3 'windows' of exposures (see Map - Al, A2
and ~ 3 )
and their age is probably between 1.93 and 1.34 million
years ( ~ i s h oet
~ all 1978). 6 localities where stone artefacts
and bone were found to be eroding out on the surface were test
excavated in 'windows': A1 and A2. Quantities of in situ stone
artefacts and faunal material were recovered.

At the largest excavation, GnJi 1/6~,which measured some 40

square metres, approximately 700 pieces were plotted. Over 9C% of
the artefact assemblage was composed of flakes and flaking debitage,
while the 'tool' category was dominated by scrapers but also
contained choppers, polyhedrons, discoids and small retouched core/
cobble fragments. No bifaces were recovered from the surface nor
in situ. Fauna from the site included some large and wellpreserved specimens. A range of animals was represented such as
bovids, equids, hippo and crocodile.
The archaeological occurrence recovered from this 'site' is
typical of the character of the occurrences found stratified in
sediments of the Chemoigut Formation. However, there are differences
in the density and composition of the artecact assemblages as well as
the frequency of faunal elements which are features for further
investigation. The Stone Industry is based on a 'core tool' and
flake tradition and in view of the age of the sediments and the
character and composition of the artefact assemblages, it is
provisionally assigned as a geographical variant belonging to the
Oldowan Industrial Complex.
One of the highlights during the season was the discovery of
a number of hominid cranial fragments closeby to one of the
excavations. These fragments were identified subsequently as
belonging to a single individual, which was classified as
Australopithecus c f boisei ( ~ rAllan Walker, personal communication).

..

B. The Area 10 localities:

This area was formerly known as the 'Acheulian localities'.

( ~ i s h oet~ al, 1978). However, this season's work has revealed
a number of archaeological occurrences with somewhat different
characteristics and also includes exposures of both the Chesowanja
and Karau Formations, so that an area designation - Area 10 - now
seems preferable (see map)

In brief, the Chesowanja Formation disconformably overlies

the Chemoigut Formation and is composed of 2 members. ( ~ i s h oet
~ al,
1978). The lower basalt member has been dated at 0.71 0.07 m.y
while the upper palaesol member locally contains atefacts and
fauna. Several areas where there were surface concentrations were
test excavated and at one, which has been designated G n J i l0/5,
over 1200 artefacts and bone fragments were recovered in situ.
The artefact assemblage consists very largely of small flakes and
fragments under 7-8 cms. in length. The diminitive character of
the artefacts is further examplified by the 'tool' category.
Small flake scrapers dominate with discoids and miscellaneous
trimmed pieces being other common 'types'. The bone was generally
badly comminuted but identifiable pieces included bovid, fish and
crocodile bone fragments and teeth.

At this locality and others where trial trenches were dug no

bifaces were recovered in situ. Surface bifaces that were formerly
thought to be associated with these beds of the Chesowanja Formation
are "dripping down the gentle slopes from higher strata. Furthermore, they do not appear to be stratified in tuffaceous deposits of
the Karau Formation which unconformably overlies the Chesowanja
Formation. We are of the opinion that the 'classic Acheulian'
occurrences with bifaces at Chesowanja post-date the Karau Formation
and are associated with the upper palaesol/calcrete orma mat ion
undefined?), which unconformably overlies this Formation and is at
present of uncertain age (~arrisand Gowlett, in press). But we do
not deny the fact that those occurrences without bifaces found
stratified within the Chesowanja Formation probably represent either
belonging
an activity 'facies' or a geographical variant (~ndustr~?)
to the Acheulian Industrial Complex. However, these findings remain
tentative until we are able to carry out further geological and
archaeological field studies.
Most of the occurrences so far mentioned are stratified in
clays, silts and silty sands which means that the materials are
preserved in minimally disturbed contexts. The environment of
deposition indicates floodplains lateral to what were presumably
fresh water streams. This is not inconsistent with the palaeoenvironmental reconstruction that indicates the sites were located
on the margins of the saline lake which had a fluctuating water
~ al, 1978). The fauna recovered from the excavations
level ( ~ i s h oet
represents a diversity of animals which suggests the surrounding
landscape had bush cover as well as more open grasslands.

C. Mukutan beds
Further east than the other sites, there are relatively
recent floodplain deposits which have been named the Mukutan Beds.
In various places archaeological assemblages are exposed, which
we believe to belong to the Neolithic or perhaps in some cases to
the Later Stone Age. (see map)
We were not able to extend our investigations to these areas,
except in some cases to plan and photograph surface finds.
We have observed the presence of decorated pottery with
obsidian flakes, which suggests the material is not older than
circa 6,000 B.C. However, the most typical assemblages consist
mainly of extensive concentrations of stone artefacts made from
lava that probably represent factory sites but animal bones are
also found amongst them.

An o u t l i n e has been given of t h e first s e a s o n ' s work at

Chesowanja.

Next year we hope t o c a r r y out f u r t h e r e x t e n s i v e

r e s e a r c h a t Chesowanja as w e l l as t o extend our s t u d i e s t o

o t h e r known l o c a l i t i e s on t h e west-side of t h e Lake Baringo
b a s i n with an enlarged group.
We g r a t e f u l l y acknowledge t h e support of t h e L.S.B.
Leakey Foundation and t h e Wenner-Gren Foundation.

The

Baringo Basin P r o j e c t i s under t h e a u s p i c e s of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Louis Leakey Memorial I n s t i t u t e f o r African Preh i s t o r y , Nairobi.

References:
Bishop, W . W . ,

H i l l , A , , and Pickford, M . ,

Chesowanja:
Bishop W .W.

(1978)

A revised geological i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n
(ed) , Geological Background t o F o s s i l Man,

Geol. Soc. Lond. S c o t t i s h Academic P r e s s .

H a r r i s , J .W .K. and Gowlett, J .A .J. ( i n p r e s s ) Evidence of

E a r l y Stone I n d u s t r i e s at Chesowanja, i n Leakey R .E .L.
and Ogot , B.A.

(eds) Proceedings of t h e 8 t h Pan-African

Congress of African P r e h i s t o r y and Q u a t e r n a y S t u d i e s ,

Nairobi.

Continuing Work a t Lukenya H i l l , Kenya.

Survey of t h e 70 square km. which comprise Lukenya H i l l i s
now about 80 percent complete thanks t o t h e work of S t a n l e y Ambrose
James and Debbra Swan, who have undertaken a
( ~ e r k e l e ,~ and
)
complete survey of t h e rock art and a s s o c i a t e d rock s h e l t e r s . Some
200 p r e h i s t o r i c and p r o t o h i s t o r i c s i t e s have been l o c a t e d and
described, i n c l u d i n g Acheulean, MSA , MSA/LSA t r a n s i t i o n , LSA
P a s t o r a l N e o l i t h i c , I r o n Age and Massai meat f e a s t i n g s i t e s . I n
a d d i t i o n , some 75 s t o c k boma complexes, d a t i n g from 1915 t o 1950,
have been l o c a t e d . The excavation of one of t h e s e by Steve Brendt
( ~ e r k e l e ~suggests
)
t h a t t h e ethno-archaeology of t h e s e s i t e s may
shed considerable l i g h t on t h e s t r u c t u r e and l o c a t i o n of P a s t o r a l
N e o l i t h i c and P a s t o r a l I r o n Age s i t e s i n many p a r t s of E a s t A f r i c a .
Building on t h e excavations of Michael Gramly and Harry Merrick,
we have managed t o d e f i n e a complete, o r n e a r l y complete, sequence
beginning i n t h e Middle Stone Age. The e n t i r e sequence i s
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by well preserved technology and f a u n a l remains i n
p a r a l l e l successions at open s i t e s and rock s h e l t e r s . Excavations
conducted by S h e r y l l M i l l e r of a s i t e c o n t a i n i n g LSA and MSA
horizons i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e appearance of t y p i c a l LSA t e c h n o l o g i c a l
assemblages had occurred by about 25,000 BY. A s e r i e s of pre-LSA
horizons a t t h i s and o t h e r s i t e s suggests t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r a
complex MSA/LSA t r a n s i t i o n of s u b s t a n t i a l d u r a t i o n , but t h e o r d e r
and processual d e t a i l s of t h i s succession w i l l r e q u i r e c a r e f u l
d a t i n g and a d d i t i o n a l excavation. The LSA i s marked by a t l e a s t
two prolonged and r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e i n d u s t r i a l s t a g e s , but t h e r e a r e
a l s o h i n t s of s h o r t e r technological episodes i n t h e l a t t e r h a l f of
t h e sequence. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e c o n t e n t s of rock s h e l t e r s appear t o
be more v a r i a b l e than those of open s i t e s , suggesting t h e s h e l t e r s ,
most of which a r e q u i t e small, tended t o a t t r a c t a c t i v i t y s p e c i f i c
occupations. This p a t t e r n continues i n t o t h e P a s t o r a l N e o l i t h i c and
a l s o can be documented i n t h e ethnographic context f o r both p a s t o r a l
and a g r i c u l t u r a l peoples.
The LSA/PN t r a n s i t i o n i s not y e t s e c u r e l y dated at Lukenya.
The e a r l i e s t P a s t o r a l N e o l i t h i c horizon a t Lukenya d a t e s from
3400 BF, but t h e r e a r e no d a t e s on t e r m i n a l LSA horizons and no
s t r a t i g r a p h i c LSA/PN t r a n s i t i o n s except i n t h e complex s t r a t i g r a p h i c
context of rock s h e l t e r s . Our survey d a t a , t h e s e r r i a t i o n of s t o n e
t o o l s and p o t t e r y from t e s t e d s i t e s , and C-14 d a t e s , a l l i n d i c a t e
t h a t t h e numerous, l a r g e conspicuous P a s t o r a l N e o l i t h i c s i t e s which
abound a t Lukenya d a t e from between 2200 and 1350 BP. We have
t e s t e d only one s m a l l open s i t e from t h e e a r l i e r h a l f of t h e
succession. This s i t e c o n t a i n s t h r e e well d e f i n e d , productive
horizons. The e a r l i e s t d a t e s from asound 3400 B? and t h e l a t e r
ones from about 2400 BP. Although t h e d a t e s from t h e s e l a t e r
horizons a r e v i r t u a l l y i d e n t i c a l , t h e s e r r i a t i o n of s t o n e t o o l s and
p o t t e r y makes it p o s s i b l e t o s e p a r a t e them i n time. This y i e l d s t h e

following sequence when combined with t h e l a t e r period s i t e s .

F i r s t t h e r e i s an e a r l i e r period beginning at o r before 34-00 BP
and terminating a t 2400 BP. A t t h e beginning of t h i s p e r i o d , t h e
t o o l i n d u s t r y contains 27 percent o u t i l s e c a i l l e s , 34 percent
m i c r o l i t h s , and 23 percent convex s c r a p e r forms, e s p e c i a l l y small
end and thumbnail s c r a p e r s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e modest percentages of o t h e r t y p i c a l LSA t o o l t y p e s , such as b u r i n s . There i s a
g r e a t e r r e l i a n c e on l o c a l raw materials, e s p e c i a l l y m i c r o c r y s t a l l i n e
s i l i c a . S t y l i s t i c a l l y , a number of s p e c i f i c t o o l t y p e s resemble
t h e i r LSA c o u n t e r p a r t s very c l o s e l y , r a i s i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t
e a r l y P a s t o r a l Neolithic a d a p t a t i o n s l o c a l l y incorporated LSA
h ~ n t e r / ~ a t h e r e rt so g e t h e r with much of t h e i r technology. Analysis
by Michael Gramly of t h e fauna recovered during t h e first two
seasons of excavation suggests a p a s t o r a l a d a p t a t i o n r e l y i n g mainly
on o v i c a p r i d s , though some c a t t l e a r e present i n t h e upper horizon.
Zebra and a n t e l o p e s a r e a l s o p r e s e n t . Ceramics i n c l u d e Nderit Ware
and Narosura Ware. By t h e end of t h i s p e r i o d , about 2400 BP, c a t t l e
appear t o be more common i n t h e f a u n a l remains, t h e ceramic mix i s
now dominated by Akira Ware and Narosura Ware, and t h e f r e q u e n c i e s
of major c l a s s e s of s t o n e t o o l s have changed s i g n i f i c a n t l y . O u t i l s
e c a i l l e s account f o r 49 p e r c e n t , m i c r o l i t h s f o r 23 p e r c e n t , and
convex s c r a p e r forms f o r 13 percent. The s c r a p e r s a r e not as
c l o s e l y standardized as those of t h e lower horizon, though thumbnail
forms a r e s t i l l p r e s e n t .
Second, t h e r e i s a very b r i e f p e r i o d , beginning about 2400 BP
and l a s t i n g no more than 200 o r 400 y e a r s , i n which small encampments continue t o be used. A t t h e very beginning of t h i s period
t h e r e i s r a d i c a l r e a d a p t a t i o n of t h e c u l t u r a l system i n which
c a t t l e a r e r e l i e d upon t o t h e near exclusion of o v i c a p r i d s , Narosura
Ware becomes t h e only known ceramic t r a d i t i o n r e p r e s e n t e d , and
o u t i l s e c a i l l e s dominate t h e technology: o u t i l s e c a i l l e s 68 p e r c e n t ,
m i c r o l i t h s 9 p e r c e n t , convex s c r a p e r forms 6 p e r c e n t . Thumbnail
s c r a p e r s a r e absent i n a sample of 332 shaped t o o l s .
Third, t h e r e follows a period of about 1,000 y e a r s i n which
s i t e s a r e q u i t e l a r g e and i n t e r n a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . During t h i s
p e r i o d , t h e s t o n e t o o l s technology remains dominated by o u t i l s
e c a i l l e s , though t h e r e may be s u b t l e changes i n t h e s t y l e and
frequency of o t h e r t o o l t y p e s . Narosura Ware p e r s i s t s with l i t t l e
s t y l i s t i c a l t e r a t i o n u n t i l around 1400 BP when a new ware
characterized by panels of r e c t a n g u l a r impressions i s introduced,
apparently c o e x i s t i n g with Narosura Ware u n t i l t h e emergence of I r o n
Age adaptations. The remains of c a t t l e h e a v i l y dominate t h e f a u n a l
assemblages, which a r e extremely r i c h and well preserved. By
1800 BP, ground and flaked bone t o o l s have become commonplace f o r
t h e first time. The a n a l y s i s of t h e s e by Suzan Kaehler w i l l add a
new dimension t o P a s t o r a l N e o l i t h i c technological s t u d i e s .

Numerous P a s t o r a l N e o l i t h i c cemetaries have been l o c a t e d on

Lukenya H i l l . Limited t e s t excavations and s u r f a c e f i n d s i n d i c a t e
t h a t a t l e a s t two groups a r e represented. The most numerous and
extensive cemetaries c o n t a i n s t o n e bowls with beaded r i m s , while
t h e s m a l l e r , l e s s numerous cemetaries contain bowls of t h e more
u s u a l s o r t . These cemetaries remain undated, s o t h e i r e x a c t
r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e p a s t o r a l succession i s unknown, though
p o t e n t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n s seem obvious.
I s o l a t e d , well-sealed P a s t o r a l I r o n Age s i t e s have proven
d i f f i c u l t t o l o c a t e , though t h e a s s o c i a t e d b u r i a l s a r e common and
s c a t t e r e d occupational d e b r i s is found at a number of s i t e s .
A s i n g l e , ephemeral, E a r l y I r o n Age fa wale Maze o r d e r i v a t i v e )
s i t e has been l o c a t e d on t h e north end of Lukenya H i l l .
2

The d e n s i t y of s i t e s (over b/km ) and l e n g t h y , continuous

sequence a t Lukenya H i l l w i l l allow u s t o r e c o n s t r u c t changing
demographic, economic and t e c h n o l o g i c a l p a t t e r n s i n c e n t r a l Kenya
over a period of a t l e a s t 35,000 y e a r s . Since many s i t e s a r e
involved, t h i s w i l l r e q u i r e a concerted program of excavation and
a n a l y s i s over t h e next few yeass.

