Small Wars Animal Packers Manual: X-File 3-35.23

X-File 3-35.
23
Small Wars
Animal Packers Manual
Marine Corps Warfighting Laboratory

(MCWL)
Training Command
and
Mountain Warfare Training Center
(MWTC)
U.S. Marine Corps
X-File 3-35.23
Small Wars
This X-File is based on training and experiments

by the Marine Corps Mountain Warfare Training
Center
Throughout this X-File, we use masculine nouns and pronouns for

the sake of simplicity. Except where otherwise noted, these nouns
and pronouns apply to either gender.
U.S. Marine Corps
UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS

Marine Corps Warfighting Laboratory (C 52)
Marine Corps Training Command (C 46)
Marine Corps Combat Development Command
Attn: 3255 Meyers Avenue
Quantico, Virginia 22134-5069
17 October 2000
FOREWORD
1. PURPOSE: This X-File is about using pack animals an alternative
method of transporting crew served weapons, ammunition, supplies, and
casualties. It summarizes much of the training on animal packing given
by the Marine Corps Mountain Warfare Training Center. Our format is
designed to be quickly read and easily carriedin the cargo pocket of
the utility uniformso Marines have readily available, easy-to-use
information. We are publishing it jointly with Training Command to
ensure a coordinated approach to providing information that will better
prepare Marines to fight smarter and win more efficiently.
All of the X-Files can be viewed and downloaded in .PDF format

from the Marine Corps Warfighting Laboratory Home Page found
at: www.mcwl.quantico.usmc.mil
2. SCOPE. This X-File provides general information on the military use

of pack animals. It provides specific information on the use of horses,
mules, and associated pack equipment. We also discuss some proven
ways to care for the animals and equipment.
3. SUPERSESSION. None.
4. CHANGES. Recommendations for improvements to this X-File are
encouraged from commands and from individuals. You can reproduce
and forward the attached User Suggestion Form to the above address.
You may also submit recommendations electronically to:
MWTCOPERATIONS@mwtc.usmc.mil
5. CERTIFICATION. Reviewed and approved this date.
W. D. Catto
Brigadier General, USMC
Commanding General
Marine Corps Warfighting
Laboratory
Marine Corps Combat
Development Command
Quantico, Virginia 22134-5059
W. E. Gaskin
Colonel, USMC
Commander
Training Command
Marine Corps Combat
Development Command
Quantico, Virginia 22134
USER SUGGESTION FORM

Table of Contents
From:
To: Commanding Officer Mountain Warfare Training Center
Bridgeport, California, 93517-5001
1. You are encouraged to submit suggestions concerning this pamphlet
directly to the above addressee.
Page _____
Article/Paragraph No. _____
Line No. _____ Figure/Table No. _____

Nature of Change:
9 Add
9 Change
9 Delete
9 Correct
2. Proposed Text:
3. Justification/Source:
NOTE:
1. Only one recommendation per page.
2. You may use locally reproduced forms for E-mail submissions to:
MWTCOPERATIONS@mwtc.usmc.mil
Introduction to Animal Packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Experimental Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mission of the Pack Station and School at MWTC .
Factors that Dictate Modes of Transportation . . . .
Animal Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Factors that Affect Use of Pack Animals . . . . . . .
Prepare Animals for the Sound of Gunfire . . . . . .
Definitions of Pack Train Personnel . . . . . . . . . . .
Pack Master . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Assistant Pack Master . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Handler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Definitions of Pack Train Animals . . . . . . . . . . . .
Horse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bell Mare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Burro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Henny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pack Mule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pack Mules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pack Horses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pack Bulls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Approaching a Pack Animal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Leading a Pack Animal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Important Points in Packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pack Animal Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Key Packing Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1
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Stable Routine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grooming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equipment for Cleaning and Grooming the Animal
Bathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Feeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Muck-Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Routine Stable Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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7
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Nomenclature and Conformation of Horses and Mules

Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 1 Horse/Mule Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . .
Conformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Good Confirmation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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9
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Bad Conformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Size (Weight) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Size (Height) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Basic First Aid for Horses and Mules . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Horse and Mule First Aid Kit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Injuries Below the Knee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Injuries Above the Knee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Health Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thrush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Worming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vitamins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Considerations for Administering First Aid . . . . . . .
Treating an Animals Wound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hemorrhage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Colic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Laminitis-Founder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 2 Sketch of How Laminitis Affects the Hoof
Thrown Shoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Destroying Stock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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11
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Nomenclature of Tack and Pack Equipment . . . . .

Pack Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Disadvantages of Using Native Equipment . . .
Advantages of using Native Equipment . . . . . .
Pack Saddles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3 The Parts of the Decker Pack Saddle
Figure 4 Pack Horse with Decker Saddle . . . .
Figure 5 Sawbuck Pack Saddle . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 6 Pack Mule with Sawbuck Saddle . . .
Figure 7 Western Riding Saddle . . . . . . . . . . .
Western Riding Saddle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Additional Tack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tack Used for Military Operations . . . . . . . . .
Figure 8 Parts of a Pack Saddle . . . . . . . . . . .
Cleaning of Tack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Repairing Tack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 9 Improvised Leather Punch . . . . . . . .
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Field Expedient Packing . . . . . . . . . . .

Procurement of Animals and Tack .
Field Expedient Saddles . . . . . . . .
Improvised Saddles . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 10 Improvised Saddle . . . . .
Framework of Improvised Saddles
Figure 11 Step One: Rope Halter . .
Tie Your Own Rope Halter . . . . . .
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ii
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Figure 12 Step Two: Rope Halter . . . . . . . . . . . .

Figure 13 Knots 3 and 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 14 Step Three: Rope Halter . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 15 Halter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Items That Can Be Used for Improvised Packing .
Travois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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23
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24
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24
Packing the Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mantee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Using Panniers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pannier Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Using Mantees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mantee Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mantee Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How to Load a Mantee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 16 Mantee of Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hitches and Knots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 17 Tying a Mantee Knot . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 20 Finished Mantee Knot . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 21 Tying a Load with a Box Hitch . . . .
Figure 22 Tying a Load with a Diamond Hitch
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Saddling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Placement of the Saddle .
Figure 23 Saddling Step 1
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31
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Pack String Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pack-String Movement Considerations . .
Figure 28 Lead Rope . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Halters and Lead Ropes . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load Balancing Sips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tips on Positioning Animals in the String
Pace of Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
River Crossings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Resting the Pack String on Long Slopes .
Turning a Pack String on a Narrow Trail
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Bivouac Considerations . . . . . . . .
Pack-String Bivouac . . . . . . .
Organization of a Bivouac Site
Picket Lines and Hitch Racks
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37
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Single Picket Line . . . .

Figure 29 Single Picket Line
High Picket Line . . . . .
Figure 30 High Picket Line .
Hitch Rail . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 31 Tree Saver Hitch .
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Bull Carts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bull Carts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Contracting for Bull Carts . . . . .
Preparing and Packing Bull Carts
Handling Bull Carts . . . . . . . . . .
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40
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Listing of X-Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
This page intentionally blank.
iv
Introduction to Animal Packing

