Environmental

Noise
Propagation

How loud is a 10-ton truck? That depends very much on how far away you are,
and whether you are in front of a barrier or behind it. Many other factors affect
the noise level, and measurement results can vary by tens of decibels for the very
same noise source. To explain how this variation comes about, we need to consider how the noise is emitted from the source, how it travels through the air, and
how it arrives at the receiver.

The most important factors affecting noise propagation are:

Type of source (point or line)

Distance from source
Atmospheric absorption
Wind
Temperature and temperature gradient
Obstacles such as barriers and buildings
Ground absorption
Reflections
Humidity
Precipitation

To arrive at a representative result for measurement or calculation, these factors

must be taken into account. Regulations will often specify conditions for each factor.

16 Environmental Noise Propagation

Types of Source
Point source
If the dimensions of a noise source are small compared with the distance to the
listener, it is called a point source, for example, fans and chimney stacks. The
sound energy spreads out spherically, so that the sound pressure level is the
same for all points at the same distance from the source, and decreases by 6 dB
per doubling of distance. This holds true until ground and air attenuation noticeably affect the level.

For a point source with sound power level, LW (see section on Environmental
Noise Parameters and Terminology), located near the ground, the sound pressure level (Lp) at any distance (r, in m) from that source can be calculated from
the equation:
L p = L W 20log 10 ( r ) 8 dB
Line Source
If a noise source is narrow in one direction and long in the other compared to the
distance to the listener, it is called a line source. It can be a single source such as
a long pipe carrying a turbulent fluid, or it can be composed of many point sources operating simultaneously, such as a stream of vehicles on a busy road.
The sound level spreads out cylindrically, so the sound pressure level is the same
at all points at the same distance from the line, and decreases by 3 dB per doubling of distance. This holds true until ground and air attenuation noticeably affect the level. For a line source with sound power level per metre (LW/m) located
near the ground, the sound pressure level (Lp) at any distance (r, in m) from that
source can be calculated from the equation:
L p = L W 10log 10 ( r ) 5 dB

Environmental Noise Propagation

17

Barriers
The noise reduction caused by a barrier depends on two factors:
1. The path difference of the sound wave as it travels over the barrier compared with direct transmission to the receiver (a + b c, in the diagram).
2. The frequency content of the noise.
The combined effect of these two is shown in the diagram. It shows that low frequencies are difficult to reduce using barriers.

a
c

Barrier attenuation in dB

25
20
15
10
Wavelength = 0.68 m (500Hz)
Wavelength = 0.34 m (1000Hz)

Wavelength = 0.17 m (2000Hz)

0
-0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

Path difference (metres)

1.4

1.6

1.8

2
000062

Barrier attenuation for a typical screen is shown in the next diagram as a function
of barrier height. A barrier is most effective when placed close to the noise source
or receiver.

18 Environmental Noise Propagation

screen
h

1.5

1.5

100
Barrier Attenuation (dB)

50
25
20
15
h = 6m
h = 3.5m
h = 2.5m

10
5
0
63

125

250

500
1000 2000
Frequency (Hz)

4000

8000
000063

Atmospheric Attenuation
This is a complex subject and can only be summarised here. The reduction of
noise as it passes through air is dependent on many factors including:

Distance from source

Frequency content of the noise
Ambient temperature
Relative humidity
Ambient pressure

The first two factors mentioned above are the most influential and are shown in
the diagram below. To summarise, low frequencies are not well attenuated by atmospheric absorption.

Attenuation (dB)

-10
125Hz
-20
-30
250Hz
-40
8kHz
-50

200

500

1k

4kHz 2kHz 1kHz 500Hz

2k

5k

10k

Distance from Source (metres)

20k
000064/1

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19

Wind and Temperature

Wind speed increases with altitude, which will bend the path of sound to focus
it on the downwind side and make a shadow on the upwind side of the source.
Why Measure Downwind?
At short distances, up to 50 m, the wind has minor influence on the measured
sound level. For longer distances, the wind effect becomes appreciably greater.
Downwind, the level may increase by a few dB, depending on wind speed. But
measuring upwind or side-wind, the level can drop by over 20 dB, depending on
wind speed and distance. This is why downwind measurement is preferred the
deviation is smaller and the result is also conservative.

Downwind

Sidewind

Upwind

A-weighted reduction (dB(A))

10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
10

50

100

300

500

1000

2000

3000

Distance (metres)
000065

20 Environmental Noise Propagation

Temperature
Temperature gradients create effects similar to those of wind gradients, except
that they are uniform in all directions from the source. On a sunny day with no
wind, temperature decreases with altitude, giving a shadow effect for sound. On
a clear night, temperature may increase with altitude (temperature inversion),
focusing sound on the ground surface.

Increasing Temperature

Decreasing Temperature

+
000339

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21

Ground Effects
Sound reflected by the ground interferes with the directly propagated sound.
The effect of the ground is different for acoustically hard (e.g., concrete or water),
soft (e.g., grass, trees or vegetation) and mixed surfaces. Ground attenuation is
often calculated in frequency bands to take into account the frequency content of
the noise source and the type of ground between the source and the receiver. Precipitation can affect ground attenuation. Snow, for example, can give considerable attenuation, and can also cause high, positive temperature gradients.
Regulations often advise against measuring under such conditions.
Influence of ground surface at 100 m distance between
source and receiver. Source and receiver height 2 m

Ground Attenuation (dB)

3
0
-3
-6
Hard Ground
Mixed Ground
Porous Ground

-9
-12
63

125

250

500

1000

2000

Octave Centre Frequency (Hz)

22 Environmental Noise Propagation

4000

8000
000067

Noise at the Receiver

Reflection
When sound waves impact upon a surface, part of their acoustic energy is reflected from it, part is transmitted through it and part is absorbed by it. If absorption
and transmission are low, as is generally the case with buildings, most of the
sound energy is reflected and the surface is said to be acoustically hard. The
sound pressure level near the surface is therefore due to direct radiation from the
source and sound arriving from one or more reflections.
Typically, the level 0.5 m from a plain wall is 3 dB(A) higher than if there was no
wall. Regulations often require the exclusion of the effect of reflection from reported results (free-field conditions).

Open and Closed Windows

When at home, some people like to keep their windows closed because of climate or tradition. Disturbing noise in the environment is then attenuated by the
building, typically offering 20 30 dB of protection (faade sound insulation).
Windows are often acoustically weak spots, but can be improved with special design.
In other countries and climates, people are used to having their windows open
and experiencing the full effect of environmental noise. Regulations for environmental noise, therefore, must take into account both the way dwellings are constructed and the way they are used.

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23