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ISPRE
The International Science Panel on Renewable Energies was established in 2007 by the International Council for
Science (ICSU) and the International Council of Academies of Engineering and Technological Sciences (CAETS).
The central mission of ISPRE has been to provide analysis and strategic guidance for renewable energy research and
development (R&D) efforts worldwide. It aims to help improve the intensity, effectiveness and coherence of R&D
programmes being implemented at national, regional, and international levels. Generous financial support has been
provided by the German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, under the
contract 0329971A.
ICSU
Founded in 1931, the International Council for Science (ICSU) is a non-governmental organization representing a
global membership that includes both national scientific bodies (117 National Members representing 137 countries)
and International Scientific Unions (30 Members). The ICSU family also includes more than 20 Interdisciplinary
Bodiesinternational scientific networks established to address specific areas of investigation. Through this international network, ICSU coordinates interdisciplinary research to address major issues of relevance to both science and
society. In addition, the Council actively advocates for freedom in the conduct of science, promotes equitable access
to scientific data and information, and facilitates science education and capacity building. . [www.icsu.org]
CAETS
The International Council of Academies of Engineering and Technological Societies (CAETS) is an independent nongovernmental international organisation of engineering and technological sciences academies. CAETS advises governments and international organizations; contributes to the strengthening of engineering and technological activities
to promote sustainable economic growth and social welfare throughout the world; provides an international forum
for engineering and technological issues; fosters cooperative international engineering and technological efforts; encourages improvement of engineering education and practice internationally; and fosters establishment of additional
engineering academies in countries where none exist. [www.caets.org]
This report was produced by ISPRE, which was sponsored by ICSU and CAETS.
Suggested citation: ISPRE (2009). Research and Development on Renewable Energies: A Global Report on
Photovoltaic and Wind Energy. International Science Panel on Renewable Energies, Paris.
ISBN 978-0-930357-72-6
ISPRE 2009
Foreword
Coherent R&D programmes for renewable energies are key elements in designing political strategies, not
only for renewable energies but also for carbon mitigation. Enhancing the dialogue between science and
policy is essential to achieve a consistent global approach which takes into account the maturity of the
different renewable energy technologies.
This ISPRE report discusses two selected renewable technologies: photovoltaic and wind energy. Along with
biomass, these are the technologies that are currently considered to have the greatest sustainable potential
and widest applicability. Biomass is the subject of a separate preliminary report prepared by ISPRE. It is
recognised that other renewable technologies, such as solar thermal power plants, solar thermal heating
and cooling, geothermal energy, hydropower and marine energy (wave and tidal power) will also make a
contribution to future global energy supplies.
This report (i) highlights the importance of R&D in renewable energy technologies, (ii) addresses the
potential of the two selected technologies to contribute to a global sustainable energy supply system and
(iii) gives detailed directions for further research and development.
The report shows how unevenly R&D activities in renewables are distributed worldwide. It argues that
strong national and international efforts are necessary to establish and foster R&D in renewable energies in
almost every country or region of the world.
ii
iii
Contents
Foreword
ii
vi
1. Introduction
2. Photovoltaics
Summary
Introduction
Research and Development Activities
Research and Development Institutions
Industrial Activities
4
5
8
10
12
13
3. Wind
17
Summary
Introduction
Research and Development Activities
Research and Development Institutions
Industrial Activities
17
18
22
24
27
27
4. References
30
List of Abbreviations
32
vi
improved methods for integrating renewable energy into buildings, electricity grids and other
distribution systems;
socio-economic research aimed at developing effective policy measures that will encourage the
deployment of renewables and enhance public acceptability of new energy technologies; and
capacity-building aimed at developing new generations of trained scientists, engineers and others.
9. The deployment of renewable energy is distributed very unevenly round the world. The distribution of
R&D in renewables is similarly uneven. R&D is dominated by a small number of industrialised countries
(Japan, USA, Germany), though developing countries such as China, India, and Brazil are playing an
increasingly important role. The current pattern of activities in terms of industries, markets and R&D could
become a main obstacle to the widespread take-up of renewable energy technologies.
10. Fostering competences in the deployment and development of renewable energy technologies across a
wide range of countries is a prerequisite if ambitious visions for future sustainable energy systems are to be
realised. This will ensure that countries at a critical stage of development do not have to suffer the financial
burden of importing knowledge and necessary hardware. R&D has a particular role to play in helping to
adapt technology to local needs and build capacity through the fostering of skills and local enterprise. Thus,
all countries can share the economic benefits associated with a transition to a sustainable energy system.
Recommendations
11. To underpin the long-term contribution of renewable energy to a sustainable energy system, R&D
activities need to be accelerated. There is a particular need to ensure that efforts are made across a range
of countries to support the wider deployment of modern renewables technologies. Existing R&D institutions
should be encouraged to undertake activities in the field of renewable energy.
12. The precise focus of enhanced R&D efforts will vary from one technology to another. Specific
recommendations are made here for the two technologies covered by this report, as well as for
cross-cutting R&D, crucial for establishing renewable energy as a major player in future sustainable energy
systems.
13. Photovoltaic (PV). The following research directions are critical for the development of PV:
Reduction in the consumption of silicon and other materials in conventional crystalline silicon
applications.
Novel high efficiency silicon device concepts.
Higher efficiency modules for thin-film applications based on silicon and other materials.
Nano-structured devices such as organic, organic/inorganic hybrid devices and dye cells.
Development of high quality transparent conductive oxides.
Improved power electronics to enhance output quality and the compatibility with smart grid
schemes.
Grid integration issues for high levels of penetration, including large distance DC transport.
High throughput, high yield, integrated processing with increased automation across all module
types.
Improved sustainability of production, including the use of recycled material, supported by life
14. Wind. The development of very large turbines and the move offshore are key research challenges. The
following research directions are critical:
Improved wind forecasting.
Fundamental design issues for very large turbines (up to 10 MW).
vii
turbines.
Analysis of offshore wind regimes and wind characteristics within large arrays.
Condition monitoring and remote maintenance options.
Environmental impacts and management offshore.
Interactions with telecommunications and radar systems.
Storage and fuel production for isolated networks.
Design of special purpose applications such as desalination or hydrogen production.
Public engagement/spatial planning issues.
15. There is also an urgent need for cross-cutting R&D to support the renewable contribution to a
sustainable energy system. This needs to cover the integration of renewables into energy networks, the
sustainable potential for and environmental impact of renewable energy, and socio-economic issues.
Priority topics include:
The integration of non-dispatchable renewables into electricity grids and other distribution networks,
addressing issues such as energy storage, adaptive loads and the active management of networks.