History. Our present day pack systems have grown out of systems that
were used during the 1850s. The best features of each system were used
to develop present day equipment and procedures.
The Marine Corps used pack animals from its inception until 1953, when
the last pack mule was retired. The last military publication on packing
animals was issued by the US Army in 1914.
Experimental Program. In 1983, the Marine Corps started a three to
five year experiment to test the value of pack animal transportation. The
program is a success at the Marine Corps Mountain Warfare Training
Center, Bridgeport, CA. This program continues today as the only
authorized pack station and school in the Department of Defense.
Mission of the Pack Station and School at MWTC.
To aid the Marine Corps as an alternative method for
transporting crew served weapons, ammunition, supplies, and
wounded personnel to and from areas inaccessible to
mechanized and air mobile transportation.
This page intentionally blank.
Factors that Dictate Modes of Transportation. In many countries

where Marines can expect to be employed, the roads are generally poor
or may only exist in a few well-traveled spots. Also, when there is a
season of heavy rain, it is probable that most roads and trails will become
impassable for motor vehicles and tractor-trailer trucks. Therefore,
Marines must be prepared to use other means of transportation. Animals,
carts, boats, or porters may be the only way to move people and cargo
where there are no passable roads or railroads.
Animal Transportation. Aside from some Marine Corps-unique assets
such as tracked vehicles, the mode of surface transportation most
suitable to any deployment environment is that which is used by the
people who live there. Often this means use of pack animals to transport
supplies as the most effective method of transportation in remote areas.
In fact, the pack animal may be the only way that you can support
operations far into the interior of a mountainous or remote area. When
this is the case, Marines should find out all they can about local pack
animal methodsand their availability to the MAGTFso they can
understand how they can best use them to accomplish their mission.
Factors that Affect Use of Pack Animals. Planning to use pack animals
is not simple, nor is it always a satisfactory solution to a transportation
1
problem. Crude or improvised pack equipment, unconditioned animals,

and the general lack of knowledge in the elementary principles of animal
management and pack transportation will tend to make the use of pack
transportation difficult, costly, and possibly unsatisfactory.
For example, the mobility of a pack train column is directly affected by
how well it is handled. The hour of starting, route of march, and the
amount of distance covered are significant factors in pack train handling.
The pack train can move effectively and efficiently in the most difficult
of environments with conditioned animals, good / modern equipment,
and personnel with a moderate amount of training in handling packs.
Prepare Animals for the Sound of Gunfire. If time permits, it is highly
important to get your pack animals used to the sound of gunfirerifles
and automatic weaponsso they will not be frightened and try to run
away if contact occurs. This can be done by firing these weapons while
these animals are in a place that is familiar to them; preferably while they
are feeding. Fire the weapons from a distant point at first; then gradually
move the shooting closer as the animals get accustomed to the noise. In a
short time, the animals will pay no attention to the reports when they find
that it does not hurt them. If this is impossible, and an animal carrying
important cargo, such as machine gun ammunition, is frightened and tries
to bolt, the animal should be shot to prevent them from falling into the
hands of opposing forces.
Definitions of Pack Train Personnel.
Pack Master:
S Overall in charge of the pack train.
Assistant Pack Master:
S Second in command, oversees and inspects the animals and
handlers.
Handler:
S Takes care of pack equipment and pack animal.
Definitions of Pack Train Animals.
Horse:
S A male horse is called a stallion, and a female is called a mare.
Bell Mare:
S A lead horse that the mules will follow.
Burro:
S A male burro is called a jackass,
S A female is called a jenny.
Henny:
S A henny is a cross between a male horse and a female burro.
Mule:
S A mule is a cross between a female horse and a male burro
S The mule is born sterile.
2
S
S
A male mule is called a John.

A female is called a Molly.
Pack Mule:
S A sure-footed animal used for packing loads of about 200
pounds for long periods of movement or about 300 pounds for
short periods of movement.
Pack Mules. The mule is the ideal pack animal for supply trains, pack
trains with foot patrols, and pack trains with detachments mounted on
mules. The mule has certain advantages over the horse which that make
him the first choice for this kind of work.
The mule withstands hot weather better and is less susceptible to
colic and founder than the horse.
A mule responds better than a horse in the hands of an unqualified,
unsure or incompetent driver.
The mules foot is less subject to disorders.
The mule is invariably a good walker in difficult terrain.
Age and infirmity count less against a mule than a horse.
Pack mules are habitually driven and not led. However, pack mules
carrying weapons and ammunition will, for safety purposes, be led in a
column by having the leader of each mule drive the next mule that is
immediately in front of him. His mule will, in turn, be driven by the man
next in line in the column.
Pack Horses. Any good riding horse of normal conformation, good
disposition, and normal gaits can be used as a pack horse. A horsemounted detachment should always use horses as their pack animals in
order to maintain the mobility of the mounted detachment. Each pack
horse is led alongside a ridden horse. On very narrow trails and any time
when it is impossible for two horses to travel abreast, the pack horse is
led behind a mounted horse (with a rider). Horses properly packed can
march at the same gaits as the ridden horse.
Pack Bulls. Under certain conditions, bulls can be used to good
advantage as pack animals. A pack bull with its wide-spreading hoof can
negotiate mud in which a mule with its small hoof will bog down. Bull
can carry heavier cargoes than the mules usually found in most small war
theatersalthough they travel slower.
Good pack bulls can carry from 200-250
pounds of cargo. They can make about 15 miles
a day loaded but, after five days march, they
will require a rest of between five to seven
daysif they are kept in good condition. In
employing pack bulls, it is advisable to hire
native bull keepers to handle them.
3
Mixed pack trains of bulls and horses do not operate smoothly due to
their different characteristics.
Approaching a Pack Animal. When approaching a pack animal, the
handler should:
Approach from the front if possible;
S at a 30-degree angle,
S with your body between the animals head and shoulder area.
Approach while speaking to the animal to prevent startling it.
S Use a calm voice.
Make physical contact with the animal when approaching by
touching its neck or shoulder area first.
In order to avoid getting kicked:
Do not approach from the rear;
S if at all possible.
Do not approach without warning or surprise the animal.
Avoid sudden movements.
Maintain wariness for a kick.
S Dont get overconfident because its never happened before.
Leading a Pack Animal. Once youve reached your animal, lay the lead
rope over the animals neck. Now you can ease the halter onto the animal
and fasten the buckle.
Never coil lead rope around your hand.
Hold loose bights; i.e., the loop in the middle of your rope.
Pay attention to what you are doing at all times to prevent injury.
Always follow the example of the Pack Master.
Important Points in Packing. You must adjust your loads and distances
traveled to the conditions of the animals. Do not overload your pack
animals. The short term gain will be offset by the long term negative
effects of injured animals. You can avoid delays in packing through
careful planning and systematic arrangement of loads matched to an
animals known capability and behavior.
Pack Animal Conditioning. You have to physically condition your pack
animals before taking them on an extended march. If you do not do this,
you will almost certainly experience heavy losses of animals.
Key Packing Tips.
When packing, reduce the time interval between placing the loads on
the first and last animal to an absolute minimum.
S This time interval should never exceed 30 minutes.
Assemble and neatly arrange all equipment the night before a march
is to begin.
S Check every single piece of equipment to avoid needless delays
4
in the morning.
Weigh, balance and lash up all cargoes the night before a march is to
begin.
Establish a standard system for stowing all pack gear and cargo loads
for the night.
S This facilitates the checking of equipment after the halt and
greatly reduces the number of lost pieces.
S A satisfactory system is to place saddles on the ground in a row
just in rear of the picket line or, if the animals are pastured at
night, place them on line in a space suitable for packing up in the
morning.
S Place the harness, lash ropes, and all other gear belonging to that
particular saddle and its load on top of each saddle.
S Put the loads in a row parallel to the saddles;
S Put each load in the rear of the saddle on which it is to be
packed.
Begin the march immediately after the last animal is packed.
Local Native Packers. Native packers can be used to a good advantage.

