Unit-3

Rocket Motion In Free Space And Gravitational Field

3.1. Newtons Law of Gravitation
According to Newtons law of gravitation, Any two particles attract each other with a
force which is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between then and acts along the line joining particles.
Or, in a formula

F12

Gm1m2 r
r12 .
r122

In this equation, F12 is the force that particle 2 with mass m 2 exerts on particle 1 with m1.
The vector r12, with magnitude r12, is the position vector of particle 2 with respect to
particle 1. G finally is a proportionality factor and is known as the universal gravitational
constant.
3.2. Variation of Acceleration Due to Gravity w.r.to Altitude
GMm
=mg
R2
GM
g= 2
R
GMm
F=
= m g
r2
GM
g = 2
r
g ' R2
R2
2
Hence
g r
( R h) 2
R2
g' g
( R h) 2
This is the relation for variation of acceleration due to gravity w.r.to altitude.
F=

3.3.

The Equation of Motion in Free Space

The equations of motion can be written as

M

dVx
F cos Mg x X a cos Z a sin
dt

dVz
F sin Mg z X a sin Z a cos
dt
dX
Vx
dt
dZ
Vz
dt

The instantaneous mass of the rocket follows from the differential equation
dM
m
dt
The thrust can be written as
F = m Ve + (Pe-Pa) Ae
We will consider the motion of a rocket in the absence of gravitational and
aerodynamic forces.
Then, The equation of motion becomes
M

dVx
F cos
dt

dVz
F sin
dt

The thrust equation

F = m Ve + Pe Ae
F = m c = m g0 Isp
Where, c effective exhaust velocity, Isp specific impulse
We will assume constant pitch angle programme. If we assume moreover that the
initial velocity has the same direction as the thrust, the problem is purely one-dimensional.
The rocket will travel along a straight line, making an angle 0 with the X-axis. The
equation of motion for this case is
M

dVx
F cos 0
dt

dVz
F sin 0
dt

dV
F mc
dt

ds
V
dt
dM
m
dt
Where V is the velocity of the rocket and s is the distance traveled.
3.4. Tsiolkovsky Equation
The equation for the velocity in free space can be integrated directly,
M

dV
mc
dt

dV
c
c dM
m

dt
M
M dt
With initial conditions t = 0; V = V0; M = M0;
V V (t ) V0 c ln

Integrating this equation yields

M0
M (t )

This is Tsiolkovskys Equation for the velocity increment of a rocket in free space
V g 0 I sp ln

M0
M (t )

Q I sp

g 0

For a given rocket, V is only a function of the instantaneous mass of the rocket.
In order to determine V (or V) as a function of time, it is necessary to know the mass as a
function of time. The mass of the rocket can be written as
t

M M o m dt
0

The mass and velocity, as a function of time are dependent on the mass flow-time
history. If the total useful propellant mass contained by the rocket is M p, the mass at
burnout (empty mass) is given by
Me = Mo + Mp
The burning-time tp is determined by

tp

M p m dt
0

We define the mass ratio, , of the rocket as

M0
Me

Then the velocity increment at burnout is given by

Vid g o I sp ln

The velocity increment is called the velocity of the rocket. It is only a function of
specific impulse and mass ratio but is independent of the thrust-time history.
3.5. Rocket Parameters
We divide the initial mass of the rocket, M0, into three parts: the payload mass Mu,
the structural mass, Mc, and the useful propellant mass, Mp. We then have
M0 = Mu + Mc + Mp
Me = Mu + Mc
We now define the following rocket parameters:
Mu

Payload ratio, M ,
0

c
Structural efficiency, M M ,
c
p

Propellant ratio,

Mp
M0

The mass ratio, is always larger than one, while payload ratio, , structural
efficiency, , and propellant ratio, , are less than one. In general, the range of these
parameters for single stage rocket is:
2 < < 10,

0.08 < < 0.5,

0.5 < < 0.9,

0.01 < < 0.2.

It can be checked easily that the various parameters are related by

1 1 ,

1
1

1 1

Apart from the mass parameters, two other rocket parameters are frequently used.
They relate thrust and mass,

The specific thrust g M ,

o
and in the case of a constant thrust
F

The thrust-to weight ratio o g M

o
o
3.6. The Burnout Range
The distance covered at time t is given by
t

s s s0 Vdt
0

In order to evaluate the above integral, we have to know V as a function of time,

which means that the propellant consumption as a function of time, m = m (t) has to be
known. In the following, we will derive the expressions for the range for two different
propellant consumption histories such as 1) constant thrust, 2) constant specific thrust.
Constant Thrust
In this case, the propellant consumption is
m m0 cons tan t

0 t tb
t tb

m0

Consequently, the instantaneous mass of the rocket during thrusting is

M M 0 m0 t

The burning time, tb, follows from

M e M 0 m0tb
M0 Me
tb
m0

M
M 0 1 e
M 0

tb
m0

tb
tb
tb

I sp
1
1
0

F
g0 0

1
1

m0

F
m0 g 0 0

1
1

We see that for fixed 0, the burning time increases with increasing specific
impulse and increasing mass ratio. The burning time decreases if 0 increases, and tb 0 if
0 . In that case, all the propellant is consumed instantaneously. This is called as

impulsive shot.
If , meaning that the whole rocket consists of propellant, then, tb

I sp

0 . It

thus follows that the specific impulse is the burning time of a rocket consisting solely of
propellant with a constant thrust equal to the initial weight of the propellant.
The velocity as a function of time is given by (for zero initial velocity)
M0
M 0 m0t

V g 0 I sp ln

The range is given by

t

s Vdt
0

g 0 I sp ln
0

M0
dt
M 0 m0 t

g 0 I sp ln
0

M 0 m0 t
dt
M0

Integrating the above equation,

M m t M m t
0
0
0
0
1
ln
M0
M0

s g 0 I sp

1
m0
M0

g 0 I sp M 0 M 0 m0 t M 0 m0 t

ln
m0
M0
M0

s

g 0 I sp M 0 M 0 m0 t M 0 m0 t M 0 m0t M 0 M 0 M 0
ln

ln

m0
M0
M0
M0
M 0 M 0 M 0

g 0 I sp M 0 M 0 m0t M 0 m0t

ln
m0
M0
M0

1 1

Introducing the range function, p(t), defined as

p t 1

M 0 m0 t M 0 m0 t
1
ln
M0
M0

M 0 m0t
M 0 m0t
1
ln
M0
M0

M 0 m0 t
M0
1
ln
M 0 M 0 m0 t

The range can be written as

s t

g 0 I sp M 0
m0

p t

g 0 I sp2

g0 I sp F
m0 g 0 0

p t

I sp mc
m0 0

p t

p t

The burnout range, sb , at t tb

sb

g 0 I sp2

pb

Where,
I

1
M 0 m0 sp 1

0

M0
pb 1
ln
1
I sp

M0
1
M 0 m0 1
0

1
1

M0

ln
c

M 0 m0 g
0 0

c
M 0 m0
g 0 0
1
M0

1
1

M0

ln
1
M m c M 0 1 1

0
0

M
M 0 m0 c 0
F
1
M0

1 1

1
1
1 ln
1
1

1 1

1
1
1 ln 1
1

pb 1

1
ln 1

We see that the burnout range is proportional to the square of the specific impulse
and inversely proportional to the thrust to weight ratio. For an impulsive shot: sb 0 (the
total velocity increment is given instantaneously). If , the function pb approaches
unity and, consequently,
sb

g 0 I sp2

Constant Specific Thrust:

In this case

F
0 cons tan t
g0 M

The instantaneous mass of the rocket is obtained by integration of above equation

leading to
ln

M 0 0

t
M
I sp

So

M M 0 exp 0
I
sp

By differentiation of the above equation, the propellant consumption as a function

of time is found to be
m

The burning time, tb

M 0 0
exp 0 t
I
I sp
sp

I sp

ln .