The integration of renewables into buildings and other structures.
Storage and fuel production for isolated networks.
More reliable and specific information about the sustainable potential for renewable energy
viii
1. Introduction
A transformation of the global energy system is needed to:
Protect the global life-support system, especially by mitigating climate change.
Eradicate energy poverty in developing countries.
Reduce the risk of geopolitical conflicts over energy resources.
Establish a secure energy supply system.
Alongside major improvements in energy efficiency, energy conversion and transportation systems, the
extensive use of renewable energy sources such as solar and wind will make a major contribution to
future sustainable energy systems (Greenpeace/EREC, 2008; REN21, 2007; REN21, 2008; WBGU, 2003).
This transformation to a sustainable global energy system is urgent and sustained policy activity is essential.
This needs to take place at multiple levels, through, for example, international treaties, regulations,
development mechanisms and market deployment schemes. The latter is especially important because the
impact of todays energy systems on our environment and climate is not sufficiently reflected in current
energy prices. This constitutes a severe market failure.
A number of studies have shown that the transformation to a sustainable energy system is technically and
economically feasible. However, different studies envisage different ways of achieving this.
The BLUE Map scenario in the International Energy Agencys 2008 Energy Technology Perspectives Report
(IEA, 2008a) was developed to secure a 50% reduction in global CO2 emissions by 2050. According to
the IPCC (2007), however, emissions must be reduced by 50 85% to keep global temperature increases
between 2 and 2.4C. Under the BLUE Map scenario, biomass accounts for around 23% of total world
primary energy in 2050 and becomes the most important energy source. Solar power and wind provide 11%
and 12% of global electricity production respectively (Figure 1.1).
The World Energy Vision 2100, developed by the German Advisory Council on Global Change (WBGU,
2003), envisaged higher levels of energy demand and consequently renewables play an even greater role.
Under this scenario, solar electricity becomes the most important energy source, contributing about 20% of
world energy supply by 2050 and over 60% by 2100 (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.1: World fuel supply for Baseline, ACT Map and Blue Map, 2050 from IEA Energy Technology
Perspectives 2008 (IEA, 2008b).
A Global Report on Photovoltaic and Wind Energy
Figure 1.2: Transformation of the global energy supply system towards sustainability. Strict and comprehensive
sustainability criteria are applied. This scenario provides the chance to keep global concentrations of CO2
below 450ppm. Strong worldwide economic growth is assumed. A substantial increase in energy efficiency
is implemented. Extensive use of carbon capture and sequestration is required under this scenario as a
transitional technology. There is a phase-out of the use of nuclear energy. Only proven sustainable potentials
for renewable energy sources are used. Traded energies are shown in this graph; non-traded energy
contributions (like domestic applications of solar, biomass and geothermal sources) are accounted for under
energy efficiency (WBGU, 2003).
Strong and targeted activities in R&D are essential if a sustainable energy system is to be achieved. The
transformation of our global energy supply system will not be successful without progress in and regional
adaptation of todays proven renewable energy technologies. Cost reductions, low material consumption,
recycling, new energy conversion schemes and extended technical lifetimes of the components are of
key importance. In addition, research has to focus on the socio-economic aspects of this unprecedented
transformation to our energy system.
In many areas such as photovoltaics (solar cells) and bioenergy fundamental research is key to finding
fundamentally new ways of converting solar energy.
To date, R&D activity in most countries has been targeted on specific technologies rather than being
comprehensive in scope. Such a division of activities can be seen as a characteristic of global co-operation.
However, given the pressing need to transform the global energy system, enhanced R&D programmes with
greater scope are needed in manyif not mostcountries and regions across the world.
The establishment of sustainable energy systems calls for massive investment in renewable energy
technologies and energy efficiency. If the necessary knowledge and hardware has to be imported, many
countries will not be able to meet the short-term costs. Thus the evolution of energy systems needs to
be associated with income and job creation. The prerequisite for this is R&D, which forms the basis for
industrial activity, income and employment. R&D is particularly important for creating skilled personnel and
for supporting industrial activities at the regional level.
Technology transfer from highly industrialised countries to the developing world is also urgently needed,
particularly for renewable energy technologies. However, this knowledge transfer will not be sufficient to
create a worldwide sustainable energy system in the near future. Local issues, as mentioned above, must
first be addressed, at least in part, by local R&D, education and training. In addition, the global distribution
of intellectual property rights (IPR) could represent an obstacle to the transformation of our energy supply
systems. If adequate R&D platforms become more widely established this situation could be alleviated by
creating partnerships between IPR holders and local technology expertise.
Of course, regional and local R&D must not be done in isolation. Global co-operation increases the
effectiveness and speed of knowledge generation and facilitates scientific exchange thus fostering a
shared understanding of the global challenges. By exploiting synergies, it also reduces the call on financial
resources.
This report: (i) draws attention to the uneven global distribution of R&D on sustainable energy systems; (ii)
underlines the consequent need for the swift and efficient transformation of todays energy system; and (iii)
provides advice on critical R&D needs for the short- medium- and long-term. This advice is based upon a
comprehensive review and analysis of two selected renewable energy technologies: photovoltaics and wind
energy. Biomass is the subject of a separate preliminary report prepared by ISPRE.
The authors of this report believe that this report is largely unique in the sense that it focuses on: (i)
research and development (including fundamental science); (ii) adopts a global view on this issue; (iii)
addresses the global imbalance in R&D on sustainable energy technologies; and (iv) suggests directions for
R&D at the regional and national levels not found in other reports.
The report focuses on publicly-funded R&D but acknowledges the considerable efforts of industry especially
in technology development. At the same time, it recognises that industry is unlikely to undertake significant
amounts of technology development in countries or regions with low levels of publicly-funded R&D. To
stimulate innovation, i.e. transfer technologies based on applied R&D to the market, it is imperative that
strong partnerships and co-operation between academia and industry are established. This will be most
effective if industrial and academic activities are conducted in close proximity to each other.
Photovoltaics and wind energy have been selected as the main topics for the ISPRE report. Together
with biomass, solar thermal power generation and solar heating, these two technologies have the highest
sustainable potential of all renewable energy sources. Other technologies such as geothermal energy, wave
and hydropower also have important roles to play.
The integration of renewable energy sources into energy supply and distribution structures must be
analysed. This report does not cover this in-depth, although we recognise that issues such as large area
grids (super-grids), grid stability, power quality, load management, energy storage, control of solar and wind
energy conversion systems, energy weather forecasting and the merging of power and information grids
(smart grids) are of utmost importance for an efficient integration of energy from sustainable sources into
regional and eventually global energy systems.