Since two men are required to pack each animalworking in pairswe
recommend hiring two natives experienced in packing for every 10
animals. It is probably best to hire a competent chief packer and allow
him to hire the necessary number of packers. With such an arrangement,
all orders and instructions should be issued through this chief packer who
is held responsible for handling both cargoes and animals. However, in
some cases, it may be undesirable or impractical to include native
packers in a combat patrol. Hiring native packers may give the local
populace warning that the column is about to move out.
Marines as Packers. A Marine can be trained in a fairly short time to
pack mules securely and rapidly. In regions where pack transportation is
used, every Marine should be taught to pack. The use of Marines as
packers has the effect of decreasing the combat strength of the column.
However, the advantages may outweigh the disadvantages.
The pack train can often be more efficiently handled by trained Marines
because it eliminates the necessity to issue orders to the animal handlers
in a foreign language. And, for security reasons, Marines should always
lead all animals carrying ammunition and weapons, rather than herding
them or turning them over to native packers. Use a good pack saddle; one
that is easy to learn how to use. This facilitates using Marines as packers
and gives the commander more flexibility in distributing his loads.
Although it may be tedious and take forces away from maneuver
units, you must always escort ammunition and weapons.
5
Pack Trains with Combat Columns. Make combat column pack trains
as mobile as possible. To safeguard supplies, baggage, ammunition and
weapons, try to make both the number of the animals and the cargo loads
as small as is consistent with mission essential needs. If there is a choice,
it is better to increase the number of animals than to increase the weight
and size of the individual cargo loads.
In general, the pack loads accompanying a combat column should never
exceed 25% of the weight of the pack animal upon which it is to be
placed. For small horses and mules, the average load is about 130
pounds. This is only a general rule of thumb. You should tailor loads to
the conditions of the trails and the animals. Some loads will exceed this
amount when the animals size, strength, and overall condition is
considered.
Stable Routine
Grooming. Grooming helps prevent injury or discomfort to the animals
by ridding the coat of foreign objects, e.g., dirt, pebbles, burrs, etc. You
should groom prior to saddling and after unsaddling. Grooming also
allows you an opportunity to inspect the animal for cuts or sores that
may need medical attention.
When grooming, work from the head to the hind with the curry comb
and body brush. Then groom the mane and tail, and finish up with the
hooves. If the animal is lathered up by sweating brush the hair in a
direction to make the hair stand up to aid in drying. Inspect shoes and
hoofs for looseness, cracks, abscess, and small rock and debris.
Equipment for Cleaning and Grooming the Animal.
Curry Comb: For removal of larger chunks of mud, rocks, and twigs.
Body Brush: For brushing entire body.
Mane and Tail Comb: For brushing out the mane and tail.
Hoof Pick: For scraping mud and other debris from hooves.
S Always start at the heel of the hoof and work toward the toe of
the hoof.
Bathing. It is good to bathe an animal at least once a month to insure its
cleanliness and good health, if weather permits. Here are some simple
steps for bathing:
Wet entire animal.
Apply soap and work into coat.
Rinse animal off thoroughly.
Dry animal thoroughly.
Feeding. Feed all animals twice a day. The feed consists of hay, grain,
and water. Horses and mules that are working every day need a lot of
feed. At least 20 to 25 pounds of hay or an equivalent amount of grass
whichbecause it is wetwill weigh even more.
Grain: Give 1-2 pounds of grain to each animal prior to and after a
field movement.
Individual horses vary considerably in their feed requirements, but a
good approximation is 2 percent of their body weight in dry weight of
feed a day. The same approximation holds for most mammals, including
mules.
Grazing. The length of time that a horse has to graze to in order to fill
his belly and fulfill his nutritional requirementsthe two arent
necessarily the samedepends on the quality of the pasture. Where grass
is thick and continuous and a horse can put his head down and eat on a
straight line, six hours of feeding in a 24-hour period is probably a
minimum. Where forage is sparsea nip here and a mouthful
therehell need considerably more time feeding.
Muck-Out. This is the cleaning out of all manure from all stalls and
corrals. Do this to prevent flies and mosquitoes in the stable area that
can infect the animals with diseases. The required tools include:
Wheel barrow for removal of manure to a disposal site.
Shovel and manure rake for picking up piles of manure.
Garden rake to gather manure in piles.
Broom to sweep out stalls and barn.
Nomenclature and Conformation of Horses and Mules

Nomenclature: The horse /mule is broken into five main body groups:
Head.
Neck.
Front quarters.
Back/barrel.
Hind quarters.
Each of these five main body groups is broken down further into
individual parts as shown in figure 1.
Routine Stable Procedures:

Feed on a regular schedule.
S Do not feed animals on the ground if it can be avoided.
S Do not feed animals rotten or molded hay or grain.
Inspect animals during feeding for obvious problems.
Inspect water for cleanliness and plentifulness.
Inspect facilities for soft body hazards such as:
S wire,
S nails,
S sharp edges,
S large rocks, etc.
Do not leave sharp edge tools in stock area.
Figure 1 Horse/Mule Nomenclature
Conformation. Conformation is a term used to describe what a good

pack animal should look like with regard to size, shape, height, weight,
and dimensions.
Good Confirmation is marked by:
Steady intelligent mind.
Short, strong neck.
Well defined withers that are not too high or too low.
Large muscular chest.
Short, straight, strong, well-muscled back and loins.
8
Low croup.
Deep girth and large barrel to accommodate big lungs.
Well-developed hind quarters.
Straight, strong legs.
Short, wide, cannon bones.
Short, strong pasterns, that have a moderate slope.
Tough hooves in proportion to size and weight of animal.
Bad Conformation is marked by:

Poor disposition.
Withers that are too high or too low.
Hog or sway back.
Shallow girth/small barrel.
Underdeveloped muscle groups.
Long, spindly legs.
General history of poor health.
Advanced aging.
S If its date of birth is known
S A well-experienced horseman can tell the age of a horse by
looking at its teeth.
Size (Weight). Bigger is not necessarily better. A thousand pounds to
twelve hundred pounds is big enough for most packers. Above twelve
hundred pounds may allow the animal to carry more weight, but you
should carefully consider these two factors:
The horse may be prone to injury because of his weight;
S unless he is exceptionally well proportioned.
You probably cant use the extra capacity anyway.
S Remember, you have to lift the load in the field and a 100-pound
load is about as big a load as you can properly lift-and-position
by hand on a pack saddle.
Size (Height). Similar reasoning applies to height. Between fourteen
hands and fifteen two hands (4'7" to 5'2") is a good range for pack stock.
(Note: One hand equals 10.2 centimeters or 4 inches). Even men more
than six feet tall can have difficulty loading animals higher than that.
Shorter men or women will have more difficulty.
10
Basic First Aid for Horses and Mules

Horse and Mule First Aid Kit. These should contain gauzes, aerosols,
ointments, and powders useful for common horse injuries.
Granulex or scarlet oil
Pytenol lotion or blue lotion
Nitrofurazone soluble dressing or Demafur
Sulfa-urea powder
Blood-stop Powder
Hydrogen peroxide
Absorbine
Cotton
Gauze bandages
Thermometer
Injuries Below the Knee Any injury below the knee is potentially very
serious. There is little muscle tissue in this area; the blood supply is
limited; it is in continual motion which tends to aggravate injuries; and
because it is close to the ground, it is hard to keep clean, increasing the
chance of infection. These are examples of some of these injuries:
Lameness due to bowed tendons, sore ligaments or sore tendons.
S Rub down affected area with Absorbine several times a day.
S Rest the horse.
S Do not work horses with bowed tendons.
Injuries to the Coronet Band and Hoof.
S Apply Nitrofurazone soluble dressing or Demafur dressing.
S You can treat cracks in the hoof with pine tar.
S Cracks in the hoof causing lameness may have to be
immobilized by your farrier with a special shoe.
Nail punctures and frog injuries
S Thoroughly clean the area with hydrogen peroxide or a solution
of Chlorox and water in equal amounts.
Injuries Above the Knee. These can generally be treated differently
because they involve muscle tissue and good blood supply. Here are
some treatments we have found to be sound and easily administered in
the field:
Earmites / sore ears that cause head shyness and tenderness.
S Treat with a few drops of warm olive oil in cotton, rubbed or
daubed in the ear.
Deep muscle cuts and punctures.
S Use Blood Stop Powder when there is an open wound with
bleeding; covering the area thoroughly.
S Use scarlet oil or Granulex in the absence of heavy bleeding;
11
both of these stimulate tissue growth. Neither should ever be

applied below the knee.
S Use Nitrofurazone, Demafur, or sulfa urea powder to lessen the
chances of infection; whichever is easiest to apply.
Saddle sores, abrasions, cinch sores, rope burns and wire cuts.
S Nitrofurazone soluble dressing,
S Pytenol lotion, or
S blue lotion.
Clean a wound.
S Hydrogen peroxide solution
Mange or loss of hair
S Wash with solution of one part Chlorox to ten parts water.
S Apply solution of alum powder and water as new hair grows
over healed wound.
When applied to serious injuries in the field, these treatments are
first-aid only. Consult a veterinarian as soon as possible.
General Health Problems. Animals need general preventive care at