In this case too, the specific impulse can be interpreted as a burning time, namely
the burning time of a rocket with mass ratio e and a constant specific thrust of unity. As
the acceleration is constant and equal to g 0 0 , velocity and range are given by
V g0 0t
s

And thus at burnout

1
g0 0t 2
2

Vb g 0 0 tb g 0 I sp ln
sb

2
1
1 I sp 2
g 0 0 tb2 g 0
ln
2
2 0

It can be verified easily that, in the case of constant specific thrust, burning-time
and burning range are larger than the corresponding quantities in the case of constant thrust
with the same initial specific thrust. The burning velocity, of course, is the same in both
cases.
3.7. Rocket Motion in a Homogeneous Gravitational Field
In a homogeneous gravitational field the field strength, g, is constant. If we consider the
earth locally as being flat, the local gravitational field may be considered homogeneous.
Actually, the earth is nearly spherical and its gravitational field can be approximated very
well by a central inverse square field. However, as long as the altitude and range are small
relative to the mean Earths radius, the Earth may be considered flat and the field strength
can be approximated very well by a constant. For small rockets, such as sounding rockets
and tactical missiles this approximation yields good results. For launch vehicles and
intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), the powered flight trajectory of the first stages
can, in general, also be calculated by good approximation with the flat Earth assumption.
For upper stage, however, the velocity will be so large that the flat Earth approximation
will lead to unacceptable deviations from the real trajectory. However, as most part of this
trajectory is a coast phase, the trajectory can be approximated by a ballistic one and can be
determined analytically in the case of a spherical Earth.
If we choose the X-axis of the inertial system to coincide with the flat Earth surface
and the Z-axis vertical, then gX = 0 and gZ = -g0, where it is assumed that motion takes
place near the surface of the Earth. Then the equations of translational motion become
M

dVx
F cos
dt

(3.59)

dVz
F sin Mg 0
dt

(3.60)

dX
Vx
dt

(3.61)

dZ
Vz
dt

(3.62)

dM
m
dt
As in the foregoing, the thrust is given by
F = m c = m g0 Isp
We will assume that the pitch program, t , is known.
3.7.1. Vertical Flight
If during the whole flight 90o , and if we have zero initial horizontal velocity, the
trajectory will be a straight line parallel to the Z-axis. In that case VZ equals the total
velocity V, and the equations of motion simplify to
I dM
dV
g 0 sp
1
dt
M dt

(3.63)

dh dZ

V
dt dt

(3.64)

As initial conditions we will choose a zero velocity and altitude at t = 0. equ() can be
integrated independently of the mass flow program, leading to
M

V g 0 I sp ln 0 t
M

(3.65)

We see that, in order to determine V as a function of time, knowledge of the mass flow
history is necessary. Even the burnout velocity in this case is dependent on the thrust
program because the burning time depends on it. Again we will assume a constant thrust,
in which case the mass flow is given by
0 t tb

m m0 ;
m0;

t tb

For this case, the burning time is already derived in the previous section and is given by
Eq. (3.45). Then we find for the velocity as a function of time.

V g0 I sp ln

M0
t ;
M 0 m0t

Vb g0 I sp ln

1
1
1 ;

Vb g0 I sp ln t ;

0 t tb

(3.66)

t tb

(3.67)

t tb

According to Eq. (3.31), we can also write for t tb

(3.68)

V Vid go t

(3.69)

The burnout velocity attains a maximum for an impulsive shot. In that case, the gravity
loss, i.e. g 0tb , is zero and the burnout velocity equals the ideal velocity.
Maximum altitude is reached at V = 0. For 0 1 , this will always occur for t tb and we
find for the culmination time.
tc I sp ln

(3.70)

The culmination time does not depend on 0 . In fact, it does not depend on the thrust-time
history.
Integration of V with respect to time yields the altitude as a function of time. Using the
range function p(t) as defined in the previous section(), Eq. 3.47, the altitude is given by
g0 I sp2
1
p t g0t 2 ;
0
2

h
hb

g0 I sp2
0

pb

1
2 0

h hb Vb t tb

hc

g 0 I sp2
0

2
1
1

t tb ,

(3.71)

t tb ,

(3.72)

1
2
g 0 t tb ;
2

t tb ,

(3.73)

t tc

(3.74)

1
1
2
2 0 ln ln 1

3.7.2. Constant Pitch angle

For constant pitch angle case, the equations of motion are equation (3.59 to 3.62)
with 0 . For simplicity, we assume that start takes place at t = 0, in the origin of the
inertial frame with zero initial velocity. The equation for the velocity can be obtained
directly by integrating the equation of motion,
VX g0 I sp ln

M0
cos0
M

VZ g0 I sp ln

M0
sin 0 g0t
M

Vid g0 I sp ln

(3.75)
(3.76)
(3.77)

With the use of above equation, we can write for the burnout velocity,
M

0
At M = Me, t = tb; V= Vb; then M
e

Vb2 VX2b VY2b

(3.78)

M
M

g0 I sp ln 0 cos0 g 0 I sp ln 0 sin 0 g 0tb

M
M

On simplification,

g0 I sp ln cos 2 0 sin 2 0
2

Vb Vid 1

2tb sin 0
t2
2 b2
I sp ln I sp ln

2tb sin 0
t2
2 b2
I sp ln I sp ln

(3.79)

We see that gravity losses increase with increasing pitch angle, 0 and increasing burnout
time, tb.
The flight path angle, being the angle between the velocity vector and the X-axis, and
positive if VZ is positive, follows from
tan

VZ
t
tan 0
M0
VX
I sp ln
cos 0
M

(3.80)

The angle of attack, i.e., the angle between the longitudinal axis of the rocket and the
velocity vector, is given by

(3.81)

By using equation (3.80), it can be derived that

tan

t cos 0
M
I sp ln 0 t sin 0
M

(3.82)

We see that, in general, flight path angle and angle of attack will not be constant and the
trajectory will be curved. Only in the case that ln M 0 M is proportional to t the flight path
angle and the angle of attack are constant and the resulting trajectory will be a straight line.
In the following we will again consider a constant thrust. Then the velocity components,
the flight path angle and the angle of attack follow as a function of time by substitution of
M M 0 m0t ; 0 t tb ,
M Me ;

t tb ,

into Eqs. (3.75) to (3.82). We then find that during powered flight increases and the
trajectory is curved upwards. By taking the limit for t 0 of Eq.(3.80) it follows that
tan 0 tan 0

1
0 cos 0

(3.83)

After burnout, decreases and increases. Then the trajectory is curved downwards.
Culmination altitude is reached if = 0, or equivalently if VZ = 0, leading to
tc I sp ln sin 0 .

(3.84)

Again the culmination time is independent of the thrust program. Integration of the
velocity components with respect to time yields the position of the vehicle. During
powered flight, the coordinates are determined by
g 0 I sp2

p t cos 0 ,

0
g 0 I sp2

p t sin 0

(3.85)
1 2
g 0t .
2

(3.86)

The position at burnout is given by

Xb

Zb

g 0 I sp2

pb cos 0 ,

(3.87)

g 0 I sp2

1
1
1
2 0

pb sin 0

(3.88)

After burnout the position follows from

X X b V X b t tb

1
2
Z Z b VZ b t tb g 0 t tb .
2

(3.89)
(3.90)

The coordinates of the culmination point, finally, are obtained by substitution of t tc in Eq.
():
g 0 I sp2
1

Xc
1 0 ln 2 sin 0 ln cos 0 ,

Zc

3.8.

Gravity turns

g 0 I sp2
1
1

1 0 ln 2 sin 0 ln sin 0 .
0
2

(3.91)
(3.92)

To reduce the aerodynamic forces on a rocket during its flight through the atmosphere, one
will endeavor to keep the angle of attack as small as possible. For simple
aerodynamically stabilized vehicles, this is accomplished by fixed fins., vehicles that
are mechanically stabilized use more or less complicated control systems to generate
the moment necessary to keep the angle of attack as small as possible. This is of
course not the case for aerodynamically controlled rockets, during maneuvering. For
launch vehicles, ICBMs and uncontrolled aerodynamically stabilized rockets we can
say that the flight through the atmosphere takes place with zero angle of attack. In that
case there is no lift and the curvature of the trajectory is solely due to gravity, hence
the name gravity turn, or zero-lift trajectory. In this section we will discuss some
gravity turns in vacuum.
As the angle of attack is zero, the flight path angle equals the pitch angle:
arctan

Vz
Vx

(3.93)

Then the equations of motion become

M

dVX
V
F X
dt
V

(3.94)

dVZ
V
F Z Mg 0
dt
V

(3.95)

where,
(3.96)

V VX2 VZ2

It is convenient in this case to use the total velocity, V, and the flight path angle, , as
dependent variables, instead of VX and VZ. Multiplication Eq. (3.94) by VX, Eq. (3.95) by
VZ and summation yields
dV
F

g 0 sin
dt M

(3.97)

The differential equation for is found by multiplication of Eq. (3.94) by VZ, Eq. (3.95) by
VX, and subsequently subtracting the results:
g
d
0 cos
dt
V

(3.98)

The equation for gravity turn, in general, cannot be solved analytically. However, some
special cases exist which allow for analytical solutions.

Constant pitch rate, q = q0. A simple analytical solution for gravity turn is possible in the
case of a constant pitch rate. In that case
d d

q0
dt
dt

(3.99)

And the equation of motion become

g 0 cos
q0 ,
V

(3.100)

dV
F

g 0 sin
dt M

(3.101)

Differentiation of Eq. (3.100) yields

d cos
cos
dV

2 g 0 sin 0
dt V
V
dt

Above equation can only be satisfied either if cos 0 , which means that we have a
vertical ascent with zero pitch rate, or if
dV
g 0 sin
dt

(3.102)

By combining Eq. (3.101) and Eq. (3.102) we see that the specific thrust is determined by
F
2sin
g0 M

(3.103)

As according to Eq.(3.99)
0 q0 t t0

(3.104)

Eq.(3.103) can be integrated, leading to

ln

M
2

cos 0 cos
M 0 q0 I sp

(3.105)

Thus, at burnout
cos b cos 0

q0 I sp
2

ln ,

(3.106)

which determines b . The burning time follows from

tb t 0

0 b
q0

(3.107)

Substitution of Eq. (3.104) into Eq. (3.102) and integration of equation yields the velocity
as a function of :
V V0

g0
cos cos 0
q0

(3.108)

By using Eq.(3.105) one finds

Vb V0

1
g 0 I sp ln ,
2

(3.109)

or
Vb

1
Vid .
2

(3.110)

So in this case gravity losses amount to 50 % of ideal velocity. This is a consequence of the
low thrust ( 2 ), and the resulting large burning time. The trajectory is obtained by
integrating
dX
V cos
dt
dZ
V sin
dt

,
.

(3.111)
(3.112)

These equations can also be integrated analytically. The methods discussed in this unit can
be used for rough determination of the trajectory of a launch vehicle or ICBM unit burnout
of the first stage(s). In most cases such a trajectory is composed of the following sub-arcs:
1. Vertical rise.
2. Pitch-over maneuver (mathematically represented by kick angle).
3. Gravity turn to reduce aerodynamic forces in the lower part of the atmosphere.
4. Flight with constant pitch angle to reach a maximum burnout velocity, or flight
with constant pitch rate. However, other pitch programs are used too.