Furthermore, appropriate energy supply structures for developing regions have to be designed. Solar home
systems, small biomass systems, local wind turbine applications, micro hydro installations and optimised
integrated village power systems also have to be developed and applied.
The two chapters comprising the main part of this report concentrate on the two example technologies
namely photovoltaics (solar cells) and wind energy. Each of the chapters analyse the following points from
a global perspective: (i) technologies, (ii) renewable potential, (iii) R&D activity and (iv) industrial activity.
On the basis of this information, directions for future R&D are suggested. These recommendations represent
the views of the authors of this report but are firmly based on the evidence available. The directions
identified could help to define and focus new R&D activities worldwide.
2. Photovoltaics
Summary
Solar energ y, including solar photovoltaics (PV ), has a vast sustainable energ y potential in comparison
to global energ y demand. The IEA envisaged solar power accounting for 11% of global electricit y
production by 2050 in it s BLUE MAP scenario (IEA, 2008b). In the World Energ y Vision 2100,
developed by the German Advisor y Council on Global Change (WBGU, 2003), solar electricit y
contributes about 20% of the worlds energ y supply by 2050 and over 60% by 2100. This sug gest s PV
could play an important role in the transition to a sustainable energ y economy. However, the further
development of PV science and technolog y is essential for PV to become a major source of electricit y
and energ y.
The world photovoltaic market grew by more than 60% in 2007; cumulative installed PV capacity was
more than 10 GW. Important drivers for this growth were the feed-in-tariff laws in Germany and Spain.
The cumulative global capacity of PV systems is forecast to reach 1,600 2,000 GW by 2030, due in part to
targeted R&D activities.
PV devices are mainly fabricated from semiconductor materials. At present the typical efficiency of flat-plate
crystalline Si solar cell modules is around 15%. However, flat-plate PV and concentrator III-V compound
multi-junction solar cells have the potential in principle to increase efficiency to almost 30% and more than
50%, respectively. To achieve the full market potential for PV, the development of high performance flat-plate
PV and concentrator PV modules with efficiencies of 25% and 40%, respectively, is necessary.
Today, most major PV applications are in the building sector. Further R&D will lead to improvements in
the performance and durability of PV systems and the development of low-cost manufacturing processes.
In order to achieve the economically efficient deployment of PV systems, the target cost for PV power
generation should be set equal to wholesale electricity prices (approximately 7 JPY/kWh, or 0.045 Euro/
kWh) by 2030.
More widespread application of PV technology will be the driving force in the global PV market. Four
countriesGermany, Japan, Spain and the USAhave contributed most to PV market growth. The PV
budgets of other countries are an order of magnitude lower than the budgets of these four. In particular, PV
R&D activity in developing countries is considerably lower than in developed countries. Countries such as
China and India, which have the largest populations, and a rapidly growing energy demand, should increase
PV R&D activity and the deployment of renewable energy.
Although reliable, high-performance PV systems are commercially available and widely deployed, the further
development of PV science and technology is crucial to enable it to become a major source of electricity and
energy. Target prices for PV systems are therefore very important for its rapid and widespread development.
Very large-scale development is only feasible if PV generation costs can be drastically reduced.
Cost reductions will be achieved through the following measures: (ii) higher conversion efficiency, (ii)
less material consumption, (iii) application of cheaper materials, (iv) innovations in manufacture, (v) mass
production and (vi) optimised system technology. Both fundamental research and more applied R&D, are
crucial for the further development of PV. Collaborative research addressing targeted issues can play an
important role in achieving the critical mass and effectiveness required to meet the sectors ambitions.
4
Short-term R&D must focus on making the PV industry more competitive. Rapid development and
high production volumes are crucial for industrial leadership. Industry generally supports investment in
short-term R&D and, as the PV industry grows, this pressure may grow. Governments must, however, take a
medium and long-term view. Mid- and long-term oriented scientific work will be essential even if todays PV
R&D may be focused on near-term technology development.
The major PV R&D topics needing further study are summarised in this report. Priority topics include:
optimisation of transparent conductive oxide for thin-film PV; optical concentrating PV; and self-organisation
and alignment in solar cell production using novel concepts. There should be an increased R&D focus on
PV systems, including power electronics, grids, and rural electrification. Life cycle assessment and academic
education form the basis for the sustainable introduction of PV into the global energy supply system.
Introduction
PV potential
The energy potential of solar energy, including solar photovoltaics and solar thermal power plants, is vast
when compared to global energy demand. The global solar power potential is about 600 TW. Assuming
a solar photovoltaic system efficiency of 10%, at least 60 TW of power (Lewis, 2005) could be supplied
from terrestrial solar energy resources. This report covers only photovoltaic power, not solar thermal.
Single crystalline Si
28.9
24.7
Polycrystalline Si
28.9
20.3
Amorphous Si
22
14.7
Amorphous/microcrystalline Si
28
15.1
CIS
28
19.5
III-V multi-junction
58
33.8
III-V concentrator
multi-junction
70
40.7
Dye-sensitized
22
11
Polymer
22
5.7
70
Installed capacities
Figure 2.1 shows cumulative PV system installations in the major countries (Maycock, 2007). More than
half of this growth was due to the German market. 953 MW of capacity was introduced in 2006 alone. The
driver for this growth was the German feed-in-tariff law originally introduced in 1991 but strengthened in
2000 and 2004. The cumulative installed PV capacity in Germany in 2006 reached 2.86 GW, the largest in
the world.
The Japanese PV market was the second largest, with 287 MW of new installations in 2006, primarily using
grid connected residential systems under the Japanese PV residential programme. The cumulative installed
PV capacity in Japan reached 1.71 GW in 2006. The third largest PV market was the US with 624 MW of PV
installations in 2006, and a cumulative installed PV capacity totalling 1.45 GW. Although the PV market in
China is currently quite small, it is expected to grow drastically within the next five years in order to meet
its targets to supply 15% of total primary energy in 2020 from renewable energy sources (NDRC, 2007).
According to investment analysts and industry forecasts, solar energy capacity will continue to grow at
high rates in the coming years. The European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA) and the European
Renewable Energy Council (EREC) have developed scenarios for the future growth of PV (EPIA, 2009 and
EREC, 2008). Table 2.2 synthesises roadmap targets from the EPIA (EPIA, 2009 and EREC, 2008), the US
(EIA, 2009), Japan (Kurokawa and Aratani, 2004) and the Chinese Mid-Long term Development Plan for
Renewable Energy, (NDRC, 2007).
Table 2.3 shows IEA projections drawn from the Energy Technology Perspectives 2008 Blue Map Scenario
(IEA, 2008b).
Table 2.2: 2006 and target values of cumulative PV installed capacities shown by EPIA Roadmap, US
PV-Industry Roadmap, Japanese PV 2030 Roadmap, EREC2040 scenario and Chinese Mid-Long term
Development Plan for Renewable Energy. (Units = GWp)
Countries
2006
2010
2020
2030
5.7
14
200
1800
>10
41
200
(Germany)
(2.9)
US
0.6
3.5
36
200
Japan
1.7
4.82
30
100
China
0.085
0.45
World
EU
Table 2.3: IEA Projections of Installed PV Capacity in the BLUE Map Scenario.
Countries
2008
2010
2020
2030
World
14.73 GW
>150 GW
EU
9.53 GW
18 GWp
150 GWp
Germany
5.31 GW
US
1.17 GW
1.28 GW
2.43 GW
5.45 GW
Japan
2.15 GW
4.82 GWp
30 GWp
100 GWp
China
0.15 GW
0.3 GW
1.8 GW
9 GW
Under the BLUE Map scenario, the IEA foresaw that in 2030 PV installed capacity will be more than 150
GW, contributing to about 4% of the global electricity consumption. Installed PV capacity could reach 1,150
GW in 2050, or 12% of global electricity production.
The projections in Tables 2.2 and 2.3 show the huge opportunities for PV in the future. Such development
will not happen by itself, but will require constant support from all stakeholders. The scenarios above will
only be possible ifin parallel with the optimisation of the existing proven technologiesnew solar cell
and module design concepts can be developed. With current technology the demand for some materials
like silver (for contacts) could exceed the available resources within the next 30 years. Research leading to
solutions which will overcome such problems is underway.
(EPIA, 2009). More conservatively, according to the Energy Technology Perspectives 2008 Blue Roadmap
(IEA, 2008b), PV will become competitive with retail electricity between 2020 and 2030.
With increasing photovoltaic electricity generation, new concepts of grid integration, grid operation and
load management have to be introduced. This calls for focused R&D and for considerable investment in
worldwide grid structures. In particular, large area (even intercontinental) grids have to be considered.
Parallel to this, optimised autonomous rural electrification schemes (village power systems, hybrid systems)
have to be developed and introduced on a large scale.
These measures would lead to mass take-up of PV systems without being constrained by grid structures.
PV systems will also become more attractive through improvement in the performance of solar cells,
improvement of PV system durability and the development of a wider variety of PV modules and inverters
with multiple functions.
Table 2.4 shows key targets for PV system price, electricity generation costs, module efficiencies and energy
pay-back time contained in the EU Strategic Research Agenda (Sinke, 2007). The quantitative targets shown
were found to be roughly consistent with US (DOE, 2007) and Japanese (NEDO, 2004) scenarios.
Table 2.4: Key targets of PV system price, electricity generation costs, module efficiencies and energy
pay-back time (assumed location of the systems: Europe, Mediterranean area). (European Photovoltaic
Strategic Research Agenda, Sinke 2007)
Key targets
Present (2007)
2015/2020
2030
Long-term
potential
2.5/2.0
0.5
0.3
0.15/0.12
0.06
0.03
<15%
<20%
<25%
<40%
<25%
<30%
<40%
<60%
0.5
0.25
Table 2.5: PV budget for R&D, demonstration and market stimulation programmes in selected IEA
countries in 2006 and 2007. For certain countries demonstration is included in R&D
(IEA-PVPS, 2006 and 2007).
R&D
(2007)
R&D (2006)
Demonstration
(2006)
Market
stimulation (2006)
Total
(2006)
Country
Germany
(US$
(US$
millions)
millions)
(US$
millions)
61
82.5
7.6
US
138.3
121.8
21.5
3.0
Japan
38.9
27.2
15.1
Korea
18.4
19.7
France
12.3
UK
Australia
(US$
millions)
(US$
millions)
1,000.0
92.4
1,082.5
0.5
440.0
77.9
564.8
116.9
65.0
35.7
19.9
179.8
16.2
0.3
0.2
101.6
85.6
121.6
32.8
56.6
25.0
43.4
57.8
15.2
13.3
47.8
14.5
52.2
27.8
6.2
5.2
22.1
0.5
2.1
17.8
75.7
23.5
Total public expenditure on PV R&D and market stimulation in the IEA PVPS countries has quadrupled
since the late 1990s. 2006 saw a large increase in total spending on PV compared to 2005, to over US$2
billion. While this was largely due to feed-in tariffs and other market stimulation measures, R&D spend also
increased by about 17%. Nearly all countries listed in Table 2.5 reported increases in total expenditure for
2006 compared to 2005. Besides the obvious increase in Germany, the US and Korea increased funding
dramatically (120% and 67% respectively).
European Union R&D funding support for PV continued under the 6th RTD Framework Programme (FP6),
which reached completion in 2006. The 7th Framework Programme (FP7) has been operating since 2007;
first calls for proposals were launched in December 2006. To date there have been four calls launched for
PV, including:
Efficiency and material issues for thin film photovoltaics.
Manufacturing and product issues for thin-film photovoltaics.
Support to the coordination of stakeholders activities in the field of photovoltaics.
Low/medium temperature solar thermal systems for industrial process heat.
Whether at the national or multi-national level, continuing political support for PV is required for R&D
and new applications. Getting the balance right between R&D and market stimulation funding will be a
challenge and will vary from country to country, but is important for long-term market development. Cost
and prices must continue to come down steadily for PV to maintain public appeal and to develop and
propagate the emerging interest from electricity utilities and investors.
10
Figure 2.4: Details for Europe of the map shown in Figure 2.3.
11
Table 2.6: Total number of papers presented at the WCPEC4, 19th EUPVSEC and PVSEC17 by R&D
institutions including universities. Only the first 13 entries are shown.
Rank
Affiliation
Country
Total
Fraunhofer ISE
Germany
61
92
NREL
USA
13
55
AIST
Japan
14
15
53
Hahn-Meitner Univ.
Germany
12
16
38
UPM
Spain
10
36
Japan
17
34
Univ. Konstanz
Germany
29
32
Japan
11
31
UNSW
Australia
12
30
10
IMEC
Belgium
21
28
11
Japan
12
10
26
12
EC-JRC
EU
19
13
ENEA
Italy
18
The categories are: 1 = Fundamentals, Novel Materials and Devices, 2 = II-VI & CIGS, 3 = III-V, concentrator & Space,
4 = Crystalline Silicon, 5 = Thin Film Si, 6 = PV Modules and components, 7 = PV Systems, 8 = Programmess, Policies,
Economics, Environment.
In Germany, short-term and mid-term PV R&D is well-organised. Good co-operation exists among academic
and industrial groups. However, more fundamental, longer-term research is necessary to further facilitate
scientific and technological development. Other European countries have contributed to more specific
areas of PV research; there are several Centres of Excellence for PV across Europe.
Japanese PV R&D has focused on thin film, although its crystalline Si cell module production is the largest
in the world. Its PV R&D budget has decreased in recent years but new market stimulation initiatives
following the Residential PV System Dissemination Programme are expected to be introduced. There is
currently no Centre of Excellence in the field of PV in Japan and relationships between Japanese industry
and universities can be poor.
In the US, fundamental studies on PV are wide ranging and well-organised which should contribute to
future development. There are several Centres of Excellence in the US. However, more industry-oriented
R&D is thought to be necessary.
Industrial Activities
Figure 2.5 shows global solar cell module production from 1990 to 2006 (Maycock, 2007). Although
the global photovoltaic market grew by more than 40% in 2006, the Japanese PV industry in particular
has shown a low annual growth rate of 11.4% for solar cell module production due to silicon feedstock
shortages. This suggests that effective utilisation of low-grade (solar-grade) Si is a topic suitable for further
R&D. In contrast, Chinese and Chinese Taiwanese PV industries have shown higher annual growth rates of
308% and 222% respectively.
12
Figure 2.5: World photovoltaic module production from 1990 to 2006. (Maycock, 2007)
Figure 2.6 shows forecasts for the annual production of crystalline Si solar cell modules (Yamaguchi, 2006)
in comparison with those made by EPIA/Greenpeace (2001) and Zweibel (2005). Case 1 results represent
an optimistic scenario and is close to Zweibels estimate for the annual production of PV modules (7.7 GW
in 2010; 120 GW in 2020; 706 GW in 2030; and 2,095 GW in 2040, respectively). Case 3 results represent
a pessimistic scenario and are close to the result reported by EPIA/Greenpeace for the annual production
of PV modules (3 GW in 2010; 50 GW in 2020; 200 GW in 2030; and 680 GW in 2040, respectively). The
results of case 2 (the realistic case) are intermediate between the two.
Figure 2.6: Different forecasts for the annual production of photovoltaic modules (see text for further
information), (Yamaguchi, 2006).
13
have the worlds largest populations, and an increasing energy demand, would benefit by stepping up PV R&D
activity and deploying more renewable energies.
Although reliable, high-performance PV systems are commercially available and widely deployed, further scientific
and technological development will be crucial in enabling it to become a major source of electricity and energy.
However, very large-scale development is feasible only if PV generation costs are drastically reduced.
R&D, including basic science, is crucial to the further development of PV. Joint (collaborative) research addressing
well-chosen issues can play an important role in achieving the critical mass required to meet the sectors ambitions.
Consortia such as the EU FullSpectrum project, the EU CrystalClear project and the DARPA Super High Efficiency
Solar Cell project must be effective in accelerating PV R&D. Difficulties in organising consortium partners from
academic, institutional and industrial sectors, especially in manufacturing dominated countries such as Japan, must
be overcome. Issues can include the mismatch of interests: universities have long-term interests while industry is
generally more near-term, concentrating instead on building knowledge and skills.
Generally, reducing the cost and increasing the performance of PV technologies is the primary research focus, but
the importance of other drivers should also be emphasised. The lifetime of PV system components and the value of
PV electricity must be considered. In addition, energy and materials consumption in manufacturing and installation
is essential, as is the further shortening of energy pay-back time. Avoiding the use of scarce or hazardous materials
presents significant R&D challenges. Standardisation and harmonisation as well as flexibility in system design is
required. Socio-economic aspects such as public and political awareness, training and education, user acceptance
and financing must also be considered. Resolving these issues will make PV more attractive while also leading to a
reduction in CO2 emissions.
Short-term R&D must focus on making the PV industry more competitive. Rapid development and high
production volumes are crucial to establish industrial leadership. Industry will usually push for investment in
short-term R&D and as the PV industry grows, this pressure may grow. Governments must, however, take a
medium and long-term view.
Table 2.7 is a summary of discussions by the ISPRE PV Working Group and shows a summary of major PV R&D
issues which need further study. The table considers EU PV (Sinke, 2007), US PV (DOE, 2007) and Japanese PV
(NEDO, 2004; NEDO, unpublished) documents.
Table 2.7: Compilation of major PV R&D issues. SOG-Si = solar grade silicon, UMG-Si = upgraded
metallurgical silicon, CPV = optically concentrating PV, LCA = least cost analysis, BoS = balance of
system.
Cells
Crystalline Si
Short-term
(20082013)
Mid-term
(20132020)
Long-term
(20202030)
Reduction in consumption of Si
and materials
Development of SOG-Si
Thin cells
Effective utilisation of
UMG-Si
Improved wafering
technologies
Characterisation
14
Thin-film Si
CIGS and
CdTe
Short-term
(20082013)
Mid-term
(20132020)
Long-term
(20202030)
Overcome mechanism on
light degradation of a-Si
Understanding of interface,
material properties and light
trapping
Improvement of production
throughput and yield
Standardisation of Equipment
Understanding of materials,
interface, device physics and
processes
Intensive material research
Tracking systems
System simulation
Testing and installations
Increasing reliability and
lifetime
Novel
Devices
Understanding of
imperfections in III-V
compounds
Higher efficiency cells
(>50%)
III-V/Si tandem cells
Novel concepts
Advanced optical systems
Environmental
sustainability
Characterisation
Nano-structured devices
(organic, dye cells)
Tandem cells
Optimisation of materials
and production with respect to
sustainability issues
New materials
Understanding of
imperfections in CIGS and
II-VI compounds
Understanding of
imperfections
Demonstration of
enhanced performance
Characterisation
Electronic
components
Storage technologies
Storage technologies
Development of large
scale storage technologies
Alternative storage
technologies
15
Manufacture
Short-term
(20082013)
Mid-term
(20132020)
Automation
Automation
Recycling
Long-term
(20202030)
Extensive recycling
Custom-made modules
Systems
Socio
-economic
Aspects
Standardisation
Acceptance of extensive PV
employment
schemes
16
Intercontinental links,
very large scale distributed
power generation
3. Wind
Summary
This section summarises the key issues associated with wind energy technology. It highlights the need for
various types of research and development to continue in order to increase the proportion of world energy
derived from wind.
Wind energy has been used for many thousands of years, but only in the past 35 has it come to be
integrated into the modern energy supply on a significant scale. It is derived ultimately from sunlight. It
is estimated that approximately 2% of the sunlight that falls on the earth is converted to wind energy.
However, the amount of energy that is technically extractable from the wind greatly exceeds the worlds
electricity use at the present time. Currently wind provides approximately 1% of the worlds electricity, and
the amount of installed capacity is continuing to increase.
The key factors that affect the design of wind turbines and their ability to be integrated into the modern
electrical systems are: (i) the low energy density of wind; (ii) the fluctuating nature of wind; (iii) the
conversion of kinetic energy to electricity, via mechanical processes; (iv) the non-dispatchability of
wind generation; (v) the material requirements of the turbines; and (vi) the associated material costs.
Socio-political issues should also be considered; whether associated costs, for example, are perceived to
be acceptable is a value judgment, reflected by energy policy, planning policy and public responses.
The basic topology of wind turbines, at least on land, seems to be settled: turbines consisting of a single rotor/
nacelle assembly installed on a tower. The rotor axis is horizontal and the rotors themselves typically have three
blades, which are located upwind of the tower. The rotor is connected to a main shaft, which drives an electrical
generator, usually via a step up gearbox. Control is most often via a combination of changing the blade pitch and
varying the generator torque via power electronic converters. Connection to the electrical network is presently
by conventional means (transformers and switchgear). The environmental/energy contribution of wind turbines is
presently primarily that of fuel saving with respect to conventional utility generators.
Future trends include: (i) adding progressively more wind generators to electrical networks (both small and
large), such that the mismatch between the wind and the load must be taken into account; (ii) designing
and building far larger turbines; (iii) moving increasingly into offshore generation; and (iv) designing turbines
for difficult conditions (e.g. complex terrain, cold regions).
The main R&D issues are related to these new trends, as well as the general need to decrease costs,
increase reliability, enhance public acceptability and ensure that the environment is not adversely affected.
Most wind energy research today is being undertaken in Europe and the US. Within Europe, Germany and
Denmark are particularly active. Elsewhere around the world, significant activity is underway in Japan,
India, China and Korea.
With regard to new R&D, there is a continued need to better understand the variability of wind both
temporally and spatially both across the disc of individual rotors (especially very large ones) and in more
difficult locations (especially offshore and in complex terrain). Significant R&D is required to develop very
17
large wind turbines that are reliable, installable and maintainable, as well as smaller turbines that can be
used effectively in isolated networks. Since ever larger turbines bring greater local environmental impacts
(e.g. visual and acoustic, see Devine-Wright, 2005), the relative importance of research on institutional
(land-use planning) and social-psychological (public acceptance) aspects of turbine siting is likely to
increase in the future. A broad range of R&D is needed to develop wind energy technology for offshore
applications, particularly in deeper water. R&D is needed on a number of electrical and grid integration
questions, including improving generators and power electronic converters, designing and implementing
system wide control using demand side management, energy storage and fuel production. R&D is also
needed on broad range of social and environmental issues. Finally, there is a continued need to better
understand the basic physics of the various processes involved in wind energy conversion.
Introduction
Wind Resource
Wind energy is derived fundamentally from solar energy via a thermodynamic process. Sunlight warms the
ground causing air above it to rise. The ensuing pressure differential causes air from elsewhere to move in,
resulting in air motion (wind). Different regions on earth are heated differently than othersprimarily a
function of latitude. Air motion is also affected by the earths rotation. The net effect is that certain parts of
the world experience higher average winds than others. The regions of highest winds are the most attractive
for extracting its energy: Theoretically, the power which can be extracted from the wind is proportional to
the cube of the velocity, so a good wind regime is particularly important. The power that can be extracted
in practice, however, is somewhat less than proportionally related to the cube of velocity.
The total energy impinging on at the outer atmosphere, assuming a solar constant of 1,367 W/m 2, is
1.53x1018 kWh per year. The conversion of solar energy to wind has been estimated to occur at an
efficiency of 2%; approximately 35% of this is in the lower boundary layer where it could potentially
be extracted by wind turbines (Gustavson, 1979). According to this estimate, the maximum global wind
resource is approximately 1.22x1015 kWh/yr.
Recently Hoogwijk et al. (2004) made estimates of the technical potential of onshore wind energy. These
authors conclude that, with present technology, the onshore technical potential of wind is about 1.0x10 14
kWh/yr. They also cite other sources which preliminarily indicate that the offshore wind energy resource at
water depths up to 50 m is another 3.7x1013 kWh/yr. In comparison, the global consumption of electricity
at the present time is about 1.6x1013 kWh/yr. The global distribution of wind energy potential is illustrated
in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: World Wind Energy Resource Distribution Estimates (NREL), the darker the colour, the higher the
wind speed.
18
19
The first step in the extraction of energ y is converting the kinetic energ y of wind to mechanical energ y
in a rotor via an aerodynamic lift. Rotors nowadays t ypically have three blades, but having more or
fewer is possible. Blades are constructed primarily of composite material. Most rotors have a horizontal
axis of rotation, although a vertical axis is also possible. The rotor is generally oriented such that the
blades are upwind of the tower, although downwind orientation has sometimes been used.
Positioning of the rotor is provided by a yaw system (which turns the entire nacelle, see below). The rotor,
which turns relatively slowly (the more so for larger rotors), is connected to a main shaft which in turn
connects (typically) to a gearbox. The gearbox provides an increase in speed such that the speed of the
gearboxs output shaft is matched to the speed requirements of the generator. The generator, which is the
next step in the process, performs the conversion of mechanical energy to electrical energy. The shafts,
gearbox, generator and associated equipment are contained in a nacelle which is located on top of a tower.
The tower keeps the rotor nacelle assembly well up into the air where the wind speed is higher and less
turbulent than it would be closer to the ground. The tower, which is normally made of steel, is attached
to a foundation (reinforced concrete for onshore turbines) or to a more extensive support structure (as in
the case of offshore turbines). Electricity is carried down the tower via a droop cable. A control system,
portions of which may be in the nacelle or on the ground, performs a variety of functions. These include
starting and stopping the rotor and protecting the machine during extreme winds or faults. Most turbines
today incorporate blade pitch control where the blade may be turned about its long axis to change its
aerodynamic properties. Other devices may also play a significant role in the process. These include in
particular power electronic converters, which may facilitate variable speed operation of the rotor, while
allowing the output electricity to be of essentially constant voltage and frequency.
The electrical output of most turbines nowadays is directed into a conventional electrical network. The
voltage may be at the distribution level or higher, depending on the situation. In any case, a transformer
is normally used to convert the generators output (low voltage) to the electrical line voltage (medium or
high voltage). Various other electrical devices and switchgear are also used to allow safe connection to the
network and protection in the case of faults.
In some applications, such as where the grid is isolated or weak, or where there is large amount of wind
energy generation installed, the interconnection process may be more involved. Such applications can
benefit from the use of short-term storage and supervisory control systems. As an increasing amount of
wind generation is added to grids of whatever type, more attention must be given to the issues associated
with interconnection. These could include demand side management, longer-term storage or even fuel
production (e.g. hydrogen via the electrolysis of water).
20
There are a number of characteristics of wind energy technology which are distinctive and which affect the
design of wind turbines and their use:
1. Low energy density of the resource
2. Fluctuating nature of the resource
3. Social acceptance
4 Non-dispatchability of wind generation
5. Material requirements
6. Costs
These characteristics have been taken into account in the recent development of wind turbines, and will
have to be taken into account in the future. It should be noted that offshore wind energy has a number of
additional issues which need to be considered in the design of turbines and systems.
Social acceptance
Due to the relatively large size of wind turbines and the need to site them in exposed locations, public
acceptance of wind energy development has sometimes been problematic. The need has arisen to address
public concerns through education or by mitigating the impact.
Non-Dispatchability
Due to the nature of the wind itself and the technology used for its extraction, energy derived from wind
is inherently non-dispatchable. That means that generation cannot be turned on at will. When the wind
turbines provide a relatively small portion of a networks requirements this is not an issue. When turbines are
intended to supply a large fraction of the energy, then the overall system must be configured differently. In
this case, the wind turbines need to operate in concert with a suitable control system and possibly storage.
A Global Report on Photovoltaic and Wind Energy
21
Material requirements
Material requirements of wind turbines relate directly to the low power density of wind and its fluctuating
nature. The low power density requires large heavy rotors. As the rotor rotates there are large reversing
forces which contribute to fatigue along with the fluctuations in the wind.
Costs
To a significant extent, wind turbines can be designed that will work adequately and survive a sufficiently
long period of time. There is still an issue of cost, however, both in terms of resources and required
financial outlay. High costs are associated with the material requirements of the wind turbine. Long-term
operation and maintenance costs are also important. There is a need for continuing work to drive down
the costs of the turbines while maintaining and improving their reliability. Cost reductions will benefit from
improved understanding of the fundamental physics of the conversion process, as well as of the failure
mechanisms. Continuous monitoring of the wind turbines and design and implementation of structural
health management systems should help to decrease these costs.
It may be noted that costs for wind generated electricity have decreased significantly over the last 30 years.
For example, the cost of energy from wind in 1980 has been estimated to be approximately US$0.50/
kWh (EIA, 1995). Presently, it is less than a fifth of that in many locations. This is largely due to experience,
research and development. The resulting enhanced understanding of the interaction of the wind turbine
with its environment has led to improvements and cost reductions in all aspects of the technology. Costs are
moving towards parity with conventional energy generation.
23
On the other hand, the marine environment presents many challenges. Waves, and to a lesser extent
currents, and in some cases floating ice, are found in the environment where the turbines are to be located
and must be considered in the design process. Other topics that are of importance include condition
monitoring, integrated system operation and maintenance methods, and corrosion mitigation. A new
offshore technology area is just beginning to emerge, namely that of special purpose turbine and support
structure designs. These are likely to include floating or semi-submersible concepts for deeper water.
24
Denmark
21.5
Germany
29.2
UK
29.2
US
48.7
Canada
5.5
Hungary
0.1
Ireland
0.1
Italy
4.1
Japan
2.8
Korea
18.1
New Zealand
0.06
Norway
3.5
Portugal
0.4
Spain
10.1
Sweden
1.8
Switzerland
0.8
A study was undertaken to ascertain which groups were performing wind energy research and reporting
on it. For this study three conferences from 2007 were considered in detail. These were the conferences
of the European Wind Energy Association (EWEA), the American Wind Energy Association (AWEA) and
the World Wind Energy Association (WWEA). The papers were categorised according to nationality and
company, university or institute of the first author and primary topic of the paper. There were 555 papers
presented in these conferences (Figure 3.4). These represented contributions from 316 groups. Of these
groups, approximately 41% were from research institutes (13%) or universities (28%). The rest were from
manufacturers, consultants, non-governmental organisations or government agencies.
Figure 3.4: Contribution to the wind conferences EWEA, AWEA and WWEA. The total number of authors who contributed to papers
presented at the three conferences in 2007 is shown.
From the total papers presented, half came from Europe. The next major contributor was the USA (24%).
Within Europe the top five contributors were (in order) Germany, Denmark, Spain, the UK and the
Netherlands. Outside Europe and the US, the top five contributors were Japan, India, China, Korea and
Canada. Table 3.2 lists the top 14 research centres or universities based on the total number of papers
presented in all three conferences mentioned (those with four or more are included).
25
Table 3.2: Some research institutes and universities engaged in wind energy R&D
Institute
Country
Denmark
Netherlands
USA
Spain
Netherlands
Germany
Denmark
University of Tokyo
Japan
China
CIEMAT
Spain
France
Germany
USA
University of Belgrade
Serbia
It is also of interest to see how the topic areas varied by conference. For the total, as can be seen from
Table 3.3 below, the top five areas of interest (in order) were: (1) Wind resource, (2) Turbine design,
(3) Electrical, (4) Economics and (5) Offshore. At the WWEA (Figure 3.5), the top five topic areas were:
(1) Economics, (2) Turbine design, (3) Wind resource, (4) Electrical and (5) Applications. At the EWEA
conference, the top five top were: (1) Wind resource, (2) Turbine design, (3) Electrical, (4) Offshore and (5)
Operations. Finally, at the AWEA conference the main topic areas were: (1) Economics, (2) Turbine design,
(3) Electrical, (4) Social/environmental and (5) Wind resource. These differences are most likely associated
with the differing state of wind energy technology implementation in the various parts of the word.
Table 3.3: Summary of topic areas covered by EWEA, AWEA
and WWEA conferences.
Topic
26
Percentage
Wind resource
26.1
22.0
Electrical
16.2
12.8
6.7
6.3
Applications
3.4
Social/environmental
2.9
Research and Development on Renewable Energies
Figure 3.5: Wind energy topics covered during WWEA 2007, Mar del Plata, Argentina (Oct 2007).
Industrial Activities
The majority of the industrial wind energy activity (including both manufacture and installation) in the
world is taking place in Europe, followed by the USA and India. Lists of manufacturers can be found in
a variety of locations, such as the EcoBusiness links website (www.ecobusinesslinks.com/large_wind_
turbines_generators_manufacturers.htm).
Today the worlds largest manufacturers are in Denmark, Germany and Spain. The manufacturers with the
largest market share as of 2006 (largest to smallest, with nationality in brackets) are: Vestas (Denmark),
GE Energy (US), Gamesa (Spain), Enercon (Germany), Siemens (Germany), Suzlon (India), Repower Systems
(Germany), Mitsubishi (Japan) and Nordex (Germany). In addition to turbine manufacturers, there is also
significant other commercial activity in the wind energy sector. This includes component suppliers (e.g.
blades, gearboxes, towers etc.), consultants and developers. Table 3.4 shows the extraordinarily rapid
installation of wind capacity in the US and Europe starting in the late 1990s. Europe now accounts for
about 75% of installed capacity in OECD countries with Germany and Spain dominating the picture.
Table 3.4: Cumulative Installed wind capacity (MWe) (IEA, 2008c).
1990
1995
2000
2005
2006
1912
1755
2472
9393
12875
OECD Europe
471
2449
12766
40750
47899
Germany
48
1137
6095
18428
20622
Spain
98
2206
9918
11736
OECD/IEA Pacific
160
2234
2973
2383
4207
15398
52377
63747
OECD Total
27
according to the categories used previously. In general, the need for R&D is continuous, and the division
between short-term and long-term is somewhat arbitrary. It is clear that short-term R&D will help to
advance the technology from where it is today. The medium and long-term will advance it the point where
wind turbines can be used in very difficult locations and can provide a very large fraction of the worlds
energy supply.
Table 3.5: Directions for future research and development in wind energy.
Short-term
(2008-2013)
Improved short-term forecasting
Wind Turbine
Design
28
Short-term
(2008-2013)
Offshore Wind
Energy
Monitoring and
Operations
Applications
Social /
Environmental
29
4. References
Introduction
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European Renewable Energy Council, Brussels.
IEA (2008a) Energy Technology Perspectives 2008: Strategies and Scenarios to 2050. International Energy
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REN21 (2008) REN21 Global Status Report. REN21, Paris.
REN21 (2007) Renewable Energy Potentials Summary Report. REN21, Paris.
WBGU (2003) World in Transition Towards Sustainable Energy Systems. WBGU (German Advisory Council on
Global Change), Berlin.
Photovoltaics
DOE (2004) US Photovoltaics Industry Roadmap. Prepared by the Solar Energy Industries Association
(http://www.seia.org).
EIA (2009) US Data Projections - Renewable Energy Generating Capacity and Generation, Energy Information
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EPIA/Greenpeace (2001) Solar Generation. European Photovoltaic Industry Association, Brussels and
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EPIA (2009) Global market outlook for photovoltaics until 2013. European Photovoltaic Industry Association,
Brussels.
EPIA (2004) EPIA Roadmap. European Photovoltaic Industry Association, Brussels.
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Brussels.
EREC (2004) Renewable Energy Scenario to 2040 Half of the Global Supply from Renewables in 2040.
European Renewable Energy Council, Brussels.
IEA (2008b) Energy Technology Perspectives 2008. International Energy Agency, Paris.
IEA (2007) World Energy Outlook 2007. International Energy Agency, Paris
(http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org).
IEA-PVPS (2007) Trends in Photovoltaic Applications: Survey report of selected IEA countries between 1992 and
2007. International Energy Agency, Paris, and Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme, Switzerland.
IEA-PVPS (2006) Photovoltaic Power Systems Program Report: Trends in Photovoltaic Applications in Selected
30
IEA Countries between 1992 and 2006. International Energy Agency, Paris, and Photovoltaic Power Systems
Programme, Switzerland.
Jaeger-Waldau A. (2005) Research, Solar Cell Production and Market Implementation of Photovoltaics. PV Status
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Kurokawa K. and Aratani F. (2004) Perceived Technical Issues Accompanying Large PV Development and
Japanese PV2030. Proceedings of the 19th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Paris, France
(June 2004).
Lewis N.S. (2005) Address to the 31st IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, Florida, USA (January 2005).
Maycock, P. (2007) PV News, vol. 26 no. 3 (March 2007).
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Sinke W.C. (2007) A Strategic Research Agenda for Photovoltaic Solar Energy Technology. Prepared on behalf of
the European Photovoltaic Technology Platform under contract: 513548.
WBGU (2003) World in Transition Towards Sustainable Energy Systems. WBGU (German Advisory Council on
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Yamaguchi M. (2006) Perspective on Solar Cells Markets. GSAS Session on Advanced Solar Cell Research,
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Zweibel K. (2005) The Terawatt challenge for thin-film PV. Technical Report NREL/TP-520-38350.
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Devine-Wright P. (2005) Beyond NIMBYism: Towards an integrated framework for understanding public
perceptions of wind energy. Wind Energy, vol. 8, pp 125139.
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Gustavson M.R. (1979) Limits to wind power utilization. Science vol. 204, pp 1317.
Hoogwijk M., de Vries B. and Turkenburg W. (2004) Assessment of the global and regional geographic, technical
and economic potential of onshore wind energy. Energy Economics vol. 26, pp 889919.
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A Global Report on Photovoltaic and Wind Energy
31
List of Abbreviations
32
AWEA
BoS
CHP
CIGS
CO2
CPV
DOE
EU
EWEA
GDP
GEF-STAP
GJ
ha
IEA
IEC
IPCC
JPY
kg
kl
kV
kWe
NL
m
Mtoe
MWe
MWth
OECD
Si
SOG-Si
t
TWh
UMG-Si
US
USD
USDA
V
VGB
W
WWEA
yr
hectare
International Energy Agency
International Electro-technical Commission
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Japanese yen
kilogram (103 gram)
kilolitre (103 litre)
kilovolt (103 Volt)
kilowatt electric (103 Watt)
The Netherlands
metre
millions of tonnes oil equivalent
megawatt electric (10 6 Watt)
megawatt thermal (10 6 Watt)
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
silicon
solar grade silicon
tonne
terawatt hours
upgraded metallurgical silicon
United States of America
US dollar
US Department of Agriculture
volt
Verein fr Grosskraftwerk Betreiber (Association of Large Power Plant Operators)
watt
World Wind Energy Association
year
Photographs: All images stock.xchng, except FEMA/Bill Klopitz (Chapter 4 and cover), W. Ratterman SunEPI 2005 (cover, top left) and USAF
(back cover, top right)
Graphic design report by: www.ardephwerk.fr
Graphic design cover and layout by: Carmela Garipoli