regular intervals to insure good health. However, horses and mules are
strong animals, do not get hurt trying to treat them without proper
assistance. These are the principal health areas of concern:
Thrush.
S This is a common hoof disorder caused by the animals hoofs
being in constant contact with water or moist ground.
S Treatment is easy and effective. Simply keep the hooves as dry
as possible and apply one of the many antibacterial medications,
such as Thrush-xx, twice a day.
Worming.
S Through feeding and normal grazing habits, the animal ingests
parasites that feed and grow in its gastrointestinal system.
S These parasites must be checked and removed to insure the
animals good health.
S Do this by administering one of the many worming compounds
that are readily available on the open market.
Vitamins.
S Animals, like people, need a regular amount of vitamins and
minerals in their food.
S When this supply is insufficient, supplements must be given.
S They can be given by shots, in their food, or by the use of a
vitamin/mineral trace salt block.
Considerations for Administering First Aid. Here are some key factors
to be considered before administering first aid to an injured animal.
Extent of wound.
12
Any serious wounds, e.g., broken leg, serious internal injuries,

etc., will more than likely leave you no choice but to put the
animal down.
Expertise of personnel available to treat it.
S You probably will not be traveling with a veterinarian or an
expert in animal husbandry; thus, you probably will only be able
to treat minor injuries such as flesh wounds, sprains, etc.
S Exceptions would be that professional medical help is nearby.
S A corpsman would probably be able to work on the animal to the
same extent as on a human; i.e., suturing, bandaging, etc.
Medical supplies on hand.
S In a field environment, medical supplies will be limited to what
you can pack on the animal.
S As a rule of thumb, anything you would use on yourself to treat a
wound can be used on an animal.
S Anything in a first aid kit can be used on an animal.
Treating an Animals Wound. Here are some ways to treat a wound.

Clean the wound with water and remove any dirt and debris.
After cleaning the wound, apply medication to the affected area.
S This can be Betadine solution, iodine, or one of the many topical
antibacterial veterinarian creams that are available today
Apply a clean, sterile dressing.
S This can be one of your field dressings.
Hemorrhage. This is defined as severe bleeding. The treatment is:
Direct pressure for 5-10 minutes, use the cleanest dressing available.
Sedate with 1cc of Rompun per 100 pounds of body weight.
S Inject it intramuscularly; i.e., within the muscle.
For uncontrollable bleeding, tie off large blood vessels.
Colic. This is caused by many different conditions, including a twist of
the intestine, parasitic worms, disease of any abdominal organ, and diet.
The treatment is:
Walk the animal.
S Do not let the animal lay down and roll.
Administer 1cc of Banamine per 100 pounds of body weight.
S Inject it intramuscularly; i.e., within the muscle.
S Follow veterinarians instructions for frequency of injection.
Withhold food until signs of pain are gone.
24 hours after pain is treated, feed should consist only of small
amounts of grass/hay.
Laminitis-Founder. This is inflammation of the sensitive laminae of the
hoof that is accompanied by the separation of the sensitive and horny
laminae and a downward rotation of the coffin bone. Key elements of the
information on laminitis is extracted from a 1996 article Farriery &
13
Laminitis published by Yehuda Avisar, DVM, in ANVIL Magazine.

This includes the graphic of the hoof shown in figure 2 that was
downloaded from The International Equine Resource Center website in
August 2000. Figure 2 illustrates how this condition is occurs within the
animals hoof. The causes of laminitis include:
Overeating.
Spoiled or moldy feed.
Hard work on hard roads,
S called road founder.
Drinking cold water when overheated.
Foal founder,
S from giving birth.
Any change to the system that causes a
histamine release;
S these result in an allergic reaction.
The treatment for acute laminitis is:
Withhold all grain for 48 hours.
Observe for depression.
Observe for abdominal distress.
Check feet hourly and ice feet.
1cc Banamine, intramuscularly per 100
pounds of body weight.
Follow veterinarians instructions for
frequency of injection.
ski boot buckle. These boots are easy to use and are remarkably durable,
though they slosh after stream crossings. They are also a safe solution to
the problem of mules who wont stand to be shod.
Destroying Stock. Be humane, do not allow an animal to suffer if its
legs are broken or if its chest or abdomen is lacerated. There are four
ways of destroying an animal that is injured beyond help. The tactical
situation will dictate which of these methods you should use.
Strikingbetween the ears, on the pole with a forceful blow with a
blunt object.
Cuttinguse large knife to cut the throat on the lower 1/3 of the
neck to sever the jugular vein.
Shootingshoot in front of the skull in the softest portion.
Turn the animal looselet nature take its course of action.
Figure 2 Sketch of How

Laminitis Affects the Hoof
The treatment for chronic laminitis is:

Corrective shoeing is the only treatment.
Horses and mules are large strong animals. Do not get hurt trying to treat
without proper assistance.
Laminitis usually refers to the early stages of the disease. Founder
usually refers to chronic or long-term consequences of laminitis.
Thrown Shoes. The most common horse or mule problem is thrown

shoes. Therefore, you should have the proper equipment to deal with this
when it happens. Beyond this, you would do well to ask your farrier for
some lessons the next time he shoes the stock. On the march, you should
carry a spare shoe in each of the sizes required by your animals. You
should also have some shoeing nails, a rasp and a light hammer, or a pair
of fencing pliers. You can clinch nails against the edge of the rasp.
If your mule cannot be shod standing, if you arent comfortable working
on your horses feet, or if there is any doubt in your mind about your
ability to put a shoe on correctly, there is an alternative-a rubber boot
called Easy Boot. This slips on over the hoof and clamps tight with a
14
15
Nomenclature of Tack and Pack Equipment

Pack Equipment. Pack equipment varies in different countries, and
sometimes within different areas of that country. However, native
equipment, although crude, can be converted for military purposes. This
is especially true of pack equipment used by inhabitants of countries
where pack transportation is a basic part of the transportation system.
When no other equipment is available, this equipment must be used.
Disadvantages of Using Native Equipment. Native equipment usually
has one or more of the following drawbacks:
Highly skilled specialists are required to use it properly / effectively.
Due to its crude construction it can be injurious to animals.
Without native packers, it cannot be easily adjusted on the trails.
Many military loads are very difficult to pack on this equipment.
The pads, cinchas, and other attachments wear out rapidly under
constant, heavy military usage.
Packing and unpacking can take a long time.
Figure 3 The Parts of the Decker Pack Saddle
Advantages of using Native Equipment.

It is generally available in quantity in or near the zone of operation.
It is relatively cheap.
S This is often counterbalanced by the high percentage of animals
incapacitated by its use.
The equipment is proven to work in the environment.
It is as lightweight as possible to handle a load.
S However, greater pay loads can be carried on modern equipment
with considerably less damage to the animal.
These advantages are the only reasons that might justify the use of native
pack equipment rather than modern pack equipment such as the two pack
saddles in widespread use today: the Decker pack saddle, and the
Sawbuck pack saddle (see next paragraph).
Pack Saddles: Two common types of pack saddles are the Decker, and
the Sawbuck. Figure 3 shows the 12 parts of the Decker pack saddle and
figure 4 is a picture of the Decker saddle on a pack horse, from Packing
In on Mules and Horses, by Brown & Elser, Mountain Press, Missoula,
MT 59806, used by permission.
Figure 4 Pack Horse with Decker Saddle
16
17
Figure 5 illustrates the fifteen main parts of the Sawbuck pack saddle.
Figure 6 is a picture of the Sawbuck on a pack mule (Brown & Elser).
Western Riding Saddle. The Western riding saddle is a comfortable

riding saddle which can be packed on as well. The seventeen parts of the
Western Riding Saddle are shown in figure 7:
Figure 5 Sawbuck Pack Saddle
Figure 7 Western Riding Saddle
Figure 6 Pack Mule with Sawbuck Saddle
Additional Tack.
Horse Halter
S Heavy duty; made of nylon or leather.
Mule Halter
S Extra heavy duty; made of harness leather.
Bridles and Bits: used to steer animals. The three types are:
S Snaffle: A bit for a horse. It consists of two bars jointed at the
center. It is used for green broken animals.
S Shank: A chain or strap that passes under the horses lower jaw
and helps restrain him. It is used for normal broken animals.
S Hackamore: A simple bridle with an adjustable noseband and no
bit. It is used for expertly broken animals
Panniers
S Used for carrying loose cargo.
S There are several types, but the most common is the box pannier.
Tack Used for Military Operations.
Box panniers
S A pair of baskets, canvas, or leather pouches carried on either
side of the pack animal.
S .50 caliber machine gun panniers.
S 81mm and 60mm mortar panniers.
18
19
Sling panniers.
Pack Saddles
S Figure 8 pictures the parts of a pack saddle (from Brown &
Elser, used by permission).
S This photo is from Packin In on Mules and Horses by Smoke
Elser and Bill Brown (Used by permission of Mountain Press
Publishing Company, Missoula, MT)
The names of the pack saddles that can be used include:
S Decker, Sawbuck, McClellan, Phillips, Morgan.
Riding Saddles used:
S Western riding saddle, and
S the McClellan can also be used for riding.
Body brushes.
Halters.
Curry combs.
Main and tail combs.
Hoof picks.
Bridles.
Mantee ropes.
Cleaning of Tack.
Wipe all tack down with a damp rag or sponge, while checking for
serviceability.
S Repeat every time tack is used.
Apply a saddle soap and/or conditioner to all leather components and
work it into leather.
Apply pure neats foot oilnot neats foot compound which rots the
stitchingto a saddle once or twice a year.
S Neats foot oil is a light yellow oil obtained from the feet and
shinbones of cattle; used chiefly to dress leather.
Repairing Tack.
Lacing.
S Use a hole punch and leather string
to face the overlapped broken
ends together.
S Figure 9 shows an improvised
punch.
Sewing.
S Broken leather may be sewn
together by overlapping the broken
ends and stitching them
Figure 9 Improvised Leather Punch
together by hand or with a
sewing machine.
Riveting.
S Broken leather may be repaired by overlapping the ends and
using a hole punch to punch holes to place rivets in for riveting.
Figure 8 Parts of a Pack Saddle
Saddle pads.
Half breeds.
Lash lines.
Canvas tarps.
S These are called mantees or manties
S Explained later in this X-File
20
21
Field Expedient Packing

Procurement of Animals and Tack. The Marine Corps will not be
sending animals and tack with you into a theater of operations. Thus, you
will have to procure the animals from local inhabitants. Try to get the
animals owner to help you as well. He will know more about his
animals; what they can and cannot do, where they can go, and what they
can carry for you. You are going to have to rely on your on initiative and
imagination for tack. Some things you might use are:
sling ropes,
782 gear,
cartridge belts,
canvas,
rope, and
whatever else you can think of to secure loads.
Field Expedient Saddles. The ordinary riding saddle is the basis for one
of the most capable and simple improvised pack saddles available. An
animal, a stock saddle preferably with a large cantle, and about 40 feet of
rope are the only requirements for putting together a good improvised
pack saddle. Heres how. Use the middle of the rope:
put a clove hitch on the horn,
loop rope around the cantle, over the seat, from right to left.
Repeat these steps on the opposite side:
Run rope through cinch rings and back onto itself and tie a clove
hitch onto rope with running end.
This will form a basket hitch.
Improvised Saddles. As shown in figure 10, a very dependable sawbuck
saddle may be improvised using only materials available from personnel
and equipment drops (airborne operations) and a few other readily
available items.
Cotton or two inch nylon webbing
can be used to make most of the
breast strap, britchen, and rigging.
Static line or other similar material
works well for the latigo.
D rings can be used for the cinch
rings, various buckles and quick
releases for the breast collar strap
Use blankets for pads.
Figure 10 Improvised Saddle
A wide piece of canopy used for a
cinch webbing may be laced or sewn together with 550 cord.
Framework of Improvised Saddles. The framework of the saddle is the
22
most difficult to construct. The side bars must apply equal pressure onto
the animals back. The side bars are made of soft wood, such as birch or
pine. The cross bars are made of hardwood, such as oak, hickory, or elm.
A similar saddle may be constructed by substituting horseshoes for the
cross bars to make a Decker. If animal use is anticipated, the buck frames
can be constructed beforehand. The shape and size will depend on the
species of animals used. The average angles of a horse and mules pack
saddles is approximately: 110 for the front of saddle and 120-130 for
the rear of saddle. The bars are made of 2-3 inch softwood. The cross
bucks are made of 2 x 2-inch hardwood.
Tie Your Own Rope Halter. This requires at least 24 feet of inch or
thicker Polyester or nylon yacht braid rope. Hard, thin
rope is more severe than thick, soft rope. Measurements
are for adult horse with a small head. As horse tightens
the knots, the halter will get bigger. Some rope halters
shrink after they get wet. The simple overhand knot is
the foundation of this halter. An overhand knot is the
same knot you tie in a shoelace.
Step 1 (Figure 11):
T Tie two simple knots that are nine (9) inches apart
and are two (2) feet from the center of the
ropethis means that one end of the rope should
be four (4) feet longer when measured from the
center.
Figure 11 Step
One: Rope Halter
Step 2 (Figure 12):
T Lay out the rope on a flat surface and tie as

shown in the figure.
S Weave the other end of the rope through
loops exactly as shown in figure 13. Tighten
and adjust the lead rope
loops by slipping the
rope through the knot.
T Tie the remaining knots in
the sequence shown by
numbers in figure 14.
Figure 13 Knots 3
S The longer end of the
and 4
rope is for the tie loop
at knot number 2.
Figure 12 Step Two:
Rope Halter
23
T Knots 3 and 4 tie into existing knots on the noseband as shown in

figure 14.
Packing the Load

Mantee. Hay or feed cargo should be wrapped in a cargo cover called a
manta or mantee (sometimes written as manty/manties). Protected in this
way, the load is less apt to fall victim to stops along the way or a horses
uncontrollable appetite. The bundles should be in pairs of equal weight.
If you are going more than a few miles, keep the weight down to 75
pounds per side. And, keep the loads balanced to within 3-5 pounds of
each other. Big horses or mules could carry more, but for the average
horse, thats enough.
The following discussion is summarized from chapter four of
Packing In on Mules and Horses, by Smoke Elser and Bill
Brown. (Permission to reproduce granted by Mountain Press,
Missoula, MT 59806).
Figure 14 Step Three: Rope

Halter
You have a choice of knots to complete the

Figure 15 Halter
halter. Trim the ends and seal the cut ends
with a match. Some experimentation may be
necessary to get the halter to fit your horse perfectly. Just change the
distance between knots. Figure 15 outlines the halter on the animals
head.
(Note: These directions are Copyright 1996 to 2000 Connie
Nygard. These instructions may be given away but not sold.)
Items That Can Be Used for Improvised Packing:
Poncho/Wool blanket/Sleeping bags for Mantee (See next Section)
Alice Packs Panniers (See next Section)
LBV Pack saddle
Sling ropes Lash lines
Sleeping cots Sling panniers
Poncho liner Saddle pads
Nylon webbing used to make pack saddles
Travois. A travois is a primitive vehicle for transporting loads. It is a
frame slung between poles and can be pulled by animals such as a horse,
mule or even a dog. An animal is capable of pulling more weight than it
can carry on its back. This device may be constructed to fit almost any
animal. It consists of poles for a platform about 15-20 feet long
depending on the type of animal. The smaller diameter side of the logs
should be lashed to the saddle or pulling harness. You will need a team
of three men to assist travois over obstacles.
24
The object of making up loads and hanging them on a horse or mule is to

attach them to a pack saddle so that they stay on the animal without
hurting them. Regardless of the load, there are only two ways to
effectively do this. You can put everything in a pair of containers and
hang these from the pack saddle or wrap everything in a pair of packages
and tie them to the animal. The containers are known as panniers
(sometimes called panyards) and the packages of gear are known as
mantees (also spelled manties or mantis). Mantee is also the name given
to the material that the packages are wrapped in.
Using Panniers. Sometimes called panyards. These are usually boxes or
sacks with straps or hooks for attaching them to a pack saddle. Typical
panniers will be 22 to 24 inches wide, 19 inches high and 10 to 12 inches
thick. Although panniers can be made out of almost any material, we
recommend using panniers made out of heavy canvas, reinforced with
leather. This time-tested natural material is best for compatibility with
breathing, sweating horseflesh.
Loading panniers properly is a simple matter of keeping hard, lumpy
items away from your animals sides, balancing each pair of panniers
within five or six pounds of each other and buckling them to the D-rings
of the Decker. The balance is between the two sides is the key.
Pannier Limitations. Without very well designed flaps, panniers may
not be weather tight. Their flat tops tend to gather puddles and snow, or
let in rain or spindrift when packed to their limit. Another drawback is
their fixed size. This means that they dictate the size and shape of your
load in the beginning and that they do not shrink as supplies are used
25
upalthough loads must still be balanced when some gear is removed

from one of them.
Using Mantees. Mantee loads are more versatile than pannier loads. The
size and shape of a load can be adjusted to the items packed, and weights
can be adjusted daily to each animals capacity without wasting space.
Mantees are easily loaded by one person and although they must balance,
their shape permits considerable adjustment on the animal without
unloading or rearranging gear. Mantee equipment is simple. You need
only two sheets of canvas and two ropes. Properly folded, a mantee holds
a load together at least as well as a pannier and is often more
weatherproof. When in a bivouac, tarps can be used for anything from
wind screens to saddle covers and ground sheets. Ropes can be used for
corrals, clotheslines, guys and repairs.
Mantee Limitations. If you do not properly tie a mantee, you can wind
up trickling gear along the trail. However, tying the mantee can be easily
learned and once mastered is easier and faster than loading panniers.
Also, manteed gear is relatively inaccessible. To get something from a
mantee, you must unload the horse or mule and take it apart. Good
planning can reduce this problem, but it you have a string of several
horses or mules, you may be wise to pack one with panniers.
Shape the load to the practical limits of the height of the pack animal
and the design of the pack saddle.
S Youll have no problems if you imagine your load to conform to
the size and shape of a hay bale.
S Keep the width to between 16-24 inches, the length to 30-40
inches and thickness (which isnt very critical) from 5-24 inches.
Load the heavy item at a third and a third. This means that the
center of the heavy item (imagine a cannonball) should be one-third
of the way down from the top of the load and should be in the center
third of the load coming out from the pack animal.
S In this position, the weight rides on the tree of the saddle and
directly under the sling rope when you use a basket hitch.
S By focusing the weight at a third and a third you also insure
that two loads of equal weight actually balance.
S For example, even though the weight is the same, if a load with
the heavy item at the bottom is loaded on the left side and a load
of equal weight but with the weight concentrated at the top is
loaded on the right side, the saddle will sag to the left.
Figure 16 shows the basics of tying a bale of hay mantee.
Mantee Materials. Most packers use seven by eight foot rectangles of

12 to 18 ounce untreated canvas for their mantees. Lighter canvas tears
and abrades too easily, while heavier canvas can get too stiff to fold
when wet or frozen. Dont try to use tarps made of synthetics. Plastics
and nylon are too slippery to hold corners and tend to snag on brush.
Mantee ropessoft-twist/spun nylon, or waxed manilashould be from
30 to 35 feet long, back-spliced on one end and eye-spliced on the other.
The advantages to nylon are that it is stronger, lasts longer, is easier on
your hands and does not soak up water that can freeze. Rope stretch just
is not a problem at the tensions youll be using. Theres more give in the
manteed load than in the rope. Also, spun nylon holds knots well,
particularly after it has begun to fray.
How to Load a Mantee. Drop two mantees so they are nearly flat.
Remember, you are going to want a balanced load so you should load
mantees in pairs. Arrange gear along the diagonal of each mantee.
Because the items lying directly on the mantee will be against the animal,
start with something soft like a sleeping bag that can be folded to about
the length and width of the finished load as padding. As you add to each
load, keep these three things in mind:
Keep the loads within five pounds of each other.
S Match each item on one mantee with an item of equal weight on
the other.
26
Figure 16 Mantee of Loads
Hitches and Knots. Just about any knot that will stay tied will do the job
to tie off a mantee, but the ones shown in figures 17 to 20 (from Brown
& Elser, used by permission of Mountain Press) have the advantage of
being extremely easy to untie. Just take the half hitch off the loop and
pull the loose end. (The half hitch is only there to prevent the knot being
accidently untied if the loose end of the mantee rope snags a tree.) Do
not under estimate the importance of easy untying. When you have to
make camp in bad weather, in the dark or if under attack, the last thing
27
you want to do is struggle with knots. With the knot untied, the mantee
practically unties itself. Since there are no pulled-through ropes, you
simply throw off the half hitches, but drop each half hitch off the end it
went on or youll end up with knots in the rope.
Figures 20 and 21 are included to show how the load might be loaded on
the animal(s). However, use these illustrations only to refresh your
memory of formal trainingpreferably at the MWTCin animal
packing.
Do NOT attempt to apply the techniques illustrated in these two
diagrams unless you have received prior pack training.
Figure 17 Tying a Mantee

Knot

Knot

Knot
Figure 20 Finished Mantee

Knot
Suitable, typical military loads may include:

MREs.
Ammunition.
Medical supplies.
Figure 21 Tying a Load with a Box Hitch
Non typical loads may include:

KIAs.
Electronics.
Spare machinery parts.
28
29
Saddling
Placement of the Saddle. After grooming the animal, begin saddling by
placing the saddle and pad in front of the horse where he can see it.
Check the saddle pad for crud: burrs, pine cones, sticks or grass deeds.
Then put the pad on well ahead of the withers and slide it all the way
back on off his rump. This aligns the hair on the back and if you have a
fuzzy pile pad, it also aligns the nap. Now put the pad on ahead of the
withers and slide it into position. On the average horse or mule, the
leading edge of the pad should line up with the front of the foreleg. Two
inches of pad should show ahead of the half-breed when the saddle is in
position. Now swing the saddle on. Nothing should be dangling. The
saddle tree is designed to fit in one particular place. The curve at the
front of the tree fits the hollow just behind the withers. If you put the
saddle ahead of this, it will pinch the shoulders and impede freedom of
movement. If you put it too far back, the tree will gouge the kidney area.
Shake the saddle to seat it in the proper position. Now follow the steps
shown in figures 23 through 27.
Step 1: Place pack saddle far
enough up on withers so that the
front cinch will rest comfortably
just back of the front legs.
Figure 22 Tying a Load with a Diamond Hitch
Step 2: Start with front

cinchtie latigos snug. Do
not take them up too tight;
you will tighten them later
before loading.
30
31
Step 3: Fasten the breast collar by

taking out slack. It shouldnt be
tight. Its only function is to prevent
the saddle from slipping back.
Pack String Movement
Step 4: Then place and adjust

the breeching.
Pack-String Movement Considerations.

When leading the animal, keep the animal on your right.
S Leave enough slack in the lead rope to allow the animal easy
movement.
S The only exception to this rule is when you are on a slope. Then
the packer should normally position himself on the uphill side.
Allow animals to water whenever a stream or lake is passed.
Continually inspect loads and saddles for looseness or slippage.
When the pack string stops for more than one hour, loosen saddles
and remove loads.
When stopped for more than two hours, remove saddle and loads.
When terrain becomes rugged, give slack in lead rope, and allow the
animal to pick its own path.
If the animal loses its footing and begins to roll, move quickly out of
the path of the animal.
Avoid dense brush and wooded areas.
When a pack string is on the move, the non leading packers will
provide security.
Terrain and weather must be considered as well:
Avoid talus and scree slopes.
Avoid fast-moving streams.
Avoid avalanche prone slopes.
Snow depth can stop or slow movement.
S Animals flotation abilities to stay on top of snow pack changes
very little to hard packed dirt, but if the animals are breaking
though snow layers, it will hinder movement.
Maximum depth hard crust when breaking though snow layers is just
above the hock on a horse to avoid injury.
Fresh powder snow maximum depth is at the horses shoulder point.
Specialized shoeing may be required if snow is building up on the
bottom of hooves.
Step 5: Unless you and your

horse have a very good
relationship, when removing his
tail from under the breeching,
stand with your right side
touching his left flank. His
muscles will telegraph any
intention to kick. Also, watch his
ears for a sign. Run your hand
down over his rump and pull out
the tail while talking to
himassuring him that
everything is all right.
Now go back over the entire
saddle, inspecting all connecting
straps to ensure proper fit of the saddle to the animal.
32
Halters and Lead Ropes. Halters and lead

ropes-rather than the reins used for
controlling an animal when on his back-are
used for the pack string. The proper height
for your ropes knot is chin high or slightly
higher (figure 28) when the animal is
standing in a normal, relaxed position. The
proper rope length between the halter and
the knot is the distance from the ground to
33
Figure 28 Lead Rope
the horses or mules chin in the same position. We recommend using a

knot that has the following characteristics:
untied by simply by pulling on the jerk-end of the rope,
even after a large animal has been pulling against it; and
secure enough that an animal tied for hours at a time cannot get
loose.
Load Balancing Sips.
Do not saddle or bridle animals while they are tied.
Be quick to get the second mantee or pannier on the horse or mule.
It doesnt take long for a single mantee or pannier to slip under
an animals belly and get kicked.
Balance each pair of loads AFTER its on the animal.
Rock them vigorously in place, release them and see that the Drings center perfectly on the mules back.
Beware of:
an animal not standing on the level,
an animal resting a hind foot,
a tight cinch that can disguise potential problems.
Whenever possible, lower the light side rather than raising the heavy
side.
It is usually easier.
Snug a load up to within an inch of the D-rings.
Regardless of how high or low you position a load.
Put trail working gear on the outside of loads
so they are easy to get at;
e.g., axes, saws, picks, etc.
Load them at the front of the string,
Tips on Positioning Animals in the String.
The lead animal should be one who has proven to lead easily, and
wont kick at the animal behind him.
Do not put the fastest horse or mule at the head of the string.
Put a steady, slower animal first.
with a walking pace that the entire string will find comfortable,
and
who wont be running up on your saddle horse or trying to pass
him.
Put the quicker, more agile animals toward the end of the string;
to take advantage of their ability to negotiate obstacles and keep
the string closed up.
Put progressively taller animals toward the end of the string,
to make it easier to see how rear loads are riding.
Put a problem animal, like a puller who knows how to break pigtails,
or a round-backed mule whose saddle slips on a narrow trail in the
number two position;
so you wont have to squeeze past the whole string to adjust it.
34
Keep your strings short.

Leading two or three pack animals is not difficult.
Leading six to ten can be a real headache.
Short strings of five or less can move faster than longer strings.
Do not tie the pack string to your saddle horn.
If a pack animal slips off a trail or shies suddenly, he can pull
your saddle horse over, jerk you out of the saddle or trap you in
it.
In difficult terrain, spend more than half of your time looking back at
the string.
Sighting between each animals ears, you should see the D-rings
of the cross bucks of the pack saddles centered on every animals
back.
Handle little problems like unbalanced loads and loose girths quickly
with the pack animal in place in the string.
For major adjustments where you remove and possibly re-mantee
loads, you should take the animal out of the string to fix the load.
Pace of Movement.
Match your pace to the last animal in the string.
For example, once clearing an obstacle, remember to NOT
increase the pace of the string until the last pack animal has
cleared the obstacle.
After traversing short dips in a trail, hold your horse back until the
last pack animal is down on the level.
Your horse and all trailing animals will sit back as they start
down.
River Crossings. These evolutions, particularly in the spring or after a
heavy rainfall, can be treacherous and demand special skills. Even small
streams can cause problems when the water is rolling and muddy. Look
at all crossings carefully. If theres any doubt about a strings ability to
cross easily, send a single rider on a surefooted horse to check depth,
bottom characteristics and current strength. Theres a huge difference in
footing between a sandy or gravelly bottom and a bottom of large mossy
boulders. Similarly, fast water, deeper than a horses belly exerts its force
against a much wider surface than water swirling around a horses thin
legs.
On all crossings of smaller streams,
Angle the string into the current.
This gives the stock better balance against the force the current
and counteracts the tendency to move downstream.
The pack string will drift even when wading in shallow water.
The last mule will always end up further downstream than the
mule ahead.
35
For a difficult crossing, drive loose pack horses. Each horse or mule can
pick its own way, and if one goes down or slips, he wont start a chain
reaction. You may have to use a skylining technique that involves
stretching a rope across a stream or river two or three feet above the
water.
Tie each pack animals lead rope with a bowline to the skylined
rope and pull the animal across with a third rope tied to the bowline.
This keeps each animal pointed upstream.
It provides a fifth point of balance when the water isnt quite
deep enough to make him swim.
When you are in the saddle in deep water, you weight your horse down,
make him work harder, raise his center of gravity and can induce a
tendency to roll over like a canoe. If the water is so deep that you have to
swim your horse across, we recommend the following approach
Tie a knot in his reins short enough so that he cannot get a leg
through them.
Ride into the water until it gets deep and slip out of the saddle on the
downstream side and float, holding on to the saddle horn.
Even if your horse does not have to swim, in this position your body
will act as an outrigger, counteracting his tendency to roll.
Where there is a chance of the horse being washed against a boulder
or snag, your safest position is behind the horse so slide off the
back and hold on to the tail.
Dont worry about getting kicked. Youll be towed along well
behind your swimming horses feet.
Resting the Pack String on Long Slopes. When climbing or descending
a long hill or slope, frequent, short rest stops are better than a few long
stops. When your saddle horse is breathing hard and worked up a good
sweat, its time to stop. The same advice holds true for a long downhill
stretch. Holding back with a 200-pound load is hard work, although
perhaps not as obvious as the uphill effort.
Turning a Pack String on a Narrow Trail. The best way to do this is to
turn each horse or mule in place.
First, tie your saddle horse to the mule who led the string.
Work backward until the last mule becomes the lead mule.
On foot, lead the string back to a place where you can reorient the
string.
On steep side hills, contrary to earlier advice, you may have to work
on the downhill side of your animals to calm the stock.
However, this may put you in some danger of being bumped
down the steep hillside.
36
Bivouac Considerations
Pack-String Bivouac. Bivouac sites are reconnoitered using basic
infantry tactics. However, there are some additional considerations for
site selection due to the animals. These include:
Access to foliage for grazing.
Access to water.
Within a forested area to reduce the noise by the animals.
A place to hitch the animals to prevent straying.
Protection from the elementswind, rain, snow, and heat.
Failure to adequately provide for the animals could result in dehydrated,
malnourished animals.
Organization of a Bivouac Site. This is how you to go about unloading,
unsaddling and organizing a proper bivouac site.
Drop packs in one centralized area.
Remove loads, tarps, and lash lines and store them.
Loosen saddle, cinches, and commence grooming of the animal.
Once this is completed, remove saddle and pads and store them.
Complete the grooming process
This process should take 15-20 minutes to be completed and
allows time for the animal to cool off properly.
Pack Master supervises the watering of the animals at the watering
site by taking one animal at a time to avoid compromising the
bivouac site.
Once each animal has been watered, picket the animals in the rear of
the bivouac site.
Pack master sets pack handlers into position to provide perimeter
security for the bivouac site.
Stage cargo within the perimeter in a centralized location for
accessibility and to ensure concealment from overhead observation.
Picket Lines and Hitch Racks. Allowing your stock to roam freely to
graze is the best method. However, during combat operations where
enemy contact may be imminent, you must confine the animals. These
are methods that can be used to do this effectively.
Single Picket Line: Use this to graze animals during daylight hours
(figure 29).
Minimal equipment required is a halter and lead rope.
Use in an area with good foliage that provides cover and
concealment.
37
Connect the lead rope to the animals

halter and tie the lead rope to a tree.
High Picket Line: Use this to graze the

animals during the hours of darkness
(Figure 30).
More gear intensive.
Use in an area with good foliage
where two trees can be used to secure
the picket line.
Ensure that line will reach each tree to
tie all knots.
Figure 29 Single Picket Line
Pad each tree about seven feet up.
Place a tree saver around each of the
pads on each tree.
A tree saver strap (figure 31) can be
fashioned out of two inch nylon straps
and two D-rings sewn at each end.
Put a swivel in the picket line at each
tree to prevent the rope from twisting or
unraveling.
Adjust the lead rope.
If it is too long, the animal could
become entangled if he rolls over.
Figure 31 Tree Saver Hitch
Hitch Rail. This can be constructed by

tying a solid pole between two good-sized
trees and accomplishing the following:
Two trees about twelve inches in
diameter, a piece of deadfall about six
inches in diameter that will reach both
trees and about four sling ropes are
needed.
Tie a clove hitch around each end of the
deadfall using the middle of the ropes at
the point where the trees meet.
Place the dead fall about five feet up on
the trees and cross-wrap it to the trees.
Secure with a square knot.
Use additional ropes to reinforce.
Trim off any excess that may be
harmful to the animals.
Tie animals off to the side that the trees
are on to prevent stress on ropes.
Figure 30 High Picket Line
38
39
Bull Carts
Bull Carts. In some localities, the bull-drawn cart is the principal means
of transporting bulky articles. When large quantities of supplies have to
be moved, the bull cart may be the best means of transportation
available. It is a suitable means of transportation when trucks or tractors
are impracticable and when the time element does not require supply by
the faster methods. Supplies shipped in bull carts will ordinarily arrive in
good condition when they are properly loaded and protected. Weapons
and munitions so transported should be constantly under special guard.
To the maximum extent possible, do not purchase bulls for Government
ownership. Private ownership is more feasible and less expensive in the
long run. Furthermore, it is unlikely that good animals can be purchased
at a reasonable price. Natives are willing to part with their aged and
disabled animals, but rarely will they sell their good animals.
Whenever possible, you should hire or appoint a chief bull cart driver.
He should be a man in whom the other native drivers have confidence,
and through whom general instructions can be issued to the drivers.
Contracting for Bull Carts. Draw up a contract with the native owner
before the movement begins. Clearly set forth all details of pay, rations
for native drivers and animals, breakage and damage to animals and
cargo. For example, state that deductions from his payment can be made
for losses or damage to supplies en route. Get firm assurance that the
native contractors thoroughly understand the terms of the contract. Make
the contract on the basis of weight or bulk delivered at the destination.
You should also specify that the natives will be paid when the agreed
upon services are completed. Although in some cases, it may be
necessary to advance sums of money for feeding of the animals en route.
Preparing and Packing Bull Carts. Marines charged with supervising
the loading of bull carts should be aware of these essential elements:
The bull cart is a simple outfit, but it requires experienced
bullwackers to guide and man it.
The maximum load for a cart drawn by two bulls is 2000 pounds.
If the going is bad, from 1000 to 1600 pounds is a sufficient load.
A load more than 2000 pounds is dangerous, regardless of road
conditions or number of bulls per cart.
This load is too great a strain on the cart and will cause
breakdowns which are almost impossible to repair on the trail.
It is better to arrive safely in moderately loaded cartswith cargo
and bulls in good conditionthan to gamble on overloads with their
40
resultant delays, damaged cargo, and injured bulls.

Only an expert can tell whether one pair of bulls is stronger or
weaker than another.
When this can be determined, some carts will have to be loaded
lighter than others.
The weights of all military supplies can usually be accurately
determined. For example, ammunition and rations containers are
marked with the gross weight.
The weights of other supplies should be estimated as carefully as
possible.
So that proper loads can be assigned to all carts.
When you will cross small rivers and streams, load the perishable
cargo on the top layer.
In loading carts, the native cart driver should be permitted to distribute

and lash his load as he sees fit, insofar as is practicable. However,
Marines should be alert to the possibility that a driver may claim to have
a sufficiently large load so that he can start off with as light a load as
possible.
The chief packer should ensure that each cart driver is given his
share of the cargo and the assistance needed to load it.
Cart drivers should balance the load with a slight excess weight to
the front to prevent the tongue from riding upwards when underway.
Normally, the cart driver and/or chief packer should test the load by
lifting the tongue before the bulls are hitched to it, to estimate the
strain on the bulls when they are attached to the cart.
Handling Bull Carts. On the first days march, identify the best cart
drivers. This can be done by personal observation and careful spotting of
carts that are slow, and those that cause most delays.
On the morning of the second day, or sooner if it can be done, put the
poor carts at the head of the train, leaving the best carts in the rear. This
will assist in keeping the column closed up, thus making supervision,
protection, and control of the train much less difficult. When the train
consists of so many carts that maintaining a mental list of the drivers is
difficult, number the carts with painted numerals before departure, and
create a written list of each cart by number, driver, and owner.
When breakdowns occur, either: secure the cart in the immediate vicinity
of the breakdown and wait for replacement; or distribute the load of the
broken cart among the remaining carts. If neither of these opportunities is
possible, discard the cargo that is least mission essential or has less dollar
value. When one is present, the chief packer or bull cart driver should
41
rearrange the loadunder the supervision of the escort commander.

Listing of X-Files
Prevent delays on the trail by having noncommissioned officers or

officers mounted and moving ahead and around the pack train.
This helps progress on the trail and provides situation awareness.
Provide extra bulls for the train, especially in hot weather.
In addition to replacing casualties among the bulls, this will
make it easier to get carts out of difficulties and advance carts up
steep grades.
Avoid any interference on the part of Marines with the function of
the native driversother than that which is absolutely necessary to
mission accomplishment.
Protect high value cargoes, especially rations and ammunition, with
protective covering such as ponchos or canvas.
See discussion on mantees later in this X-File.
In traveling through barren country, it may be necessary to carry food for

the animals. If this is the case, you must lessen the load of supplies in
proportion to the food needed for the animals.
During hot weather, bulls cannot be worked in the heat of the day.
A good schedule to follow at such times is to start at 0300 and travel
to 0900.
Give the bulls rest until 1500 and then continue travel until 2100.
Using this system, the carts can cover from 15 to 20 miles per day,
depending upon road conditions.
En route and in camp, ensure that security forces keep careful watch
on the cargo to prevent any breaking into containers and consuming
unauthorized rations.
In camp, arrange the carts in a way that both facilitates security and
makes it easy to load the train for the next days departure.
To the maximum extent possibleconsistent with the missionallow

the native chief of the bull cart train to set his own schedule.
This can speed up the rate of movement, and
make schedule planning factors more accurate.
As soon as the route along which the supplies have to be moved is
considered safe, it is wise to allow the train to proceed without an escort.
The natives, if held strictly responsible for losses, will probably not
proceed if there is danger that the train will be attacked. Also, they could
be more wary of danger areas than Marines and perhaps less susceptible
to attack from other natives.
42
Status of all X-Files

Title
X-File
Publication Status
Enhanced Human Physical

Performance
3-02.1
November 2000
Combined Arms
3-1.1
Published
Combat Squad Leader
3-11.21
Published
Designated Marksman
3-15.31
Published
Directed Energy Weapons
3-15.81
March 2001
Urban Attacks
3-35.31
Published
HA/DR Assessment
3-33.61
Published
HA/DR Operations
3-33.62
Published
Small Unit Support Vehicle
3-35.11
October 2000
Cliff Assault
3-35.21
Published
Water Procurement
3-35.22
October 2000
3-35.23
Published
Urban Defense
3-35.32
Published
Urban Patrolling
3-35.33
Published
Security Operations
3-35.34
Published
Intra Squad Radio
3-35.35
Published
Urban Vertical Mobility
3-35.36
October 2000
Urban Sustainability
4-11.71
Published
Tactical Instrumentation
6-2.1
Published
Digitization of the Battlespace
6-2.2
December 2000
Project Metropolis Interim Report
3-35.37
Published
Project Metropolis Final Report
3-35.xx
March 2001
43

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Marine Corps Warfighting Laboratory

This X-File is based on training and experiments

Throughout this X-File, we use masculine nouns and pronouns for

U.S. Marine Corps

UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS

All of the X-Files can be viewed and downloaded in .PDF format

2. SCOPE. This X-File provides general information on the military use

USER SUGGESTION FORM

Article/Paragraph No. _____

Line No. _____ Figure/Table No. _____

Introduction to Animal Packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Nomenclature and Conformation of Horses and Mules

Nomenclature of Tack and Pack Equipment . . . . .

Field Expedient Packing . . . . . . . . . . .

Figure 12 Step Two: Rope Halter . . . . . . . . . . . .

Packing the Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pack String Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Single Picket Line . . . .

This page intentionally blank.

Introduction to Animal Packing

Factors that Dictate Modes of Transportation. In many countries

problem. Crude or improvised pack equipment, unconditioned animals,

A male mule is called a John.

Local Native Packers. