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The University of Western Australia

SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS & STATISTICS


UWA ACADEMY
FOR YOUNG MATHEMATICIANS

Algebra: Quadratic polynomials and Vi`


etes Theorem
Greg Gamble

Polynomials
Let x be a variable that can take any number as a value. Then an expression of the form
a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + + an xn
where a0 , a1 , . . . , an are fixed numbers is called a polynomial in x; and the numbers a0 , a1 , . . . , an
are called the coefficients of this polynomial in x. For convenience, we usually like to give
such expressions some sort of label; so that we will usually write something like:
Let p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + + an xn .
(Here p(x) is said: p of x). Then, writing p(3) is a shorthand way of writing:
a0 + a1 .3 + a2 .32 + + an .3n
(the expression p(x) with 3 substituted for each occurrence of x)
Also, we will often say for p(3), the value of the polynomial p(x) at x = 3 or p(x) evaluated at
x = 3 or just simply, p of 3.
Generally, we like to have an 6= 0; then an xn is called the leading term (and an , itself, is
the leading coefficient) of the polynomial p(x), and n is called the degree of p(x). If an = 1
then the polynomial p(x) is called a monic polynomial. Also, a0 is called the constant term
or constant coefficient of p(x).
Now an equation is something of the form
expression = expression.
So a polynomial equation is something of the form
polynomial = expression,
where the expression on the right-hand side is usually just a value (i.e. a number) and that
value is usually 0.
Now, a polynomial equation (in x) usually only makes sense for a small number of x values.
For example,
x2 1 = 0
only makes sense for the x-values, 1 and 1. We say, the polynomial equation x2 1 is satisfied
by 1 and 1; or we say, it has roots 1 and 1; or we say, it has solutions 1 and 1.
On the other hand, a polynomial p(x) is simply an expression in x. It makes sense, (i.e. has
a value) for any choice of x. Sometimes this value is 0. For this reason, a choice of x such that
p(x) evaluates to 0, is called a zero of p(x).
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Example 1.
The polynomial x2 3x + 2 has two zeros, namely 1 and 2.
The polynomial equation x2 3x + 2 = 0 has two roots, namely 1 and 2.
(In this context, the term root can be used interchangeably with solution.)
So we see that the terms zero and root (or solution) generally amount to the same thing
but from different viewpoints!
Two polynomials p(x), q(x) are said to be equal if they have the same value for every value
of x. This occurs if and only if p(x) and q(x) have the same degree and identical coefficients.
Note that two polynomials can have the same value at several x-values without being equal
polynomials. (This can be confusing!)
Example 2.
The polynomials p(x) = x2 + 1 and q(x) = x4 + 1 are equal at x = 0, i.e.
p(0) = q(0),
but p(x), q(x) are not equal polynomials.
The polynomials p(x) = (x 1)2 and q(x) = x2 2x + 1 are equal polynomials, and often
this is written: p(x) = q(x). Usually, the context makes it clear what is meant, but to
avoid any ambiguity it is a good idea to get into the practice of writing:
p(x) = q(x) for all x.

Polynomial Division
Analogous to integer division, we can define division of a polynomial p(x) by a non-zero polynomial u(x). (The zero polynomial is the polynomial that evaluates to 0 for every value of
x it is usually written as: 0, which again can be quite confusing. A polynomial p(x) is a
non-zero polynomial if it evaluates to a non-zero value for at least one x-value.) We define
quotient and remainder polynomials of polynomial division as follows:
If p(x) is a polynomial and u(x) is a non-zero polynomial then the quotient q(x)
and remainder r(x) are the polynomials that satisfy
p(x) = u(x).q(x) + r(x) (for all x)
such that the degree of r(x) is less than the degree of u(x).
We will only be considering the case where u(x) = x a for some fixed number a, i.e. we will
only consider the case where u(x) is of degree 1; in which case r(x), being necessarily of lower
degree, consists of just a constant term and so is called a constant polynomial. If r(x) is
the zero polynomial then u(x) (and also q(x) ) is a factor of p(x).
 There is an arithmetic on the degrees of polynomials. If p(x), q(x) have degrees n, m
respectively, then the degree of p(x) + q(x) is at most the maximum of m and n and
p(x).q(x) is m + n.

 The astute student will realise that to fit in with this (and the definition of polynomial
division above, in the case that u(x) is a constant polynomial ) we need a special degree
definition for the degree of the zero polynomial. We invent a special integer which is
smaller than any genuine integer and has the property that:
+ k =
for any integer k. The zero polynomial is then said to have degree (rather than 0). All
other constant polynomials have degree 0.
Exercise 1: Check this definition for the degree of the zero polynomial is what we needed.
Exercise 2: Show that unlike integer division, according to the definition above, division of
a polynomial by a constant polynomial always gives the zero polynomial as remainder, i.e.
non-zero constant polynomials are always factors.

Now that we have a concrete idea of what polynomial division is, we are in a position to make
sense of the following theorems.
Theorem (Remainder Theorem). If the polynomial p(x) is divided by the polynomial x a
then the remainder is p(a).
Proof. Write p(x) = (x a)q(x) + r(x). Then r(x) is a constant polynomial (and so we may as well
drop the x and simply write r). Substituting a for x gives
p(a) = (a a)q(a) + r
= r.

An immediate consequence of the Remainder Theorem is the following.


Theorem (Factor Theorem). Let p(x) be a polynomial. Then a is a zero of p(x) if and only if
x a is a factor of p(x).
Proof. This proof is left as an exercise.

 The polynomial p(x) = a0 + a1 x + + an xn is said to be a polynomial over Z, or over

Q, or over R, . . . if all the coefficients are in Z, or Q, or R, . . . respectively. Similarly, p(x)


is said to factor over Z, or over Q, or over R, . . . if p(x) = u(x).q(x) for some non-constant
polynomials u(x), q(x) that are both polynomials over Z, or over Q, or over R, . . . respectively.
Incidentally, this is why the coefficients were referred to as numbers (rather than real numbers)
above. A rather nice result that is helpful for finding rational zeros of polynomials over Z is
the following.
Theorem (Rational Zero Theorem). Let p(x) = a0 + a1 x + + an1 xn1 + xn be a monic
polynomial over Z. If p(x) does not factor over Z then nor does it factor over Q.
This means to find the rational zeros of a monic polynomial with integer coefficients we
only need to check all integer divisors of the constant coefficient a0 .

Quadratic polynomials
A quadratic polynomial is simply a polynomial of degree 2, i.e. a polynomial of form
ax2 + bx + c
where a, b, c are fixed numbers and a 6= 0. Let p(x) = ax2 + bx + c where a 6= 0. Then over
using the identity
3

(A + B)2 = A2 + 2AB + B 2
we may write:
b
c
p(x) = ax2 + bx + c = a x2 + x +
a
a

b
b 2 c
b 2 
2
+
=a x + x+
a
2a
a
2a


b 2 4ac b2 
b 2 b2 4ac 
+

=a x+
=
a
x
+
.
2a
4a2
2a
4a2
We would like to go further by using (in reverse) the identity
(A + B)(A B) = A2 B 2 .
This is only possible over R if the quantity = b2 4ac (called the discriminant of p(x) ) is
non-negative. Suppose that = b2 4ac 0 then we can write:



b 2
2 

b 2
p(x) = a x +
2 =a x+

2a
4a
2a 2a



b
b
+
x+

=a x+
2a
2a
2a
2a

b + 
b
x
.
=a x
2a
2a
So we see that, if 0 then p(x) has zeros

b
b +
,
2a
2a
2
where = b 4ac; and hence p(x) has
two distinct real zeros, if > 0;
two equal real zeros,

if = 0;

no real zeros,

if < 0.

Now, a real square is always either positive or zero. So


b 2

x+
2 2 for all x.
2a
4a
4a

, if a > 0 (respectively:
Hence, p(x) has a minimum value (respectively: maximum value) of
4a
b
if a < 0), and this value is attained at x = .
2a
We finish this section with a fairly simple but very useful result.
Theorem (Vi`etes Theorem). Let p(x) = x2 + bx + c be a monic quadratic polynomial with
zeros , . Then
b = +
c = .
Proof. First observe that
(x )(x ) = x2 ( + )x + .
Now , are the zeros of p(x), and p(x) is monic; so p(x) must factor as per the left-hand side of the
above equation. The result now follows by comparison of coefficients of p(x) with the right-hand side
of the above equation.

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