Charles M. Nelson
Department of Anthropology
U n i v e r s i t y of Massachusetts
Boston, Massachusetts.

LUKENYA HILL, GvJm 46, EXCAVATION REPORT

Sheryl F. Miller, A s s o c i a t e P r o f e s s o r
P i t z e r College, Claremont, C a l i f o r n i a
I n 1977 and 1978 a group from P i t z e r College conducted excavations a t
GvJm 46, a l a t e P l e i s t o c e n e s i t e i n Kenya. Because t h e work of Merrick,
Gramly, and o t h e r s had r e v e a l e d t h e l a t e P l e i s t o c e n e c o n t e n t of s e v e r a l
rock s h e l t e r s a t Lukenya H i l l , t h e g o a l was t o complement t h i s information
by excavating a n open-air s i t e i f one could b e found w i t h d e p o s i t s s t i l l
i n s i t u . Stream e r o s i o n and ant-bear h o l e s demonstrated t h e presence of an
-a r t i f a c t horizon a t GvJm 46, which t e s t p i t s subsequently suggested might
l i e -in situ.
I n 1977 two i n t e r s e c t i n g t r e n c h e s , each 1 meter by 3 meters, w e r e
excavated. J u s t below t h e s u r f a c e occurred very s c a t t e r e d a r t i f a c t s a t t r i buted t o t h e " P a s t o r a l Neolithic," u n d e r l a i n by almost h a l f a meter of
s t e r i l e d e p o s i t . A t t h e base of t h a t d e p o s i t t h e r e was a change i n e a r t h
c o l o r , and a r t i f a c t s of "Late Stone Age" type appeared i n abundance. This
c u l t u r a l d e p o s i t continued down t o t h e base of excavations, which i n a l l
squares h a l t e d when encountering a f l a t rock s u r f a c e a t a depth of some 1 . 5
t o 2 meters.
V e r t i c a l v a r i a t i o n i n a r t i f a c t d e n s i t i e s and e a r t h t e x t u r e s u g g e s t s
p o s s i b l e f l u c t u a t i o n s i n c l i m a t e and occupation d e n s i t y during t h e t i m e t h e
s i t e was i n h a b i t e d . However, t h e r e is no evidence of an e r o s i o n phase, and
t h e c u l t u r a l m a t e r i a l s maintain a n amazing c o n t i n u i t y i n a r t i f a c t types
represented. P a r t i c u l a r l y noteworthy a r e t h e finely-made backed m i c r o l i t h s ,
mostly backed b l a d e l e t s ; t h e s e are made on m i c r o - c r y s t a l l i n e s i l i c a brought
a s nodues from t h e A t h i River, o r on o b s i d i a n found l o c a l l y i n t h e form of
small l a p i l l i . Also i n t e r e s t i n g a r e small fan-shaped s c r a p e r s , c a r e f u l l y
worked of m i c r o - c r y s t a l l i n e s i l i c a ; t h e working end of t h e s e t o o l s i s broadly
convex, l i k e a thumbnail s c r a p e r , b u t t h e proximal end has been c o n s t r i c t e d
a s though f o r h a f t i n g . Other shaped o r use-shaped t o o l types p r e s e n t i n c l u d e
a v a r i e t y of o t h e r s c r a p e r s , o u t i l s e c a i l l e e s , and hammerstones.
A most noteworthy f e a t u r e of GvJm 46 i s i t s e x c e l l e n t bone p r e s e r v a t i o n .
Almost a l l of t h e bone recovered i s s p l i n t e r e d and burned. It i n d i c a t e s
game s p e c i e s hunted, and-butchery h a b i t s . Animals most commonly r e p r e s e n t e d ,
kindly i d e n t i f i e d by John Kimingich of t h e National Museums of Kenya, include impala, h a r t e b e e s t , g a z e l l e , and zebra. Impala and g a z e l l e a r e found
a t Lukenya H i l l today, while t h e s e a s o n a l migration i n t o t h e a r e a of h a r t e b e e s t and zebra has only been d i s r u p t e d r e c e n t l y by t h e Nairobi-Mombasa
highway and r a i l l i n e . Thus t h e ecology of t h e a r e a i n l a t e P l e i s t o c e n e
t i m e s was n o t much d i f f e r e n t from t h e p r e s e n t one.
A r t i f a c t s and bones occur i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s throughout t h e d e p o s i t ,
with a l i g h t amount of s c a t t e r i n between. Some patches seem t o r e p r e s e n t
remains of a s i n g l e meal; a t y p i c a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n c l u d e s t h e ends of
s e v e r a l long-bones a p p a r e n t l y belonging t o t h e same animal, many long-bone

s p l i n t e r s , and one o r two l a r g e q u a r t z bashing s t o n e s . The backed microl i t h s may a l s o have served i n food p r e p a r a t i o n , a s knives.
This open-air a r e a may a l s o have functioned a s a hide-preparation s p o t ,
where s k i n s were pegged o u t on t h e ground and processed w i t h t h e h a f t e d
fan-shaped s c r a p e r s . Although t h e s e same s c r a p e r s a r e found i n r o c k - s h e l t e r
context a t Lukenya H i l l , t h e i r o t h e r v e r y f r e q u e n t occurrence i s a t GvJm 1 0 ,
another open-air s i t e where u n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e d e p o s i t was e n t i r e l y eroded
o u t (Gramly 1975)
The l a r g e q u a n t i t y of q u a r t z d e b i t a g e a t GvJm 46, a s w e l l as hammers t o n e s and o u t i l s e c a s i l l e e s , i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s i t e a l s o served a s a
workshop f o r l i t h i c manufacture and o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s .
Excavations i n 1978 continued i n t h e general a r e a of t h e 1977 work,
expanding t h e sample of a r t i f a c t s and fauna. S e v e r a l new test p i t s were
p u t i n t o determine t h e maximum extend of t h e s i t e , which is now f a i r l y w e l l
defined and extends h a l f a kilometer along t h e base of Lukenya H i l l .
Most i n t e r e s t i n g were t h e 3 test p i t s excavated t o determine s t r a t i g r a p h y
upslope and downslope from t h e 1977 g r i d . These r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e rock
forming t h e base of a l l 1977 p i t s was a huge s l a b from t h e f a c e of Lukenya
H i l l ; i t a p p a r e n t l y f e l l t o i t s p r e s e n t p o s i t i o n sometime b e f o r e t h e main
"Late Stone Age" d e p o s i t began t o develop.
The extended s t r a t i g r a p h y goes t o a depth of 3.3 meters below t h e
p r e s e n t ground s u r f a c e , b e f o r e s t r i k i n g rock (bedrock?). Below t h e "Late
Stone Age" horizon i s a l a g d e p o s i t i n d i c a t i v e of f a i r l y s t r o n g slopewash.
This o v e r l i e s an almost s t e r i l e band of c o a r s e m a t e r i a l eroded from t h e
g r a n i t e - g n e i s s c l i f f immediately above t h e site. Below t h a t occurs an
e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t d e p o s i t c o n t a i n i n g an a r t i f a c t assemblage a s y e t i n d u s t r i a l l y u n i d e n t i f i e d . This "lower u n i t " i s approximately 1.5 meters i n t h i c k ness of depost.
Archaeological specimens from t h e lower u n i t s t r o n g l y resemble t h o s e
of t h e "Late Stone Age" assemblage i n terms of l i t h i c manufacturing techniques
and raw m a t e r i a l s . A r t i f a c t t y p e s , on t h e o t h e r hand, a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t .
There a r e no backed m i c r o l i t h s , although a b l a d e l l a r g e b l a d e l e t element does
occur r a r e l y i n t h e debitage. The fan-shaped s c r a p e r i s a l s o a b s e n t from
t h e lower u n i t , and s c r a p e r s a r e i n s t e a d dominated by shallow d e n t i c u l a t e
forms.
The abundance of a r t i f a c t s i s t r u l y phenomenal. I n one 10-cm s p i t from
a 1 meter by 1 meter square, over 70,000 grams of q u a r t z a r t i f a c t s were
recovered. Faunal remains a r e a l s o e x c e l l e n t l y preserved i n t h i s lower u n i t ,
and hundreds of i d e n t i f i a b l e specimens w e r e r e t r i e v e d . The fauna of t h e
lower u n i t do n o t appear, i n preliminary a n a l y s i s , very d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e
of t h e "Late Stone Age" horizon.
One of t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t s of t h e GvJm 46 f i n d i n g s i s t h e age
of t h e s i t e . Thus f a r , age determinations have been run f o r two samples of
burned bone, recovered from near t h e top of t h e "Late Stone Age" sequence.
These d a t e s , processed by Geochron, a r e :

Sample
GX 53508

Depth
51-54 cm.

Age BP
18,930

GX 53496

87-90 cm.

20,395

C13 c o r r e c t e d
19,330 +lo00
- 890
20,780 +I120
- 980

A f u l l meter of "Late Stone Age" d e p o s i t l i e s below t h e depth of t h e e a r l i e r

sample. M a t e r i a l s recovered from t h e base of t h i s horizon have been subm i t t e d f o r d a t i n g . It i s a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t GvJm 46 w i l l prove t o b e t h e
e a r l i e s t y e t known s i t e i n Kenya w i t h a f u l l component of t r u l y m i c r o l i t h i c
backed b l a d e l e t s . The Lukenya H i l l s i t e GvJm 22 (Gramly and Rightmire 1973)
c o n t a i n s t h e same s o r t of i n d u s t r y , extending back as f a r a s about 17,000 BP.
GvJm 46 continues t h i s t r a d i t i o n f u r t h e r s t i l l i n t o t h e P l e i s t o c e n e .
C e r t a i n i n f e r e n c e s about t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s of environment and c u l t u r e
can be drawn from t h e "Late Stone Age" d e p o s i t s of GvJm 46. Although i t
remains t o be confirmed by t h e f u l l f a u n a l a n a l y s i s , i t appears t h a t t h e
ecosystem a t Lukenya was r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e a f f e c t e d by t h e c o l d climax of t h e
l a t e P l e i s t o c e n e . Likewise, t h e c u l t u r a l system, o r a t l e a s t t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l
a s p e c t represented by t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d i s c o v e r i e s , was markedly c o n s i s t e n t
over t h e period of perhaps 20,000 y e a r s r e p r e s e n t e d a t GvJm 22 and GvJm 46.
F i n a l l y , t h e lower u n i t remains a n a r c h a e o l o g i c a l enigma a t p r e s e n t .
It is n o t unique a s an aggregate l a c k i n g backed m i c r o l i t h s j u s t preceding
t h e s t a n d a r d "Late Stone Age" s o r t of assemblage. Others have been recovered
from Leopard's H i l l i n Zambia (Miller 1969), Matupi i n Z a i r e (Van Noten 1977),
and Kisese i n Tanzania (Inskeep 1962). I n each of t h e s e c a s e s , t h e i n d u s t r y
appears t o r e p r e s e n t a d e p a r t u r e from t h e e a r l i e r "Middle Stone Age" technology.
It i s h e r e suggested t h a t t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t t e c h n o l o g i c a l novely a s s o c i a t e d
with t h e s e aggregates i s t h e bow and fire-hardened, sharpened wooden arrow.
These have of course l e f t no d i r e c t evidence i n t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d , b u t
t h e l a c k of any o t h e r p r o j e c t i l e p o i n t f o c u s e s a t t e n t i o n i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n .
A very l a r g e rock s h e l t e r h a s been l o c a t e d a t GvJm 46 immediately s o u t h
of t h e excavated a r e a . A d d i t i o n a l l y , an exposure of f a l l e n q u a r t z boulders
occurs j u s t t o t h e north. Future p l a n s i n c l u d e t h e excavation of t h e s e two
f e a t u r e s . These excavations w i l l y i e l d information about t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l
u s e s of a s i n g l e s i t e comprising a s h e l t e r e d l i v i n g a r e a and a quarry a s w e l l
a s t h e food-processing and hide-working a r e a a l r e a d y excavated. This f u r t h e r
r e s e a r c h w i l l add t o our understanding of "Late Stone Age" a c t i v i t y s p e c i a l i z a t i o n ; hopefully, i t w i l l a l s o extend our knowledge of t h e preceding l a t e
Pleistocene industry a s w e l l .
Acknowledgements. I am g r a t e f u l t o P i t z e r College, T r u s t e e M r s . Harvard K.
Hecker, and o t h e r f r i e n d s of P i t z e r f o r t h e i r f i n a n c i a l support. I thank my
husband D r . Stephen A. M i l l e r and my daughters Laura and Lynne f o r t h e i r f i e l d
a s s i s t a n c e . I g r e a t l y a p p r e c i a t e t h e work i n f i e l d and l a b o r a t o r y of my
s t u d e n t s Ann Laurenson, Sheryl Cooperman, and S h e i l a Kemper. And I am deeply
thankful t o my colleague, D r . Charles M. Nelson of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Massac h u s e t t s , f o r providing l o g i s t i c s and support i n t h e f i e l d . F i n a l l y , I extend
my g r a t i t u d e e s p e c i a l l y t o D r . John Onyango-Abuje, John Kimingich, and t h e
o t h e r Kenyans who c o n t r i b u t e d t h e i r encouragement and e f f o r t t o t h i s r e s e a r c h
project.
Bibliography.
Gramly, R. M. 1975 P a s t o r a l i s t s and Hunters: Recent P r e h i s t o r y i n Southern
Kenya, Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Harvard University.
Gramly, R.M. and G. P. Righmire 1973 "A fragmentary cranium and dated L a t e r
Man, Vol. V I I I , No. 4,
Stone Age assemblage from Lukenya H i l l , Kenya," pp. 571-79.

Bibliography (continued)
Inskeep, R. R. 1962 "The age of the Kondoa rock paintings," in
Proceedings of the Fourth Panafrican Congress on Prehistory.
Merrick, J. V. 1975 Change in Later Pleistocene Lithic Industries in
Eastern Africa, Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. Calif., Berkeley.
Miller, S. F. 1969 The Nachikufan Industries of the Zambian Later
Stone Age, Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. Calif., Berkeley.
Nelson, C. M. 1973 A Comparative Analysis of Later Stone Age Occurrences
in East Africa, Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. Calif., Berkeley
Van Noten, F. L. 1977 "Excavations at Matupi cave," Antiquity, Vol. 51.

MALI

R. Bedaux, Institute of Human Biology, State University, Utrecht

sends this information:
Archaeological research in the Bani-Niger region (Mali)

8 additional C14 dates (see also N .A. 8, 1976) have been obtained from
~og&r6 Doupwil (near Mopti) and from Togu6r6 Galia (near ~jenng):
Togu6r6 Doupwil section B: Gr~-7943: 800 4- 45 B.P

GrN-8552 : 580 - 25 B.P.

section C: GrN-7944 : 850 t
- 45 B.P.
GrN-8553 : 675 4' 45 B .P
GrN-7945 : 800 - 80 B.P.

~ogu6r6Galia

The earliest occupation of both sites can be dated to the llth century.
The samples GrN-8553-'8555- 8554 are considered too old on the basis of
stratigraphy.
A continuity in pottery making tradition from the llth century to
the present can be demonstrated. The pottery shows some affinities
to the pottery found in New Buipe (~hana). No clear evidence for
long-distance-trade was found.

Fragments of clay statues were found only in the upper layers and
on the surface, suggesting a rather late date for this material.
Coffin-jars occur in all layers, from the llth century onwards to the
18th (?) century. This suggests that Islamic influence did not penetrate
far beyond the well-known centres.

O f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t is a fragment of a lost-wax c a s t i n g mould

at ~ o g u 6 r 6Doupwil i n a l a y e r d a t e d i n t h e 1 1 t h - 1 2 t h c e n t u r i e s .
The a v a i l a b l e evidence as t o t h e e t h n i c o r i g i n of t h e mound d w e l l e r s
p o i n t s t o t h e present-day Bozo.

The human, f a u n a l , and f l o r a l remains have been analysed. The

r e s u l t s of t h e e x c a v a t i o n s w i l l be p u b l i s h e d i n t h e n e x t i s s u e of
Palaeohist o r i a ( ~ r o n i n ~ e n )

C o l i n F l i g h t ( c e n t r e of West A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , U n i v e r s i t y o f
Birmingham, ~ n ~ l a n dsends
)
t h e following r e p o r t :
i c ~ a l i i) n 1978
Excavations at Gao ( ~ e ~ u b l of
During March 1978, f u r t h e r e x c a v a t i o n s were c a r r i e d o u t at
t h e medieval s i t e of s a n s , n e a r Gao, i n t h e Seventh ( f o r m e r l y s i x t h )
Region of t h e Republic of Mali. I n p r e v i o u s s e a s o n s , work had been
confined t o t h e Muslim cemetery, a t t h e e a s t e r n end of t h e s i t e .
an i n t e r i m r e p o r t on t h e f i r s t season (1972), s e e WAJA, 5 ( 1 9 7 5 ) ,
81-90; f o r a b r i e f n o t e on t h e r e s u l t s of t h e second s e G (1974),
T h i s season, it w a s decided t o
s e e Nyame Akuma, 7(1975) , 28-9).
begin t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of a n a r e a at t h e western end of t h e s i t e ,
p r e v i o u s l y unexplored, where a s c a t t e r of fragments of baked b r i c k
suggested t h e e x i s t e n c e of some important s t r u c t u r e s i m i l a r i n
s t y l e - and perhaps i n d a t e as w e l l - t o t h e b r i c k b u i l d i n g s
excavated i n t h e cemetery s e c t o r i n 1972 and 1974. T h i s new
s t r u c t u r e proved t o be v e r y l a r g e - t o o l a r g e t o be excavated
completely w i t h i n t h e time a v a i l a b l e . Its p l a n , as far as t h i s
could be t r a c e d , i s shown i n t h e accompanying f i g u r e s .

or

S t r u c t u r e Q c o n s i s t e d o r i g i n a l l y of a v a s t mass of s o l i d
brickwork w i t h i n which, at ground l e v e l , was c o n t r i v e d an a r r a n g e ment of narrow passages. The dimensions of t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e
(I?ig.1 ) a r e as y e t unknown - t h e r e i s o n l y one p o i n t , towards t h e
w e s t , where we t h i n k t h a t we have i d e n t i f i e d i t s o u t e r edge - b u t
it must have measured at l e a s t 50 m from w e s t t o east, and a t
l e a s t 30 m from n o r t h t o s o u t h . Its h e i g h t must a l s o have been
c o n s i d e r a b l e , t o judge from t h e massiveness of t h e i n t e r n a l
f e a t u r e s (I?ig. 2) : t h e w a l l marked Q1i s almost 2.50 m t h i c k , and
s o a r e t h e s q u a r e p i l l a r s Q5, Q7, and Q11. Even t h e n it s t i l l
became n e c e s s a r y t o r e i n f o r c e t h e s t r u c t u r e w i t h v a r i o u s 'secondary'
w a l l s , wherever t h i s could be done without any of t h e p a s s a g e s
b e i n g blocked completely. The 'secondary' f e a t u r e s had a l r e a d y
been added b e f o r e t h e passages were f i n i s h e d o f f w i t h a t h i n c o a t
of white p l a s t e r , p r o t e c t e d , t o a h e i g h t of about 1 . 2 0 m, by a dado
of r e d mud.

The d a t e and f u n c t i o n of t h i s amazing s t r u c t u r e a r e s t i l l

u n c e r t a i n . The b r i c k s of which it w a s b u i l t (at l e a s t two m i l l i o n
of them, on a conservative estimate) a r e almost i d e n t i c a l with t h o s e
which were used i n t h e s t r u c t u r e s a l r e a d y excavated i n t h e cemetery
s e c t o r . For t h e primary s t r u c t u r e t h e r e ( s t r u c t u r e I?) a d a t e of
about 1100 may be proposed, though t h e evidence i s only circumstant i a l , and a s i m i l a r d a t e seems l i k e l y f o r s t r u c t u r e Q. Its
f u n c t i o n i s h a r d e r t o guess, but p r o v i s i o n a l l y , pending f u r t h e r
excavation, we t h i n k t h a t it may be i n t e r p r e t e d as a r o y a l tomb t h e tomb, i n f a c t , of one of t h e kings whose funerary s t e l a e were
discovered i n t h e cemetery s e c t o r , i n s i d e s t r u c t u r e F , i n 1939.

A t some l a t e r d a t e , s t r u c t u r e Q was robbed with remarkable

thoroughness. Not a s i n g l e b r i c k was found i n p l a c e . By t h i s time,
f o r t u n a t e l y , e a r t h and rubble had accumulated i n t h e i n t e r n a l
passages t o a height of as much as 1.50 m; and t h e robbing w a s
c a r r i e d out with such economy of e f f o r t t h a t t h e p l a s t e r f a c i n g s
were l e f t i n t a c t , as t h e b r i c k s were removed from behind them.
Thus it was p o s s i b l e t o t r a c e t h e p l a n of t h i s s t r u c t u r e simply by
following t h e l i n e s of r e d and white p l a s t e r t h a t d e f i n e t h e edges
of t h e robber t r e n c h e s .
Presumably t h e b r i c k s were r e q u i r e d f o r
some new b u i l d i n g p r o j e c t , now very f a r away.
One c u t t i n g was made i n t h e cemetery s e c t o r , t o answer a
question a r i s i n g from t h e excavations of 1974. It i s now c e r t a i n
t h a t s t r u c t u r e F w a s o r i g i n a l l y only p a r t of some l a r g e r (perhaps
much l a r g e r ) b u i l d i n g , t h e r e s t of which w a s subsequently razed t o
t h e ground. Here t o o , t h e need f o r f u r t h e r excavation has been
demonstrated c l e a r l y enough.
The w r i t e r would l i k e t o express h i s thanks t o t h e Malian
a u t h o r i t i e s - e s p e c i a l l y t o M. Alpha Oumar ~ o n a r 6 ,formerly head
of t h e Division du Patrimoine Historique e t Ethnographique - f o r
permission t o c a r r y out t h i s work, and t o M. Mamadi Dembele f o r
h i s c o l l a b o r a t i o n i n t h e f i e l d . Copies of a more d e t a i l e d r e p o r t
a r e a v a i l a b l e on r e q u e s t . It i s hoped t o continue t h e excavations
i n 1980, on a s c a l e more n e a r l y commensurate with t h e importance
of t h e s i t e .

Gao 1978
S ~ P U C ~ U ~ ~

Outer edge of
supers fruc

Area of

I r o n working i n Mema, Mali, d u r i n g t h e Old Kingdom of Ghana.

by Randi Haaland, H i s t o r i c a l Museum,
U n i v e r s i t y of Bergen, Norway.
Excavations were conducted i n t h e Mema a r e a d u r i n g January
1978. The a r e a today h a s l e s s than 400 milimetre of y e a r l y r a i n
and i s marginal both i n terms of a g r i c u l t u r e and pastoralism
There a r e however extensive archaeological remains i n t h i s a r e a ,
l a r g e s e t t l e m e n t mounds, some being 7-800 metres i n diameter and
with c u l t u r a l d e b r i s which seems t o be up t o 6-7 metre deep, some
of t h e s e a r e surrounded by enormous s l a g remains from i r o n
production, t h e r e a r e a l s o t r a c e s of a n c i e n t f i e l d s . The Mema a r e a
i s o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o as t h e dead d e l t a i n d i c a t i n g t h a t i n t h e p a s t
t h i s a r e a was p a r t of t h e Niger d e l t a . The environment then would
have been very d i f f e r e n t from today and could have supported a
l a r g e population such as t h e l a r g e s e t t l e m e n t s i n d i c a t e .
The fieldwork w a s undertaken with t h e following o b j e c t i v e s :
1) t o d a t e t h e s e archaeological remains (they were expected
t o be contemporary with t h e Kingdom of Old ~ h a n a ) .
2)

t o f i n d m a t e r i a l which could i n d i c a t e i f t h e a r e a when

i n h a b i t e d w a s p a r t of t h e Niger d e l t a .

3)

t o c o l l e c t d a t a which could show i f t h e p r e s e n t environment w a s t h e r e s u l t of human a c t i v i t i e s (overgrazing,

d e f o r e s t a t i o n i n connection with t h e i r o n smelting).

I w i l l i n t h i s paper concentrate t h e d i s c u s s i o n on p o i n t s 1 and

3.

The Archaeological Material

One s i t e w a s s e l e c t e d f o r more i n t e n s i v e fieldwork, t h i s w a s
because of t h e l a r g e slagheaps surrounding t h e s i t e i n d i c a t i n g
extensive i r o n smelting: Mound B. From two o t h e r mounds s i t u a t e d
a few kilometres t o t h e north and east, charcoal samples were
c o l l e c t e d from t h e t o p l a y e r f o r d a t i n g .
Mound B
The s e t t l e m e n t mound i s c . 450 metres i n diameter and r i s i n g
c . 4 metres above t h e surrounding d r i e d out r i v e r d e l t a . The
mound is r a t h e r eroded, e s p e c i a l l y along t h e s l o p e s , potsherds,
s l a g , i r o n fragments and f e r r i c r e t e sandstone blocks a r e v i s i b l e
on t h e s u r f a c e . I n c e r t a i n a r e a s one can a l s o s e e r e d burnt c l a y ,
p o s s i b l e b r i c k s but more excavations a r e needed t o t e s t t h i s
proposition. One square 2 x 2 metres w a s excavated on t h e h i g h e s t
p a r t of t h e mound, t h i s a r e a w a s covered by sand dunes and it
looked as i f t h e s e had p r o t e c t e d t h e a r e a from e r o s i o n and t h e
settlement d e b r i s was t h e r e f o r e expected t o be undisturbed.

The c u l t u r a l d e b r i s was 3.1 metres deep and 4 s e p a r a t e c u l t u r a l

l a y e r s were found with more o r l e s s sandy s t e r i l e l a y e r s i n between.
The occupation d e b r i s c o n s i s t e d i n a l l f o u r l a y e r s of
potsherds, i r o n fragments ( t o o r u s t e d f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n y e t ) ,
smaller f i n d s of c a r n e l i a n and c l a y beads, and one copper-ring w a s
found on t h e s u r f a c e . There does n o t seem t o be much d i f f e r e n c e s
i n t h e p o t t e r y m a t e r i a l from t o p t o bottom, i n a l l l a y e r s were
found some very d i s t i n c t f l a t p l a t e s with remains of t h r e e f i n g e r
marks impressed on t h e i n s i d e . Among t h e o s t e o l o g i c a l m a t e r i a l it
i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t f i s h bones were v e r y numerous, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e now d r i e d out r i v e r , w a s during t h e s e t t l e m e n t ,
probably p a s t of t h e Niger branch.
Carbonized seeds and p l a n t s were found and preliminary
a n a l y s i s suggests t h a t they a r e seeds from hack-berry t r e e s (CELTIS
INTEGREFOLIA) and from m i l l e t .
The deepest c u l t u r a l l a y e r i s 1 . 6 metres t h i c k . This seems t o
have been an a r e a where smithing a c t i v i t i e s took p l a c e . This
inference i s based on t h e many f i n d s of c y l i n d r i c a l shaped slaglumps,
some of them being 20-25 centimetres i n diameter, and t h e c u l t u r a l
l a y e r being grey black from abundant ash and charcoal.
Charcoal w a s used f o r C.14 d a t i n g s . The deepest c u l t u r a l
l a y e r ( l a y e r 4) has got a d a t e of A .D. 805 +_ 115 (T-2827) and t h e
t o p l a y e r ( l a y e r I) has got a d a t i n g of A.D. 1100 + 70 (T-2826),
both d a t i n g s a r e MASCA c a l i b r a t e d . It seems clear-that t h e
occupation of t h e mound l a s t e d f o r t h r e e c e n t u r i e s and t h a t t h e
settlement was contemporary with t h e period when t h e Kingdom of
Ghana w a s i n power and c o n t r o l l e d t h e a r e a . It should a l s o be
mentioned t h a t t h e d a t e s from t h e t o p l a y e r s of t h e two o t h e r mounds
gave t h e following r e s u l t s : A.D. 925+ 95 (T-2828) and A.D. 1155t- 75
(T-2829), t h e s e a r e a l s o MASCA c a l i b r a t e d .
From Mound B were found some graves, t h e s e were l o c a l i z e d at
t h e southern o u t s k i r t of t h e s i t e . They were marked on t h e s u r f a c e
by blocks of f e r r i c r e t e sandstone, u s u a l l y s e t up i n a c i r c l e with
one block i n t h e middle. Buried under one such s t r u c t u r e i n an
oval depression w a s found a complete pot with s c a t t e r e d fragments
of human remains (probably b u r n t ) .
I r o n Working

A t t h e northern o u t s k i r t of t h e s i t e were found t h e remains of

t h e bottom of an i r o n smelting furnace. This was a bowl l i k e
depression c l a y l i n e d with a diameter of 60 centimetres and 50
centimeters deep, t h e c l a y l i n i n g being c.15 centimetre wide, l a r g e
slaglumps with impressions of what seemed t o be s t a l k s and seeds of
m i l l e t were a l s o found. This s t r u c t u r e seems t o be t h e remains of

a f u r n a c e of t h e nonslag-tapping t y p e , similar t o what was found a t

t h e Taruga s i t e i n N i g e r i a d a t e d t o 4-200 B.C. ( ~ y l e c o t e1975:l-5)
and s t i l l used among c e r t a i n t r i b e s as f o r example i n west-Sudan
( ~ a a l a n dR i n manuscript)

Remains of t h e i r o n f u r n a c e i t s e l f w a s n o t found b u t broken

p i e c e s of t u y e r s . It i s however l i k e l y t h a t t h i s w a s a s h a f t
f u r n a c e made of c l a y . Based on t h e diameter of t h e c l a y d e p r e s s i o n
I would expect t h e h e i g h t t o have been around one meter ( ~ ~ l e c o t e ,
R.F. 1975:5).
The enormous s l a g remains surrounding t h e s i t e c . 60,000
s q u a r e m e t r e s , must have r e q u i r e d a l a r g e f o r e s t off-take f o r
making c h a r c o a l used i n t h e i r o n s m e l t i n g . I would a l s o expect t h a t
t h e people i n t h e a r e a had t o be s e l e c t i v e i n t h e i r e x p l o i t a t i o n of
t h e t r e e s u s e d , s i n c e o n l y a few t y p e s o f a c a c i a t r e e s would have
This
given high enough temperature f o r t h e s m e l t i n g of t h e i r o n .
would most l i k e l y have l e a d t o o v e r - e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e t r e e s and
d e f o r e s t a t i o n i n t h e a r e a . I t h e r e f o r e t h i n k t h a t t h e p e r i o d s of
abandonment of t h e s e t t l e m e n t can be s e e n as r e l a t e d t o d e f o r e s t a t i o n . A f t e r a p e r i o d of r e g e n e r a t i o n of t h e f o r e s t t h e people
moved back t o t h e s e t t l e m e n t .
It should be mentioned t h a t t h e f e r r i c r e t e sandstone used as
r a w m a t e r i a l f o r i r o n s m e l t i n g w a s found a l o n g t h e Boulel r i d g e
running j u s t n o r t h of t h e s i t e .
By e x t e n s i v e t r a v e l l i n g i n t h e Mema, it w a s e v i d e n t t h a t a
l a r g e s c a l e i r o n production had been maintained i n t h e a r e a .
Based on t h e s e d a t a I s u g g e s t t h a t t h e i r o n p r o d u c t i o n w a s n o t
only f o r l o c a l u s e , but was probably c i r c u l a t e d i n a wider a r e a .
Since t h e production i s contemporary w i t h t h e Ghanaian Empire, it
i s r e a s o n a b l e t o suggest t h a t it w a s used by t h i s p o l i t i c a l
o r g a n i s a t i o n . It h a s a l s o been mentioned t h a t t h e k i n g s of Ghana
c o n t r o l l e d t h e i r o n supply.

Reference:
T y l e c o t e , R .F
1975

The o r i g i n of I r o n Smelting i n A f r i c a i n :
West A f r i c a n J o u r n a l of Archaeology no.5
PP* 1-9.

M r . L. Jacobson, a r c h a e o l o g i s t at t h e S t a t e Museum, Windhoek,

i s engaged i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o j e c t s :

a)

Neutron A c t i v a t i o n a n a l y s i s o f p o t s h e r d s

T h i s work i s being undertaken i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h G . Boulle

and M. P e i s a c h of t h e Southern U n i v e r s i t i e s Nuclear I n s t i t u t e .
I n a d d i t i o n t o NAA, a new method of a n a l y s i s , p a r t i c l e induced
X-ray emission (PIXE) w a s a l s o used. T h i s method measures a
d i f f e r e n t s u i t e of elements and w a s used t o check t h e NAA
r e s u l t s . P r e l i m i n a r y work on a widely based sample of s h e r d s
have y i e l d e d i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s which could throw l i g h t on
p r e h i s t o r i c p a t t e r n s of exchange and m o b i l i t y . A new method of
t r a c e element p a t t e r n r e c o g n i t i o n was a l s o used i n t h e s t u d y .
b)

Late Stone Age Ecology and S u b s i s t e n c e

The main f o c u s of r e s e a r c h i s d e a l i n g with t h e problem o f

L a t e r Stone Age s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n s . Thus f a r , e x c a v a t i o n s a r e
t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e Outjo D i s t r i c t and t h e Naukluft M t s though
o t h e r a r e a s w i l l soon be i n v e s t i g a t e d .
c)

C o a s t a l Middens

A f i n a l f i e l d t r i p i s planned f o r t h e e x c a v a t i o n of middens
a t Wortel n e a r Walvis Bay which have been t h r e a t e n e d by r o a d s and
s a l t pan development.
Mr. J.
archaeology
interesting
g l a s s beads

Kinahan, a l s o of t h e Museum, i s working on t h e

of t h e Windhoek D i s t r i c t and h a s l o c a t e d a number of
s i t e s . H i s o t h e r i n t e r e s t s are t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of
and t h e p h y s i c a l examination of p o t t e r y .

I n addition t o these p r o j e c t s , the Zerrissene project has

been completed and t h e Brandberg work i s being w r i t t e n up. I n
t h i s connection it should be mentioned t h a t M r .E. du P i s a n i (now
at t h e National Museum, ~ l o e m f o n t e i n )h a s published t h e r e s u l t s
of h i s work on t h e s e t t l e m e n t and s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r s of D a m a
l i v i n g i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e Brandberg. T h i s work w i l l be
important i n t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l remains of
e a r l i e r Dama s e t t l e m e n t s i n t h e Brandberg and Z e r r i s s e n e areas.

NIGERIA
Archaeological Excavations at Okochiri , Okrika,
by

1976-1977

D r . Nwanna Nzewunwa, Department of H i s t o r y ,

U n i v e r s i t y of J o s , J06, NIGERIA.

The archaeological excavations at Okochiri i n t h e Okrika Local

Government Area of t h e Rivers S t a t e of Nigeria i n December 1976 and
January 1977 were undertaken p r i n c i p a l l y as p a r t of t h e fieldwork
requirements. It was intended t o recover c u l t u r a l and economic
d a t a t o complete a Ph.D. t h e s i s i n archaeology f o r t h e U n i v e r s i t y
of Cambridge.
Like most o t h e r archaeological r e s e a r c h e s it w a s geared t o
i s o l a t e c u l t u r a l sequence, e s t a b l i s h chronology f o r t h e r e g i o n ,
recover f a u n a l and f l o r a l remains, t r a d e elements and c h a r t
resource zones f o r t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of p a s t economic l i f e .
The s i t e of Okochiri ' (7' 08'E; 4' 4 2 ' ~ . ) had been r e p o r t e d
by P r o f e s s o r E. J Alagoa
as important i n t h e s e t t l e m e n t and
migration h i s t o r y of t h e e a s t e r n Niger Delta. It i s s a i d t o be
t h e o l d e s t mainland s e t t l e m e n t of t h e people of Okrika i s l a n d .
The present generation c a l l it Olomu A m a (old town).

Though s i t u a t e d i n a d r y upland environment with a l i g h t

f o r e s t v e g e t a t i o n and numerous o i l palm t r e e s and p l a n t a i n s , t h e
present i n h a b i t a n t s of Okochiri a r e r i v e r i n e o r i e n t e d i n t h e i r
economy. It i s i n h a b i t e d by a handful of people who l i v e mainly
on t h e resources of t h e Oko r i v e r though such p l a n t s as p l a n t a i n ,
cocoyams and cassava a r e c u l t i v a t e d .
Okochiri i s , a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l y speaking, a s h e l l midden s i t e .
It i s about 6$ km southeast of Okrika I s l a n d , 15 km s o u t h e a s t of
P o r t Harcourt and i s d i r e c t l y f r o n t e d on t h e south by t h e Oko
River (0ko ~ o r u )which j o i n s t h e Okrika Creek t o empty i n t o t h e
Bonny River f u r t h e r south. It s h a r e s boundaries with t h e yam farms
of t h e people of Eleme.
The s h e l l midden s i t e of Okochiri has been under constant
p i l l a g e by people from Okrika I s l a n d who casry away boat l o a d s of
e a r t h and s h e l l f o r reclaiming land f o r b u i l d i n g purposes. This
has l e d t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of a good p a r t of t h e main mound
complex and may l e a d t o i t s eventual o b l i t e r a t i o n .
The excavations were undertaken with t h e a s s i s t a n c e of
D r . F.N. Anozie who spent a few days with t h e team. Other members

of t h e team included Mr. T.T.D. Green, some museum staff of t h e

Rivers S t a t e Council f o r Arts and C u l t u r e , and a work f o r c e
r e c r u i t e d from Okrika.
Okochiri i s a huge midden complex comprising a n c i l l a r y middens
with a peak of over 5 metres at some p o i n t s . The p h y s i c a l excavat i o n l a s t e d between 27th December 1976 and 1 5 t h January 1977.
Within t h i s period f o u r t e s t p i t s of two square metres each were
opened i n s p i t s of 15 cms. The p i t s ranged from 70 cm t o 315 km
i n depth.
Various methods and techniques were adopted i n t h e excavation
as thought b e s t t o s a t i s f y our r e s e a r c h o b j e c t i v e s . Some of t h e s e
need not be mentioned here. Pick axes and trowels were used when
necessazy while wet-and dry-sieving were a l s o a p p l i e d .
The middens were composed mainly of o y s t e r s h e l l s though
o t h e r s h e l l s l i k e periwinkle and Arca were a l s o r e p r e s e n t e d .
A
l a r g e q u a n t i t y of animal and f i s h bones were a l s o recovered. The
study of t h e s e bones h a s reached an advanced s t a g e .
P o t t e r y m a t e r i a l s were recovered i n s u b s t a n t i a l q u a n t i t y .
These have been s t u d i e d and t h e i r r e s u l t s w i l l be made a v a i l a b l e
i n future.
S h e l l and charcoal samples f o r radiocarbon d a t i n g were a l s o
taken. S o i l samples f o r p h y s i c a l , chemical and palynological
analyses a r e r e c e i v i n g a t t e n t i o n a t t h e hands of various s p e c i a l i s t s .
Because of t h e nature of our r e s e a r c h o r i e n t a t i o n we a l s o took
f i f t y - t w o column samples from v a r i o u s p a r t s of t h e s i t e each
weighing about 3 kg. These a r e expected t o a c t as a c o n t r o l on our
sampling procedure.
Miscellaneous m a t e r i a l s included palm k e r n e l s , and a few
fragments of metal from t h e upper l a y e r s of t h e f o u r t h t e s t p i t .
Apart from t h e bowl of a factory-made smoking pipe and an
i r o n manilla, both s u r f a c e f i n d s , no o t h e r e x o t i c m a t e r i a l s were
recovered i n t h e excavation. This l a c k may be an i n d i c a t i o n of
t h e age of t h e s i t e , including t h e time of i t s i n i t i a l "abandonment"
o r of its occupation p a t t e r n .
The foregoing i s a t e n t a t i v e statement of r e s e a r c h i n p r o g r e s s .
D e t a i l s of t h e r e s u l t s and analyses w i l l be made a v a i l a b l e i n due
course.

The Occurrence of Waisted Stone ~ d z e s / ~ x ei sn E a s t e r n Nigeria

by:

V E , Chikwendu , Depastment of ~ i s t o r ~ / A r c h a e o l o ~ y ,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

Waisted s t o n e adzes/axes have been c o l l e c t e d as s u r f a c e f i n d s

s i n c e t h e first few decades of t h i s century. Recently t h e y have
been recovered i n s t r a t i f i e d l a y e r s during archaeological excavations.
Stone implements i n t h e former B r i t i s h Cameroons have been
mentioned by two previous m i t e r s . Migeod i l l u s t r a t e d some of
t h e a r t e f a c t s which he found while passing through Bamenda i n 1923.
He described them as " p a l a e o l i t h i c " - meaning only t h a t t h e t o o l s
were not ground o r polished. J e f f r e y s published a s e r i e s of
" n e o l i t h i c implements" from Bemenda i n 1951. He i l l u s t r a t e d
eleven s t o n e t o o l s , most of which a r e 'waisted ' and t h e r e f o r e
s u i t a b l e f o r h a f t i n g . Some were ground, o t h e r s only f l a k e d ; but
t h e d i f f e r e n c e s w a s thought t o be of f u n c t i o n a l r a t h e r than
chronological s i g n i f i c a n c e . J e f f r e y s a l s o r e f e r s t o s i m i l a r
material which he had found some years e a r l i e r i n Calabar Province
of Nigeria ( ~ e f f r e ~ 1951,
s,
1964). A more d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of
m a t e r i a l from Sabga w a s published r e c e n t l y by t h e same a u t h o r .
I n 1972, H a r t l e undertook an archaeological survey of West
Cameroun motivated by t h r e e f a c t o r s . The first w a s h i s i n a b i l i t y
t o r e t u r n t o t h e University of Nigeria where he was t h e s o l e
archaeologist from 1964 as a r e s u l t of t h e C i v i l W a r . The second
was t o f i n d comparative m a t e r i a l f o r t h e stone implements which he
recovered from t h e Ezi-Ukm Ukpa Rockshelter i n Afikpo i n 1966.
The t h i r d , I imagine, w a s t o check out J e f f r e y s claims with r e g a r d
t o t h e 'waisted' stone axes/adzes from West Cameroun. H a r t l e
l o c a t e d t h r e e s i t e s , t h e most important of which, i n r e l a t i o n t o
Afikpo, was i n t h e Ndop p l a i n s e a s t of Bamenda. Among t h e s u r f a c e
f i n d s , he recognized two broad t y p e s of t o o l s , polished and
unpolished. He r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e t o o l s have waists and could have
been h a f t e d , He pointed out t h a t h i s f i n d s were not d i f f e r e n t from
t h e o t h e r surface f i n d s which have been r e p o r t e d from t h e Bamenda
a r e a of West Cameroun ( H a r t l e , 1967).
The most extensive excavation undertaken i n e a s t e r n Nigeria,
which yielded 'waisted' s t o n e adzes/axes took place at t h e Ezi-Ukwu
Ukpa rock s h e l t e r i n Afikpo and w a s c a r r i e d out by P r o f . H a r t l e .
The excavation and t h e survey which preceded it o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e
chance discovery by a s t u d e n t of worked stone a r t e f a c t s on t h e
escarpment north of Afikpo.

The Ukpa rock s h e l t e r proved t o have been occupied over a l o n g

period of time, providing both p r o t e c t i o n and defence. The
innermost p a r t of t h e s h e l t e r w a s d r y and a s e m i c i r c u l a r r i d g e
of sandstone boulders enclosed t h e opening.
I n h i s f i r s t r e p o r t on t h e s i t e , while excavations were s t i l l
i n progress, H a r t l e envisaged f o u r archaeological horizons:

1. An upper l e v e l (0-6) inches containing f a i r l y r e c e n t

Afikpo p o t t e r y grey i n colour and well f i r e d , a stem
fragment from an imported c l a y p i p e , a metal b r a c e l e t e t c .
2.

A t h i n l a y e r (6-12 inches) containing t h i n , r e d p o t t e r y ,

poorly f i r e d .

3. A

very t h i c k horizon (12-84 inches) containing l a r g e ,

crude s t o n e t o o l s and t h i c k , crudely f i r e d p o t t e r y .

4.

A p o s s i b l e pre-ceramic horizon (below 84 inches)

containing t h e same stone t o o l s as l a y e r 3. Thus t h e
two l a s t horizons yielded t h e type of stone t o o l s which
we a r e concerned with i n t h i s paper.

A t a l a t e r s t a g e , however, a f t e r t h e excavations were

completed and while a n a l y s i s of t h e m a t e r i a l w a s i n p r o g r e s s ,
H a r t l e r e v i s e d h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The suggestion t h a t t h e lowest
l e v e l s might be aceramic w a s by now seen t o have been mistaken:
"the stone a r t e f a c t s and p o t t e r y sherds a r e mixed throughout"
( ~ a r t l e ,1967). He d i d i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e were a t l e a s t two
s e p a r a t e c u l t u r a l horizons. The upper l e v e l , down t o a depth of
about 1 2 inches contained near-modern Afikpo p o t t e r y - d a r k ,
u s u a l l y black o r dark brown o r r e d , h a r d - f i r e d , and tempered with
sand o r g r i t .
He did not consider t h a t much i f any of t h e worked
stone w a s a s s o c i a t e d with t h i s l e v e l . Below t h i s , and down t o a
depth of 126 inches, was a second horizon containing f a i r l y
s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l throughout. The p o t t e r y is of " l i g h t brown
colour, t h i c k , very poorly f i r e d and has temper m a t e r i a l s of sand
and, i n many c a s e s , seeds". Among t h e stone a r t e f a c t s , H a r t l e
recognized various types of t o o l : k n i v e s , b a l l s , s c r a p e r s , and hoes.
Most of t h e hoes aze waisted.

Radiocarbon d a t e s f o r Ukpa rock s h e l t e r were received i n 1968

1). Apart from showing t h a t t h e l i t h i c m a t e r i a l recovered
from Afikpo w a s contemporaneous with Late Stone Age s i t e s i n
western Nigeria, they a l s o suggest t h a t p o t t e r y w a s known i n
e a s t e r n Nigeria before 3000 b.c.

able

The m a t e r i a l from t h i s s i t e w a s s t i l l being s t u d i e d when t h e

Nigerian C i v i l W a r broke out i n 1967. During t h i s w a r , t h e

Laboratory of Archaeology of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Nigeria was

ransacked, and some of t h e m a t e r i a l s from Ukpa rock s h e l t e r smashed.
H a r t l e ' s catalogue of t h e f i n d s and h i s f i e l d notes were a l s o l o s t
along with o t h e r t h i n g s . Thus, it became d i f f i c u l t i f not
impossible f o r him t o study and publish t h e m a t e r i a l from Ukpa.

TABLE 1
Radiocarbon Dates f o r Ukpa Rock S h e l t e r ( ~ a r t l e )
Lab
Ref.

Depth
Inches

Age
(year

BP)

TABLE 2
Radiocarbon Dates f o r Ugwuagu Rock S h e l t e r
Lab
Ref.

Depth
Inches

Age
( y e a r s BP)

I n 1973 t h e present w r i t e r w a s s e n t by H a r t l e at t h e head of

a five-man team t o survey t h e Afikpo a r e a . During t h i s survey,
many s i t e s were recorded; t h e s e included s i t e s i n Oziza, I b i i ,
Ukpa, and i n t h e O g w u p v a l l e y , n o r t h e a s t of Afikpo. I n t h i s
v a l l e y we recorded f i v e s i t e s from which worked s t o n e and p o t t e r y
were c o l l e c t e d .
I n 1975, I excavated two sites i n t h e Ogwugwu v a l l e y , one of
which i s r e l e v a n t i n t h i s context. The r e l e v a n t s i t e known as

The Ugwuagu Rock S h e l t e r is about 5Om long, at t h e f o o t of a northward-facing c l i f f composed of f e l d s p a t h i c q u a r t z sandstone.

Altogether f o u r l a y e r s were recognized, r e p r e s e n t i n g t h r e e archaeol o g i c a l horizons. The e a r l i e s t , horizon,C, was encountered only i n
t r e n c h B, where it w a s represented by l a y e r 4, which w a s aceramic.
Its main c u l t u r a l content w a s s t o n e a r t e f a c t s . Two radiocarbon
d a t e s were obtained f o r t h i s horieon which p l a c e it at about 4202 b.c.
The second horizon - B - w a s represented i n both t r e n c h e s by l a y e r s
2 and 3. It is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a mixture of crude p o t t e r y and a
few l i t h i c implements, Radiocarbon d a t e s f o r t h i s horizon l i e
between 800 and 600 b.c. The d a t e obtained f o r sample N-2546 which
was encountered i n t h e lower p a r t of l a y e r 3 should be r e j e c t e d as
it is not c o n s i s t e n t with t h e r e s t of t h e d a t e s . The l a s t horizon A - i s represented only i n trench A by l a y e r 1. It contained
b e t t e r f i r e d p o t t e r y and no stone a r t e f a c t s with t h e exception of a
s c r a p e r which w a s encountered i n t r e n c h A . The radiocarbon r e s u l t s
show t h a t t h i s horizon occupied t h e last t h r e e c e n t u r i e s b . c . It i s
p o s s i b l e t h a t a g r i c u l t u r e was known at t h i s s t a g e , b u t t h e r e i s no
d i r e c t evidence f o r it. It i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t h a t horizon B
r e p r e s e n t s a p e r i o d of t r a n s i t i o n from Late Stone Age economy t o
agriculture.
The most s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t y between t h e Ukpa and Ugwuagu
m a t e r i a l i s t h a t most of t h e stone axes/adzes axe waisted.
However, polished o r ground stone axes a r e p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y more
numerous at Ugwuagu t h a n at Ukpa. I n f a c t , with one exception, a l l
t h e stone axes recovered from t h e aceramic l e v e l at Ugwuagu rocks h e l t e r bear evidence of p o l i s h . Chronologically, however, t h e
Ukpa m a t e r i a l i s e a r l i e r than t h e m a t e r i a l from Ugwuagu. The
radiocarbon d a t e s f o r Ukpa range from 2935 b.c. t o 15 a . d . which
makes Ukpa about 1600 years e a r l i e r than t h e e a r l i e s t d a t e s o far
obtained f o r Ugwuagu which ranges from 1300 b.c. t o 300 b . c . .
However, it must be mentioned t h a t t h e s t e r i l e l a y e r had not been
reached i n trench B before we were forced t o abandon work as a
r e s u l t of s h r t a g e of funds and time.
H a r t l e mentions t h e recov ry of waisted s t o n e axes from o t h e r
a r e a s of West Africa. "One specimen which appears t o be s i m i l a r
t o my Group I1 (waisted s t o n e axes) w a s recovered from t h e lower
l e v e l s of t h e Iwo Eleru s i t e i n t h e Western S t a t e of Nigeria.
Davies, a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s comparable m a t e r i a l s from Niger and Ghana
as well as from Bamenda" ( ~ a r t l e1969)
It must be added, however,
t h a t while waisted s t o n e axes do occur i n t h e s e a r e a s , t h e y a r e
found i n very small numbers, o f t e n i n m i c r o l i t h i c l a y e r s . But i n
t h e a r e a under study, t h e assemblages c o n s i s t mainly of waisted
stone axes, with o t h e r types of t o o l s appearing i n s m a l l e r numbers.
For example t h e Rop rock s h e l t e r contained only m i c r o l i t h s , as d i d
t h e rock s h e l t e r at Old Oyo. Conversely, t h e Ukpa and Ugwuagu rock
s h e l t e r s contained only very few m i c r o l i t h i s , some of them d o u b t f u l ,

and not comparable for quantity or quality with the materials

recovered from sites in Western Nigeria.
The occurrence of 'waisted' stone axes in the Late Stone Age
assemblages of eastern Nigeria needs be thoroughly scrutinized.
Jeffreys mentioned that one Mr. Pleas, a one time District Officer
for Ogoja, intimated to him that some people in Ogoja were still
using stone hoes for making mounds and for other agricultural
purposes. The period Mr. Please was referring to was in the first
two decades of this century. Could this not have been the Late
Stone Age survival of the people's agricultural practices? Shaw
in his report on the site of Bosumpra in Ghana mentioned that one
of his informants asserted that the short celts which he recovered
during the excavations used to be long. It is not very likely that
the much talked of Nyame Akuma were actually agricultural
implements? Hartle in his report about the 'waisted' stone axes of
Afikpo and Abakaliki areas did suggest that the hoelike adzes were
frobably used for agricultural purposes. Jeffreys had gone a step
further by suggesting that the polished stone axes were used for
felling trees and splitting wood, while the flaked hoe-like adzes
were used for agriculture. He even illustrated the way in which,
he thinks, the adzes or hoes could have been hafted and used as
agricultural implements.
If these implements were used for agricultural purposes, and
this is my contention too, it means that the Late Stone Age
'waisted' stone axes, or hoes and other microlithic implements
associated with them, represented a mixed economy - hunting/
gathering and agriculture - a basic economic pattern which has not
changed in the village communities inhabiting eastern Nigeria today.
What crops were involved in this early agriculture, we hardly can
tell, but ethnography, oral tradition, palaeobotany and linguistics
point to the yam as the probable candidate. Thus the 'waisted'
stone axes may be the earliest evidence so far, though indirect,
for the beginnings of the slash-and-burn cultivation which has
been variously associated with the beginnings of vegeculture.
It is also interesting that the earliest evidence for the 'waisted'
stone axes in Afikpo is dated to about the third millennium B.C. a date which is consistent with those suggested by other
authorities as the probable time when yam domestication begain in
West Africa.
-

Archaeology in Eastern Nigeria. Nigeria Magazine, 92, 1967,

pp. 134-143.
An Archaeological Survey in Mest Cameroon. West African
Archaeological Newsletter, 11, 1969.

Neolithic Stone Implements (~amendaBritish ~ameroon)

Jeffreys, M .D.FI
I.F.A.N. Vol. XIII, No.4, 1951, pp. 1203-1217.
"Notes on the Neolithic Stone Age Culture of Bamenda", The
Nigerian Field. Vol. XXIX, No .l, 1964, pp. 38-41.

RHODESIA (ZIMBABWE)
The following note has been received from fi.Cooke of t h e
U m t a l i Museum:

I have had published t h e following:-

1978. The Redcliff Stone Age S i t e .

Occas. Pap. N a t . Mus. Rhod.

"A" Hum. S c i . 4(2) 43-80.

1979. The Stone Age i n Botswana: a preliminary survey.

Arnoldia Rhod

. -8(27) : 1-32.

A t p r e s e n t I am re-examining and analysing a l l excavated s i t e s

of t h e L.S.A. i n Rhodesia. No fieldwork i s envisaged t h i s y e a r .

SOUTH AFRICA
Pt-ofessor P.V. Tobias sends
E x t r a c t s from r e p o r t on 1978 a c t i v i t i e s , Department of Anatomy,
Medical School, University of t h e Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.
I n palaeo-anthropology, t h e Depaztment h a s continued as a
c e n t r e f o r research on t h e evolution of man. The University
Council has formally c o n s t i t u t e d a Palaeo-anthropology Research
Group, headed by Professor P h i l l i p V . Tobias. Its c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n with t h e Bernard P r i c e I n s t i t u t e f o r Palaeontological Research
i s s i g n a l l e d by h i s appointment as Honorary Professor of Palaeoanthropology. Other members of t h e Group a r e Mr.A.R. Hughes,
Dr.T .C. P a r t r i d g e , Mrs. Kay Copley, Mr.F .E. Grine, Mr. I.M. Suzman,
M r . A . Morris, M r . J.K. Lundy and Mr.P. C h r i s t i e , while Mr. J .
Bunning and Mr. E . Maubane a r e c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d with i t s work.
Twelve years of excavation as S t e r k f o n t e i n have now been
completed. During t h e year, D r . Tim P a r t r i d g e ' s study on t h e
l i t h o s t r a t i g r a p h y of t h i s cave w a s published i n Nature.
Access
w a s provided t o t h e deepest l e v e l s of t h e b r e c c i a by means of a
platform, h o i s t and s t e p s planned by Professor R.P. Plewman,
generously donated by t h e Johannesburg Consolidated Investment
Company Ltd. and i n s t a l l e d by Randfontein E s t a t e s . The Council
has named t h i s deepest p o r t i o n of t h e Sterkfontein Cave t h e
S i l b e r b e r g Grotto i n honour of Dr.H.K. S i l b e r b e r g , who discovered
t h e r e t h e jaw of a p r i m i t i v e hyena i n t h e ' f o r t i e s . This discovery

l e d D r . R . Broom F.R.S. t o r e a l i s e t h a t t h e d e p o s i t w a s far o l d e r

t h a n h e had imagined. These strata a r e o l d e r t h a n t h a t i n which
t h e ape-man A u s t r a l o p i t h e c u s a f r i c a n u s w a s found.
The work of t h e Group h a s achieved more i n t e r n a t i o n a l
r e c o g n i t i o n d u r i n g 1978. A t a meeting of t h e Executive Committee
of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Union of P r e h i s t o r i c and P r o t o h i s t o r i c S c i e n c e s
i n B e r l i n , Tobias w a s appointed Vice-President of t h e Commission on
Les P l u s Anciens Hominides. The R i v e r s Memorial Medal of t h e Royal
Anthropological I n s t i t u t e of Great B r i t a i n and I r e l a n d w a s awarded
t o Tobias f o r h i s " s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o anthropology" and w a s
p r e s e n t e d on 29th June 1978.
The Royal Swedish Academy of S c i e n c e s i n v i t e d Tobias t o
p a r t i c i p a t e i n a Nobel Symposium on "Current Argument on F o s s i l Man"
a t Karlskoga, Sweden, i n May 1978, t o mark t h e 200th a n n i v e r s a r y of
t h e d e a t h of t h e n a t u r a l i s t , Linnaeus. T o b i a s ' s two a d d r e s s e s a r e
t o be published i n t h e book of t h e Symposium.
I n 1978 t h e A u s t r i a n Academy of Sciences c o n f e r r e d i t s F o r e i g n
Membership on Tobias. He p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e first meeting of t h e
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Advisory Council of t h e Louis Leakey Memorial
I n s t i t u t e f o r A f r i c a n P r e h i s t o r y i n Nairobi on 25th November 1978.
Mr. Ivan Suzman, A s s i s t a n t L e c t u r e r and member of t h e Palaeoanthropology Group, v i s i t e d t h e Leakey Memorial I n s t i t u t e i n N a i r o b i ,
where he s t u d i e d P l i o - P l e i s t o c e n e hominid f o s s i l s .
Mr. F r e d G r i n e , a p r e - d o c t o r a l s t u d e n t i n palaeo-anthropology
and a J u n i o r L e c t u r e r , v i s i t e d a number of major European museums
where he examined c o l l e c t i o n s of hominid and r e p t i l e f o s s i l s . H i s
t r i p took him t o London, Cambridge, P a r i s , M a r s e i l l e , Munich and
F r a n k f u r t . He a s s i s t e d G.H.R. von Koenigswald i n F r a n k f u r t i n t h e
d e s c r i p t i o n of n e a r l y 100 unpublished t e e t h of e a r l y hominids from
Java.
M r . John Lundy of t h e Department of Anthropology, Western
Washington U n i v e r s i t y , a r r i v e d i n October as a f u l l - t i m e Ph.D.
r e s e a r c h s t u d e n t i n Palaeo-anthropology. He w i l l devote h i s t h e s i s
t o t h e c h i l d r e n of t h e ape-man.

D r . 0 . Davies h a s been s t u d y i n g t h e s h o r e l i n e s of t h e L a s t
I n t e r g l a c i a l i n t h e South Cape. He h a s found s t r a t i f i e d evidence
t h a t an i n d u s t r y of Middle Stone Age t y p e w a s e s t a b l i s h e d b e f o r e
t h e peak of Eem I ( u s u a l l y d a t e d about 125000 B .P. ) ; and j u s t
a f t e r t h e peak t h e r e appear small b i f a c e s and f l a k e s , s u g g e s t i v e
of t r a n s i t i o n from t h e l a t e s t Acheulian t o t h e Middle Stone Age.

I n t h e next s h o r e l i n e at 18 m t h e r e i s only Acheulian

m a t e r i a l , r o l l e d and unrolled. T h i s s h o r e l i n e must d a t e axound
200000 B.P.

D r . Davies w a s awarded an honorary d o c t o r a t e of t h e U n i v e r s i t y

of Natal on 2nd April 1979.

Mr. Matiyela of t h e University of Cape Town sends t h i s n o t e

on h i s a c t i v i t i e s :

1. P o r t S t Johns I r o n Age s i t e s .
I n June 1978 I conducted a preliminary archaeological survey
on t h r e e I r o n Age s i t e s near Umngazi r i v e r mouth i n P o r t S t Johns
i n t h e Transkei (3140' S; 29025' E.) with good r e s u l t s . M a t e r i a l
h i t h e r t o unknown i n t h e region w a s brought t o l i g h t . Three
d i f f e r e n t I r o n Age p o t t e r y t r a d i t i o n s - apparently of t h e E a r l y ,
?Middle and Late I r o n Age - were found i n t h e s e s i t e s . Two more
promising d i s c o v e r i e s were made. These comprise evidence of i r o n
smelting and a hut f l o o r of a probable Middle I r o n Age d a t e . The
i r o n smelting p r a c t i c e was i n d i c a t e d by many s l a g and t u y e r e
fragments. The hut f l o o r was well preserved and c o n s i s t e d of w e l l
baked c l a y resembling I r o n Age f l o o r s found elsewhere, e s p e c i a l l y
t h e Highveld. These two f e a t u r e s a r e t h e first ones of t h e i r kind
t o be found south of 31 l a t i t u d e i n t h e c o n t i n e n t .
A v a r i e t y of decorative motifs w a s found i n t h e p o t t e r y of
t h e Early I r o n Age. The sherds were s c a t t e r e d on t h e s u r f a c e of
d e f l a t e d sand dunes - more must be buried under t h e moving dunes.

Further research i s now proposed t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e s e s i t e s

and t h e i r resource environment. The p r o j e c t aims at: (i)l o c a t i n g
and exposing some more hut f l o o r s of t h i s v i l l a g e t o e s t a b l i s h t h e
settlement p a t t e r n ; ( i i ) f i n d i n g t h e furnace t o study smelting
techniques and products; (iii)l o c a t i n g t h e mine - i r o n o r e mine and re-opening thereof f o r s t u d i e s of p r e h i s t o r i c mining techniques;
and ( i v ) excavation of i n s i t u Early I r o n Age m a t e r i a l t o f i n d
a s s o c i a t e d p o t t e r y and d a t a b l e m a t e r i a l .
2.

L a t e r I r o n Age s e t t l e m e n t i n t h e Eastern Cape

Since 1976, I have been engaged i n i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e

L a t e r I r o n Age settlement of t h e E a s t e r n Cape. Several s i t e s were
excavated but d i d not produce q u a n t i t a t i v e m a t e r i a l . The scope of
t h e enquiry w a s changed t o be ethnoarchaeological i n s t e a d of being

t r a d i t i o n a l o r conventional. I am p r e s e n t l y t r y i n g t o synthesize
t h e fragmentary evidence. I a m hoping t o complete t h e t h e s i s by
e a r l y next year.

SUDAN
B r i t i s h I n s t i t u t e i n Eastern A f r i c a
Nicholas David (U .C .L. ) , J i l l Goudie (B.I .E .A. ) Paul Hamey
s
oxford) ,
(cambridge U ) , P a t t i Langton ( ~ i t t - ~ i v e rMuseum,
John Mack (B .M ) , Alex Opira-Odongo (B ,I.E.A. ) and Amum Tor
( ~ u d a nA n t i q u i t i e s s e r v i c e ) w r i t e :

This y e a r ' s combined archaeological and ethnographic

expedition t o t h e southern Sudan followed up Dr.D.W. P n i l l i p s o n ' s
survey of 1977-78 and was i n t h e f i e l d from 14 January t o 28 March
1979. Our a i m was t o sample t h e p a s t and p r e s e n t c u l t u r a l v a r i e t y
of t h e area by obtaining archaeological sequences and ethnographic
d a t a from a t l e a s t t h r e e l o c a l i t i e s d i f f e r i n g i n t h e i r environments
and i n t h e c u l t u r a l - l i n g u i s t i c a f f i l i a t i o n s of t h e i r peoples.
This b r i e f account i s being w r i t t e n l e s s than a week a f t e r
our r e t u r n from t h e f i e l d and must be considered even more
p r o v i s i o n a l t h a n most statements i n Nyame Akuma.
The first s i t e t e s t e d was t h e J e b e l Tukyi rock s h e l t e r
(5O19'N. ; 3027'E.) at Lui i n Mundri d i s t r i c t of Western Equatoria.
The s h e l t e r i s i n one of t h e many i n s e l b e r g s t h a t break t h e s u r f a c e
of t h e i r o n s t o n e plateau. I n most p l a c e s t h e i r o n s t o n e i s o v e r l a i n
by a few metres of ferruginous s o i l . Widespread g u l l y i n g is
exposing i r o n s t o n e and Basement Complex rocks below t h e s e s o i l s .
Annual r a i n f a l l i s 1100-120mm. and t h e v e g e t a t i o n cover i s one of
t h i c k savanna woodland.
A small t a l u s l e a d s up from t h e p l a i n t o t h e s h e l t e r which
i s 20m. long by l l m . deep within t h e main d r i p l i n e , r a t h e r under
h a l f t h e a r e a being taken up by a slopping s h e l f of rock. A t o t a l
of 7 sq. m. were excavated i n whole o r i n p a r t , t h e g n e i s s bedrock
occurring up t o 1.1 m. beneath t h e s u r f a c e . Three phases can be
p r o v i s i o n a l l y recognised:

A. Ceramic Late Stone Age (45 cm.) i n g n e i s s r u b b l e w i t h i n

a c l a y matrix containing numerous concretions. The p o t t e r y
i s chaxacterised by comb punctations and grooving. The r i c h
quartz component appears t y p i c a l l y undiagnostic.

B I r o n Age (32 cm. ) i n a matrix l e s s stony, l e s s clayey and

l e s s a f f e c t e d by concretions. I r o n s l a g is p r e s e n t and t h e
p o t t e r y i s mainly decorated with p l a i t e d f i b r e r o u l e t t e s .
This phase may be broadly a n c e s t r a l t o C.
Recent I r o n Age (10-20 cm) , being t h e remains of p r o b a . 5 1 ~
nineteenth century smelting i n bowl furnaces by t h e Moru and
of smithing and o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s t h a t continue i n t h e s h e l t e r
up t o t h e p r e s e n t . The p o t t e r y i s decorated with p l a i t e d f i b e r
roulettes.
S h e l l and bone were well preserved and it is p o s s i b l e t h a t
c a t t l e - b r e e d i n g may be a f e a t u r e of Phase A.

C.

L o g i s t i c c o n s t r a i n t s contributed t o t h e ethnographers'
d e c i s i o n t o c a r r y out i n t e n s i v e r a t h e r t h a n general survey work on
Moru ethnohistory and contemporary technology i n i t s socioc u l t u r a l context. Their two weeks of fieldwork have added subs t a n t i a l l y t o knowledge of t h i s v i r t u a l l y unstudied C e n t r a l Sudanic
people and complemented t h a t of t h e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s i n many a r e a s ,
besides r a i s i n g t h e question of whether t h e Moru were not first
displaced southwards i n t o t h e i r p r e s e n t a r e a before s u f f e r i n g
Azande and o t h e r incursions i n t o t h e i r t e r r i t o r y .

N ; 28'21 ' E )
The team then moved t o Wun Rok ( ~ u nR O ~ (9'0'
)

160 km. by road north of Wau, t h e c a p i t a l of Bahr e l Ghasal

province. G .W. Titherington ( ~ u d a nNotes and Records V I (1923) :
111-112) had noted numerous a r t i f i c i a l mounds i n t h i s general a r e a .
Although t h e absence o r poor s t a t e of t h e roads prevented extensive
survey, 20 mounds were l o c a t e d and many o t h e r s r e p o r t e d i n t h i s and
neighbouring regions forming p a r t of t h e Dinka t o i c h o r s e a s o n a l l y
flooded g r a s s l a n d . Flooding i s due t o l o c a l r a i n f a l l of 950-1100mm.,
concentrated i n t h e period May-October, and t h e discharge of
t o r r e n t i a l streams and a few l a r g e r r i v e r s d r a i n i n g northwards
from t h e i r o n s t o n e p l a t e a u . During t h e d r y season flow i s
concentrated i n slow-moving r i v e r s l i k e t h e Lol, on which Wun Rok
i s l o c a t e d , while i n t h e r a i n s overbank f l o o d i n g of t h e impervious
c l a y s o i l s of t h e t o i c h brings f u r t h e r d e p o s i t i o n of fine-grained
sediments.
The v i l l a g e mounds v i s i t e d were g e n e r a l l y g r o s s l y subc i r c u l a r i n p l a n , from 60m. - 250m. i n diameter and up t o 6m. high
(though T i t h e r i n g t o n claims mounds up t o 40 f e e t high from f u r t h e r
e a s t ) . Depressions around t h e s i t e s r e s u l t from digging c l a y f o r
building m a t e r i a l s and r e t a i n water well i n t o t h e d r y season.
Dhang-rial, t h e s i t e t e s t e d , l i e s 1 km. north of Wun Rok and i s a
f l a t - t o p p e d mound, l 7 O m . i n diameter with 2.7m. of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
d e p o s i t s overlying progressively c l a y i e r m a t e r i a l , near t h e
surface of which were found s c a t t e r e d r a r e comb-decorated sherds.
However t h e b u i l d e r s of t h e mound, i d e n t i f i e d by t h e Dinka Tuich

as t h e Luel, were a c a t t l e herding people who had knowledge of

i r o n (though on t h e b a s i s of our very l i m i t e d sample its use would
appear t o have been r e s t r i c t e d t o ornaments). The p o t t e r y is
mainly p l a i n o r decorated with t w i s t e d f i b r e r o u l e t t e s . I n t h e
e a r l y p a r t of t h e sequence t h e dead were buried i n t h e c e n t r a l part
of t h e s i t e where we opened a trench 4.5m. long ( l a t e r reduced t o
2.25m. ) by 1.5m. Graves were hard o r impossible t o d e t e c t i n t h e
heterogeneous clayey d e p o s i t s , but seem t o have been shallow
trenches, sometimes containing more than one individual. Bodies
were t y p i c a l l y l a i n on t h e r i g h t s i d e i n an extended p o s i t i o n with
t h e head t o t h e west. Unlike t h e Dinka they d i d not p r a c t i s e
d e n t a l evulsion and were buried wearing various i r o n ornaments and
a l s o necklaces of s h e l l o r bone beads. I n t h e middle of t h e
sequence t h e r e i s evidence of t h e mass disposal of at l e a s t 14
a d u l t s , who although wearing t h e i r ornaments were only very
roughly l a i d out and covered with a l i t t l e c l a y and e a r t h . Burials
then ceased i n t h i s p a r t of t h e s i t e which, from t h e homogenekation
of t h e d e p o s i t s , would appear t o have been t h e r e a f t e r used as a
c a t t l e pen. Another t r e n c h , 3m. by l m . , n e w t h e edge of t h e mound
gave a sequence showing an almost uninterrupted s e r i e s of
hardened f l o o r s .
The c a t t l e , on t h e evidence of numerous crude f i g u r i n e s , were
u n t i l t h e l a t e r s t a g e s of a humpless v a r i e t y t h a t must predate t h e
appearance of Zebu i n t h i s p a r t of t h e Sudan. Indeed t h e introduct i o n of t h e new breed may have encouraged a change i n settlement
p a t t e r n . Together with t h e use of bone t o o l s and t h e r a r i t y of
i r o n , t h e f i g u r i n e s suggest t h a t p a r t at l e a s t of t h e Dhang-rial
sequence must extend back i n t o t h e f i r s t millennium A.D.
I n view of t h e c o n t r a s t between t h e p r e h i s t o r i c settlements
and t h e present Dinka p a t t e r n of loose aggregations of family
homesteads, P.L. and J . M . i n v e s t i g a t e d t h i s aspect of Dinka
c u l t u r e i n some d e t a i l , including t h e i r current use of t h e mounds
as wet season c a t t l e camps and as sacred places, besides
continuing t h e i r e n q u i r i e s along l i n e s developed among t h e Moru.
O u r t h i r d l o c a l i t y l i e s i n t h e dry a c a c i a woodland of
Eastern Equatoria some 35km. southwest of Kapoeta. J . G . d i r e c t e d
t e s t i n g of Nilum Lokabulo, a s h e l t e r i n t h e s m a l l Kales i n s e l b e r g
(4'32'~. ; 3 3 ' 1 9 ' ~ . ) , while P.H. and N.D. surveyed t h e l o c a l i t y ,
f i n d i n g only ex s i t u t r a c e s of t h e Acheulian but widely d i s t r i b u t e d
evidence of M.S.A. technology including an extensive surface s i t e
on t h e r i g h t bank of t h e Kugulu t o r r e n t (b030'N. ; 33'20'~. )
Study of sediments gave some i n d i c a t i o n of l a t e Quaternary
environmental changes. Following major erosion t h a t l e f t
occasional perched ironstone r e l i c t s , up t o 2m. of s o i l developed
over t h e g r a n i t e bedrock which contains massive and r e s i s t a n t
quartz veins. Quartz w a s used as r a w material i n t h e Stone Age

t o g e t h e r with d i o r i t e , a dyke of which w a s l o c a t e d . The M.S.A.

a t Kugulu o v e r l i e s t h e f i r s t s e r i e s of d e p o s i t s . The g e n e r a l
topography, s e c t i o n s i n g u l l y w a l l s and t h e n a t u r e of s t o n e
s c a t t e r s suggests t h a t t h e M.S.A. i s contemporary with o r w a s
c l o s e l y followed by at l e a s t one episode of sheetwash and g u l l y i n g
which c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e l o c a l i s a t i o n of a r t e f a c t s c a t t e r s . T h i s
w a s followed by a period of increased and l e s s seasonal r a i n f a l l ,
denser v e g e t a t i o n cover, reduced e r o s i o n and i n f i l l i n g of g u l l y s
with fine-grained d e p o s i t s . This period may be t e n t a t i v e l y
c o r r e l a t e d with p a r t of t h e main Holocene wet phase. The r e t u r n
t o d r i e r c o n d i t i o n s , with a present day rainfall of 750-1000mm.,
has r e a c t i v a t e d g u l l y i n g along t h e drainage l i n e s followed d u r i n g
t h e previous e r o s i v e phase and removal of t h i n grey s o i l s on t h e
i n t e r f l u v e s has exposed concentrations of worked and n a t u r a l s t o n e .
One of t h e s e concentrations, of u n c e r t a i n d a t e o r d a t e s , next t o
t h e e a s t e r n end of Kales w a s mapped and sampled.
The sequence i n t h e s h e l t e r , which i s some 35m. long and 8 m .
deep within t h e main d r i p l i n e , appears t o c o r r e l a t e with t h e l a t e r
p a r t of t h i s sequence. A small t e s t , 2m. by l m . allowed r e c o g n i t i o n
of t h r e e phases i n a s t r a t i g r a p h y t h a t a l s o occurred though much
compressed i n a higher p a r t of t h e s h e l t e r .
A . Preceramic L .S .A. (55cm. ) i n reddish d e p o s i t s containing
much g r a n i t e d i s i n t e g r a t i n g i n s i t u and capped by a d e f i n i t e s o i l .
The f l a k e d s t o n e comprises mainly q u a r t z with some d i o r i t e and
o t h e r e x o t i c rocks.

B. Ceramic L.S.A. (50cm.) i n a grey s i l t y matrix with numerous

concretions i n its lower p a r t . The s t o n e component does not seem
t o change and t h e p o t t e r y i s mainly comb-impressed. Phases A and B
a r e l i k e l y t o belong t o t h e main and l a t e r p a r t s of t h e Holocene
wet phase.

I r o n Age (35cm. )
This probably r e c e n t l e v e l i s composed
C
l a r g e l y of l e n s e s of burnt and unburnt dung. A l i t t l e p o t t e r y
i s present and includes examples of both t w i s t e d and p l a i t e d f i b r e
r o u l e t t i n g . There do not appear t o be any impressions of carved
wooden r o u l e t t e s t h a t probably c o n s t i t u t e t h e most common group of
motifs on modern and r e c e n t Boya p o t t e r y .
Paucfty of English-speaking informants among t h e Boya, a
small group of P l a i n s N i l o t e s presumably of t h e I t u n g a c l u s t e r ,
caused t h e ethnographers t o vary t h e i r approach. P.L. l i v e d f o r
a f o r t n i g h t i n a Boya v i l l a g e while J.M., a s s i s t e d by A.V.O.
Hatulang, c o l l e c t e d comparative d a t a on t h e r e l a t e d Didinga,
Toposa and Lotuko. The peoples of t h e south-eastern Sudan a r e
some of t h e l e a s t known i n t h e whole of Africa; it i s i n t e r e s t i n g
t h a t some of t h e smaller groups have t r a d i t i o n s t h a t u n t i l compara-

tively recently they were hunter-gatherers. Analysis of the Nilum

Lokabulo fauna will certainly throw light on the prehistoric
economies of this region.
In conclusion, the multi-disciplinary nature of the team has
enabled a promising start to be made in reconstructing environmental sequences and culture history. In spite of the difficulties
in carrying out a suc?ession of excavations and ethnographic
studies up to 2000 road km. from the Nairobi base, the results of
this season's work fulfil the expectations raised by Dr.Phillipson's
survey.
Throughout the expedition the team received the fullest
cooperation of national, provincial and traditional Sudanese
authorities and were given generous assistance by representatives
of UNICEF, ACROSS and other institutions. Selected samples from
the excavations and collections of material culture will be
studied in Britain and Dr. P.L. Carter will be responsible for
analysis of the faunal remains.

Friedrich W. Hinkel reports:

Work at the Northern Group of Pyramids at Begrawiya
(~eroe)and at the historical buildings of Suakin, 1977/78
In accordance with the agreement between the Directorate
General of Antiquities and National Museums and the Academy of
Sciences of the GDR I spent another season from November 1977 to
April 1978 at Meroe and Suakin where our restoration and reconstruction work continued.
A. Meroe
Actual work at the pyramids at Begrawiya lasted from 4th
December 1977 to 23rd February 1978 and consisted mainly in the
reconstruction of offering chapels and pyramids of the last
Meroitic kings.
Work was carried out on the following pyramids:
Beg. N 25: The remaining relief blocks of the chapel were
dismantled, numbered and photographed before their re-erection
on a newly made foundation. A number of fallen blocks were found
buried under the sand in front of the pylon and were incorporated
in the reconstructed walls. The exterior brick work of the chapel

t o g e t h e r with t h e work on t h e pylon and t h e r o o f w a s completed

l e a v i n g only t h e p l a s t e r i n g f o r n e x t season. The e n t r a n c e t o t h e
chapel w a s c l o s e d by a wooden door.
During excavation work i n f r o n t of t h e pylon t h e drums,
c a p i t a l s and bases of two n e a r l y complete columns of t h e o r i g i n a l
p o r t i c o were secured and e r e c t e d .
The pyramid i s normally a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e last m e r o i t i c r u l e r
and according t o t h e r e l i e f scenes beongs t o a k i n g and n o t t o a
queen as r e c e n t l y suggested.
Beg. N 26: Work s i m i l a r t o t h e one d e s c r i b e d f o r Beg N 25 w a s
c a r r i e d o u t . Me were a b l e t o i n c o r p o r a t e many newly found r e l i e f
blocks i n t h e r e c o n s t r u c t e d chapel w a l l s . The scenes of t h e n o r t h
and west w a l l a r e now n e a r l y complete. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e pyramid
proper w a s r e c o n s t r u c t e d . P l a s t e r i n g work f o r t h e pyramid, t h e
chapel and pylon i s earmarked f o r next season.
Two bases and some column drums of t h e p o r t i c o as w e l l as t h e
remains of t h e e n c l o s i n g walls of t h e yard were found i n f r o n t of
t h e pyramid.
Beg. N 27: Those p a r t s of brickwork which were l e f t u n p l a s t e r e d
d u r i n g t h e first season were p l a s t e r e d and work on t h i s pyramid i s
f i n i s h e d . Some explanatory boards with information f o r v i s i t o r s
about t h e pyramid and t h e scenes of t h e chapel walls were e x h i b i t e d
i n s i d e t h e chapel.
,
Beg. N32:
The pyramid, t h e chapel and i t s pylon were r e c o n s t r u c t e d on newly made foundation. The r e l i e f blocks of t h e chapel are
almost complete.
I n s t u d y i n g and drawing t h e scene of t h e west w a l l o f t h e
chapel it w a s observed t h a t t h e roof w a s o r i g i n a l l y v a u l t e d - most
probably u s i n g burnt o r mud b r i c k s . A new v a u l t similar i n shape
t o t h e o l d one w a s t h e r e f o r e c o n s t r u c t e d t o r o o f t h e chapel.
A t t h e e n t r a n c e t o t h e chapel a wooden door w a s i n s t a l l e d t o
p r o t e c t t h e r e l i e f blocks a g a i n s t defacement.
I n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e pyramid we found t h e altar block s p l i t i n two p a r t s - and some fragments of t h e f a i e n c e o f f e r i n g
table.
Beg. N 19: During t h i s s e a s o n ' s work t h e remaining t h r e e s t o n e
l a y e r s of t h e p l i n t h were dismantled, new foundations were made
and t h e p l i n t h w a s t h e n r e c o n s t r u c t e d except f o r t h e west w a l l
where t h e o r i g i n a l s t o n e s were missing. The work on t h e foundation
allowed u s t o examine t h e s t a i r c a s e t o t h e b u r i a l chambers which
w a s l e f t unexcavated by D r . R e i s n e r ' s e x p e d i t i o n i n 1921/22.

Besides some p o t t e r y fragments we found i n t h e upper p a r t of t h e

s t a i r c a s e t h e s k e l e t o n of a horse which appazently w a s s a c r i f i c e d
when t h e s t a i r c a s e was closed and f i l l e d after t h e burial.
During t h e season at Begrawiya another 250 f a l l e n r e l i e f and
a r c h i t e c t u r a l blocks of d i f f e r e n t pyramids were numbered, measured
and photographed t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e assembling of t h e s e blocks t o
scenes on paper f o r f u t u r e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n work.
I n 1976/77 we found a w e l l preserved and unusual shaped s t o n e
near Beg. N 27 which gave t h e c l u e t o t h e s o far unknown form of
t h e capstones of m e r o i t i c pyramids. The fragment of a s i m i l a r
stone w a s a l s o found i n t h e v i c i n i t y of Beg. N 26 and two more w e l l
preserved samples and t h e fragment of a t h i r d one were discovered
i n t h e western group of pyramids. Another type of capstone probably an e a r l i e r one - w a s found by Miss R. Bradley ( ~ a l g a r y
Univ. e x p e d i t i o n , Meroe m own) i n t h e southern cemetery. Another
capstone of t h e second type w a s recorded i n t h e northern group of
pyramids.

Thanks t o t h e h e l p of Miss K. Spirydowicz ( ~ a l g a s yUniv. Exp )

t h e so far only known samples of p a i n t e d and decorated p l a s t e r
from Meroitic pyramids were c a r e f u l l y removed from t h e south f a c e
of pyramid Beg. N 51 and brought t o t h e Sudan National Museum a t
Khartoum.
B. Suakin
Work at Suakin was resumed at t h e end of March 1978 and
continued f o r 5 weeks.
F i n i s h i n g work comprising p l a s t e r i n g , f l o o r i n g , p a i n t i n g , e t c .
w a s completed at t h e Guard Room near t h e Main Gate t o t h e i s l a n d .
O m work concentrated t h i s season on t h e Hanafi Mosque where
r e c e n t d e s t r u c t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y on t h e p i l l a r s had endangered t h e
whole s t r u c t u r e . The 3 w a l l p a r t s surrounding t h e open yard at
t h e southwest a r e now reconstructed and new doors a t two
entrances i n t h e w a l l s a r e i n s t a l l e d . The two s t o r i e d b u i l d i n g
i n t h e southern corner ( s t o r e room and khalwa) was r e c o n s t r u c t e d
and roofed. Repairwork was c a r r i e d out on t h e masonry of t h e
minaret and t h e s u r f a c e of t h e w a l l s of t h e s t a i r c a s e w a s cleaned
from i n s c r i p t i o n s and charcoal s c r i b b l i n g s of r e c e n t v i s i t o r s .
I n t h e prayer h a l l work s t a r t e d t o c l e a n t h e walls from t h i c k
l a y e r s of c r u s t e d and s a l t e d l a y e r s of p a i n t and a number of
geometrical decorations carved i n t o t h e o r i g i n a l p l a s t e r were l a i d
bare.
Cleaning and chemical conservation work was s t a r t e d on sodie
of t h e o l d cannons and mortars i n f r o n t of t h e former Governor's
Palace and t h e Gate t o t h e i s l a n d .

In spite of the importance of the special architectural style

of the buildings at Suakin there are no exactly measured
drawings of the houses available. Measuring and drawing work
was therefore started and included the Hanafi Mosque and a
house of Turkish style on plot No. 250. Another survey compiled
information on all still existing architectural features, as
mashrabiyas, window grills, door-hoods, etc.

THE INFLUENCE OF MAN ON THE ECOSYSTEM

Case study, El Kadero and El Zakyab sites, Central Sudan
By A. Tigani El Mahi
Zoological Museum, University
of Bergen

The excavations of El Kadero and El Zakyab sites in

Central Sudan gave information on pastoralism during
prehistoric times (5000 B.P.). Both sites are located
between 18 - 19 km from Khartoum North, on the eastern
bank of the river Nile and the distance between them is
4 km. El Zakyab lies 3 km from the main course of the river
Nile, while El Kadero lies further to the east from El
Zakyab site.
The two sites gave the earliest evidence of cattle,
which was present in the osteological remains of both
sites.
The influence of man on the ecosystem is encompassed
by his means of production, his behaviour and activities
to satisfy his needs. In the present case two points should
be considered: (1) the time span of mutual relations
between man and cattle, starting at the beginning of
domestication outside the area of Sudan and its introduction into the area 5000 B.P., and (2) the dependency of
cattle on man for the provision of food, water, protection
etc., and the resultant loss or minimization of the ability
of domestic cattle to survive independently of man.
Cattle as a newly introduced species in the ecosystem
of El Kadero and El Zakyab must have experienced predation
by carnivores, which were represented in the osteological
material of both sites. Odum (1971) stated that predation
is a severe interaction, when it is of a recent origin, or
if there have been sudden or temporary changes in the
ecosystem. As for changes in the ecosystem of the area see
(Tigani El Mahi, A., Nyame Akuma, No. 13, November 1978).
Since cattle were newly introduced into the area, there
too the interaction was a recent one. Thus it is apparent
that the two causes of severe predation were experienced
in the ecosystem.

Krzaniak (in press) postulated that the large quantity

of osteological remains of carnivores found indicates the
deliberate hunting for their skins. The writer, however,
consider this as a minor factor influencing the high
frequency of carnivores remains to be found on these two
sites. In communities practising a similar economy,
emphasizing a pastoral mode of production, as for example
among the Nuer, although skin of carnivores play a role
in distinguishing the power of the leopard skin chief, the
main factor determining the hunting of carnivores is to
protect their live stock. It is a reduction of the effect
of a biotic limiting factor, "enemies", which shows the
influence of man in the ecosystem. By hunting the
carnivores, the inhabitants of El Radero and El Zakyab
reduce its population density in the area. Also it is
possible that a "zariba" was in use as well as a careful
guarding during day. These precautions reduce the frequency
of contact between predators and prey. For the loss of the
prey population depends on the freqvencies of contact with
the predator population (Slobodkin 1961).
Another indicator of the influence of man in the
ecosystem can have been in the seasonal movements. The
seasonal movement from the dry seasonal site El Zakyab to
the rainy season site El Kadero or generally the seasonal
movements (Haaland 1978) involve different motivations.
Beside seeking a sufficient supply of water and grass and
avoiding the danger of the flooding river, the writer adds
another factor, "enemies". Although there can be no
evidence for the effect of a fly, for example surret
(Tabanidae), this possibility must be taken into consideration.
Leading the domestic stock to the optimum areas for
grazing and watering (seasonal movements) means that "food"
as a biotic limiting factor was controlled. This is another
influence of man on a biotic limiting factor which is a
decisive factor in ecosystems.
Also secondary artificial selection within the primary
artificial selection (domestication) based on selecting
certain animals for butchering, breeding and probably
keeping the young individuals, would have had profound
effects on the ecosystem due to the compensatory adjustments which occur by natural selection (Odum 1971).
References:
Haaland, R. (1978) A paper presented in the Nubian
symposium, Cambridge (in press). "Seasonal variations
Among N e o l i t i c s i t e s i n C.

sudan".

Krzyzaniak, L .

"The N e o l i t h i c of t h e C e n t r a l Sudan" (as a c h a p t e r

i n J.D. Clark ed., palaeoecology and Archaeology of
t h e C e n t r a l Sudan, Academic p r e s s (U .S .A. ) ) (1n p r e s s )

Odum , E

. (1971) "Fundamentals of Ecology" , 3rd ed ., P h i l a d e l p h i a ,

Saunders

Slobodkin, (1961) "Growth and r e g u l a t i o n of animal population",

H o l t , Renehart and Winston, New York.

*) The m i t e r i s much indebted t o NORAD f o r supporting t h i s reseazch.

Report on t h e

1979 season i n t h e Sudan.

by Randi Haaland, H i s t o r i c a l Museum, University of Bergen.

Fieldwork was conducted i n February t h i s y e a r , by A l i Tigani E l
Mahi and myself. The r e s e a r c h was divided i n t o two p a r t s :
1 ) excavation of a p i t , 4 square metres, a t E l Shaheinab, t o
c o l l e c t m a t e r i a l f o r a new d a t e f o r t h i s s i t e .
2) surveying a t t h e e a s t bank of t h e Nile i n t h e a r e a surrounding
t h e Kadero and Zakiab s i t e s , t o f i n d new Neolithic s i t e s , e s p e c i a l l y
smaller herding camps.

The r e s u l t of t h e E l Shaheinab excavation was as follows:

A p i t was excavated on t h e north-western p a r t of t h e s i t e
(two square metres at Q-87 and P-87 according t o A r k e l l s g r i d
system). The s e t t l e m e n t d e b r i s i n Q-87 w a s undisturbed and 60 cm
deep, while P-87 was d i s t u r b e d by l a t e r b u r i a l s . S h e l l s were
c o l l e c t e d f o r d a t i n g from a depth of 1 0 centimetres ( l a t e r 1 ) and
a depth of 50 centimetres ( l a t e r 5) i n Q-87. The d a t i n g of l a y e r 7
100 B.P. (both d a t e s were
i s 5300
100 B.P. and l a y e r 5 i s 5500
d a t e s confirm Arkells previous
done i n Sondheim, ~ o r w a ~ ) These
.
d a t e s of t h e s i t e , and they were l a t e r than I had assumed. I have
e a r l i e r suggested t h a t a d a t e f o r E l Shaheinab would probably be
6000 B.P.

A s r e g a r d s t h e surveying one s m a l l s i t e was found, c o n t a i n i n g

q u a r t z a r t e f a c t s and one convex s c r a p e r t y p i c a l of t h e Kadero and
Zakiab s i t e s , which could have been a s m a l l herding camp. The s i t e
i s s i t u a t e d on t h e p l a t e a u c . 6 kilometres e a s t of Kadero, t h e r e
w a s however no organic m a t e r i a l which could be used t o d a t e t h e
s i t e . 3 l a r g e r Neolithic s i t e s were found on t h e a l l u v i a l p l a i n
north and south of Kadero. These s i t e s were probably base s i t e s
of t h e same type as Kadero.

Sudan

I n t h e item ' Some Ecological E f f e c t s of t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n

of C a t t l e t o t h e Central Sudan' by A. Tigani e l Mahi i n Nyame
Akuma' 13. (1978), 36-38, t h e key t o t h e models w a s c a r e l e s s l y
omitted by t h e e d i t o r who had t o re-draw t h e o r i g i n a l diagrams.
These keys should have been as follows:
Model I:

- -3

>--

high seasonal flow of energy (dry season).

high seasonal flow of nergy ( r a i n y season).

Model 11:

3
-'

---3

high flow of energy o r dependence on t h e s p e c i e s .

low flow of energy o r dependence on t h e s p e c i e s .

And t h e whole of model I1 should have been surrounded by

indicating aquatic habitat.

-0-.

My apologies t o author and r e a d e r s - P.L. Shinnie. But p l e a s e

do your drawings i n a form t h a t can be reproduced without r e drawing - p l e a s e s e e Notes t o Contributors i n Nyame Akuma no.13,
(19781, 2.

M r . Tigani e l Mahi a l s o asked p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t I should

include h i s two non-specific r e f e r e n c e s which u s i n g e d i t o r i a l
d i s c r e t i o n I had omitted. I have s e v e r a l times pointed out t h a t
Nyame Akuma notes being of a non-formal kind do not normally
r e q u i r e r e f e r e n c e s , but i n t h i s case I a m acceding t o t h e r e q u e s t :

Emerson, A .E (1949) i n " P r i n c i p l e s of animal ecology", Saunders ,

Philadelphia.

Watt, K .E. (1966) i n "Systems a n a l y s i s i n ecology", Academic P r e s s ,

New York and London.

TANZANIA

D r . Masao of t h e National Museum o f Tanzania w r i t e s :

There i s n o t much news except t h a t my t h e s i s "The L a t e r Stone
Age And t h e Rock P a i n t i n g s of C e n t r a l Tanzania" is being published
by t h e Frobenius I n s t i t u t and should be out by February, 1979.
Orders f o r c o p i e s should be s e n t d i r e c t l y t o t h e Frobenius I n s t i t u t ,
6 Frankfurt ( ~ a i n,) L i e b i g s t r a s s e 41, Y. Germany. Perhaps I should
a l s o mention t h a t last year I conducted a quick survey a t t h e Mtera
Reservoir Region with t h e view t o e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
p o t e n t i a l of t h e a r e a before it i s flooded. A preliminary r e p o r t
d e s c r i b i n g t h e archaeological s i t e s and f i n d s , and c o n t a i n i n g
recommendations f o r subsequent salvage work h a s been published i n
TANESCO's "Great Ruaha Power P r o j e c t " s e r i e s .

M r . Mehlman of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of I l l i n o i s w r i t e s :
I have spent t h e p a s t s e v e r a l yeazsin Tanzania conducting
r e s e a r c h as follows:
a)

Nasera is is) Rock-- s h e l t e r near Olduvai Gorge described

by L.S.B. Leakey as c o n t a i n i n g sequence from "Developed
~ e v a l l o i s i a n "through l T r o t o - ~ t i l i b a y "", S t i l l b a y " , " ~ a ~ o s i a n "
t o "Wilton". Re-excavation i n d i c a t e s lower assemblages of
broadly Middle Stone Age a s p e c t o v e r l a i n by an i n d u s t r y (not
t h e "Magosian") i n some a s p e c t s intermediate t o t h o s e of L a t e
Stone Age t y p e ; above t h i s l a t t e r i n d u s t r y , d a t e d a t 22,000 B.P.,
a r e a s e r i e s of LSA assemblages ranging i n age from c i r c a
20,000 B.P. A s e r i e s of s p i t s through t h e uppermost metre of
d e p o s i t suggest a progression of p o t t e r y types from Kansyore
ware (? 5400 B.P.) through Narosura ware t o t h a t which i s now
termed Akira (2100 B.P. )
Preliminary d e s c r i p t i o n i n Azania, Vol. X I I , pp. 111-118.

Mumba Rockshelter-- s i t e n e a r Lake Eyasi excavated by L. and

M. Kohl-Larsen i n t h e 1930s. An e i g h t metre s e c t i o n
i n d i c a t e s i n d u s t r i e s ranging i n typology from Middle Stone Age
t o Late Stone Age with p o t t e r y at t h e t o p . Impressive s n a i l
midden d e p o s i t s appear t o begin about 31,000 B.P. accompanied
by an i n d u s t r y containing both p o i n t s and m i c r o l i t h s . A
beach d e p o s i t h i g h e r i n t h e sequence, as y e t undated,
documents t h e last highstand of Eyasi at c i r c a 36 metres
above i t s p r e s e n t l e v e l . L a t e Stone Age i n d u s t r i e s , s n a i l
and mussel midden above t h e beach through 1.5 metres of

deposit with burials, Kansyore and possibly Nderit wares

The topmost layer yielded Narosura
in the upper p&.
ware and early Iron Age pottery (~elsuware).
Eyasi Lake Shore-- locality in which L. Kohl-Larsen
H. sapiens
collected crania of two individuals of MSA artifacts were recovered in 1977
rhodesiensis type.
together with numerous faunal remains, including the
articulating bones of an hippopotamus manus; the hippo
remains appear to be those of an extinct species. Efforts
are underway to date some of the bone which is presumed to
be contemporary with the hominid remains and the lithic

industry.
Research was financed in part by grants from the National
Science Foundation (~issertation~esearch), the Ford Foundation
(Traineeship in ~nthro~ology)
and the L S ,B Leakey Foundation.

. .

ZAMBIA

Archaeology a t Kansanshi Mine: preliminary notes

on the 1978 rescue excavations
Kansanshi Mine, near Solwezi in the North-Western Province of Zambia, was
one of the l a s t major ancient copper mining and smelting s i t e s in southern
Africa t o survive relatively undisturbed into the 1970's. In 1971-72 one of us
(M.S. B. ) conducted an intensive archaeological investigation of the mine and
i t s associated smelting area a t the request of the Anglo-American Corporation of
Central Africa who planned t o re-open the mine in 1973. After an i n i t i a l period
of mapping the ancient workings, the majority of the research was carried out in
the smelting area adjacent t o the mine.
In the smelting area four phases of the Iron Age were identified, an Early
Iron Age (E.I.A.) Phase I and I1 and a Later Iron Age (L.I.A.) Phase I and 11.
The E.I.A. Phase I dated from the 5th t o 7th centuries A.D.
I t was characterized by thick walled, poorly fired pottery decorated by stamped o r impressed
diagonal, cross-hatched, and herringbone motifs. The E.I.A. Phase I1 dated from
the 8th and 9th centuries A.D. Pottery from t h i s period was thin walled and
somewhat better fired. I t was very elaborately and finely decorated with wide
bands of bangle impressed or incised designs. By f a r the most common motif
(over 65%) was a pattern of interwoven lines with spaces between the lines often
f i l l e d with fine wavy l i n e or comb stamping. The L.I.A. Phase I was represented
by a village s i t e near the smelting area. This village was occupied during the
1 1 t h or 12th centuries A.D.
Ceramic designs are simpler and more crudely
executed during t h i s period, with single bands of diagonal lines o r two to three
bands of opposed diagonal lines being most common. The L.I.A. Phase I1 probably
began in the 14th or 15th century and extended t o the beginning of the colonial
period. Ceramics from t h i s period may be related to recent Kaonde wares.
Late
Iron
well
time

I n addition to the Iron Age material, a small amount of undifferentiated

Stone Age a r t i f a c t s were located in s t r a t a containing both Early and Later
Age pottery. A more precise identification of t h i s Stone Age collection as
as i t s relationship t o the Iron Age was impossible because limitations of
and funds prevented testing the s i t e below the Iron Age layers.

The re-opening of Kansanshi Mine was delayed f o r economic reasons until

1975. A t t h a t time quarrying began on the h i l l and t o date about 60 percent of
the old workings have been obliterated. The company had planned t o preserve the
smelting area b u t unfortunately in early 1978 a contractor looking f o r topsoil
t o place around some mine buildings inadvertently removed the top 30-40 cm from
much of t h i s s i t e . Only the southern end of the smelting area including the
E.I.A. Phase I component and the L.I.A. Phase I village remained untouched.
Because production was t o be increased, the Zambia National Monuments Commission
decided that rescue excavations on the surviving portions of the s i t e should be
conducted.
The goals of the 1978 research were to supplement and expand the work
carried out e a r l i e r . Attempts were also made to recover samples of a r t i f a c t s
displaced by the removal of topsoi 1 , b u t the bul k of our e f f o r t s were concentrated on selected areas where we believed t h a t specific problems posed by the

1972 research c o u l d be solved. These problems i n c l u d e d t h e l a c k o f s t r u c t u r a l

remains f o r t h e E.I.A. Phase I 1 component, our need t o increase t h e s i z e o f o u r
sample of ceramics from t h e E.I.A. Phase I component, t o l e a r n more about t h e
subsistence p r a c t i c e s o f a l l t h e groups t o work t h e mine, and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
o f t h e Stone and I r o n Age m a t e r i a l s . Excavations were conducted over a p e r i o d
o f f i v e weeks i n J u l y and August 1978 and a t o t a l o f 18 two by two meter u n i t s
were opened. Data was s u c c e s s f u l l y gathered on a l l these problems, b u t cont i n u i n g l o g i s t i c a l and f i n a n c i a l t r o u b l e s c u t t h e f i e l d season s h o r t by a t l e a s t
a week.
I n t h e process o f grading o f f t h e dark t o p s o i l , t h e c o n t r a c t o r exposed a
l a r g e area o f t h e E.I.A. Phase I 1 component. An i n t e n s i v e i n s p e c t i o n and surface c o l l e c t i o n o f t h i s area was c a r r i e d o u t i n which 212 decorated potsherds
were c o l l e c t e d along w i t h a small number o f o t h e r a r t i f a c t s . A1 though w e l l over
2000 square meters o f t h i s component were inspected, no a p p r e c i a b l e amounts o f
h u t daga o r o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l remains were found. The p o t t e r y was r e l a t i v e l y
evenly s c a t t e r e d as w e l l . The o r i g i n a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s component as t h e
remains o f a number o f small temporary camps f o r miners i s thus sustained.
The E.I.A. Phase I component had n o t been d i s t u r b e d by development o f t h e
mine. Excavations i n t h i s area uncovered a daga c o n c e n t r a t i o n c o n f i r m i n g t h e
presence o f permanent s t r u c t u r e s i n what was probably a small hamlet. Samples
o f a r t i f a c t s remained small u n t i l a deep c i r c u l a r p i t f i l l e d w i t h r e f u s e was
encountered. From t h i s feature alone over 150 decorated potsherds were c o l l e c t e d
along w i t h a number o f i r o n a r t i f a c t s and l a r g e charcoal samples. O f p a r t i c u l a r
i n t e r e s t a r e t h e extremely small carbonized seeds obtained by f l o t a t i o n from
these sediments. These seeds a r e n o t y e t i d e n t i f i e d , b u t may be a form o f
m i l l e t . S i m i l a r seeds were a l s o found i n t h e 11t h t o 1 2 t h c e n t u r y v i l l a g e s i t e
across t h e Dambo.
Large amounts o f l i t h i c s were recovered from excavated u n i t s i n b o t h t h e
E.I.A. Phase I and L.I.A. Phase I v i l l a g e s . The l i t h i c c o l l e c t i o n has o n l y
r e c e n t l y a r r i v e d i n Montreal f o r study and so t h e f o l l o w i n g remarks a r e based on
f i r s t impressions formed d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l c l e a n i n g and c a t a l o g i n g of these
collections.
I n t h e area o f t h e L.I.A. Phase I v i l l a g e stone t o o l s and c h i p p i n g d e b r i s
were common. Specimens were found throughout t h e d e p o s i t s b u t increased i n
frequency w i t h depth. The raw m a t e r i a l was almost e x c l u s i v e l y m i l k y and c l e a r
quartz. Cores a r e u n i f o r m i n s i z e throughout these deposits, w i t h a mean maximum dimension o f 32.6 mm. Core types a r e p r i m a r i l y u n i l a t e r a l s i n g l e p l a t f o r m ,
b i l a t e r a l r a d i a l , and i r r e g u l a r . F i n i s h e d t o o l s a r e r e l a t i v e l y f r e q u e n t and
i n c l u d e scrapers on f l a k e s and chunks, notched t o o l s , t r u n c a t e d and backed
f l a k e s , and a few crude c r e s c e n t i c m i c r o l i t h s . Also found were a bored stone
made o f hematite and a t r i h e d r a l p i c k made on a t h i c k q u a r t z i t e f l a k e w i t h fresh
l a t e r a l edges and a p o l i s h e d t i p . The o v e r a l l appearance o f t h i s c o l l e c t i o n i s
t h a t of a Natchikufan I n d u s t r y and, because i t l a c k s a s i g n i f i c a n t number of
w e l l made geometric m i c r o l i t h s , i t may be r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y i n date. The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f these t o o l s t o t h e I r o n Age i s s t i l l n o t c l e a r . I n general, the
l i t h i c s a r e most frequent below t h e l a y e r s t h a t contained t h e most p o t t e r y .
Because daga p i t t i n g and c u l t i v a t i o n have e x t e n s i v e l y d i s t u r b e d t h i s s i t e two o r

more separate components may have become mixed.

I n t h e area of t h e E.I.A. Phase I s i t e t h e r e appear t o be two d i s t i n c t
Stone Age components. The uppermost (50-70 cm below surface) appears t o be
another Natchi kufan assemblage, w i t h small (mean maximum dimension, 32.5 mn)
s i n g l e platform, and i r r e g u l a r cores. Implements a r e l e s s frequent i n t h i s
c o l l e c t i o n . The lower component (70-140 cm) produced a g r e a t e r number o f specimens, a l 1 made of m i l k y quartz. Cores were l a r g e r (mean maximum dimension,
47.4 mm) and more varied, i n c l u d i n g a few oval and t r i a n g u l a r l e v a l l o i s cores.
Implements were r a r e , although a number o f f l a k e scrapers, notched t o o l s , and a
s i n g l e crescent were found. This may represent a "Second Intermediate" industry.
Acknowl edgements
This research was funded by t h e Zambia National Monuments Commission,
McGill U n i v e r s i t y , and t h e Leakey Foundation.
Michael S

. B i sson,

McGi 11 Uni versi t y

John H. Robertson, Zambia National

Monuments Commission

FORTHCOMING PUBLICATIONS
Proceedings of the eighth Panafrican Congress of Prehistory and
Quaternary Studies, Nairobi, September 5-10 1977 will be published
early in 1979, probably March or April. The volume will contain
nearly 100 illustrated papers together with other Congress matter
and will be about 400 pages long. The price (including surface
postage) will be Ksh. 380 ( ~ e n ponly) or ~ ~ $ 5
(elsewhere).
5
Please send your orders to: PmOS
c/o National Museums of Kenya
P. 0. Box 40658
NAIROBI, Kenya.
All full Members of the 8th Panafrican Congress of Prehistory will
receive a copy of the Proceedings soon after the publication date.

El Kab I1 : L'Elkabien, ~ ~ i ~ a l e o l i t h ide

~ ula
e vallge du Nil Ggyptien
by P.M. Vermeersch. Brussels and Leuven. 1978.
and a new journal
SINET: A. Ethiopian Journal of Science. A subscription cost ~ ~ $ 1 2
per yeax by airmail to individuals and $21 to institutions. It can
be ordered from:
SINET Editorial Office, Faculty of Science,
Addis Ababa University, I' .O.Box 1176, Addis Ababa , Ethiopia.
'Palaeoecology of Africa'
eds. E.M. van Zinderen Bakker and J.A. Coetzee. Volume X containing
20 articles (190 pages) has been published by A,T. Balkema, P .O.
Box 1675, Rotterdam, the Netherlands, Price l!10.50.
Volume XI will appear early in 1979.
and Dr. W . Y . Adams of the University of Kentucky tells us that
his book 'Nubia: Corridor to Africa' published in 1977 won the
Herskovits award from the African Studies Association and says -

" The University Press of Kentucky has agreed to bring out the
complete series of Memoirs of the ArchaeolofficalSurvey of Sudanese
Nubia, on behalf of the Sudan Antiquities Service. The series will
number at least 10 volumes, and will present the results of the
salvage archaeological andethnological surveys carried out by Unesco
and Sudan Antiquities Service personnel in Sudanese Nubia between
1959 and 1969. The first two volumes, currently in the press, are
the final version of the Nubian pottery typology that I've been
working on for so many years.

PERSONAL NOTICE

Steve Daniels, who was until last year running the

Archaeological Statistical Unit at the Centre for Nigerian
Cultural Studies, Ahmadu Bello University, is proposing to
set up an Archaeological Quantitative Design and Analysis
Consultancy offering:-

**

Consultation on
quantitative aspects of data collection and research design
selection of appropriate analytical strategies
interpretation and reliability of esults

**

Computing facilities featuring

ability to deal with large datasets
comprehensive data-handling routines
a wide range of analytical techniques
comprehensible computer output
publication-standard graphic figures
ad hoc programming for special problems

**

Fast service in commercial time

His address will be:- 1, Gwendrock Villas, Fernleigh Road,
Wadebridge, Cornwall, England, and he will be ready to produce
results by October 1979. Enquiries welcome any time. Fees
by arrangement but moderate - he hopes to make a living, not
a fortune.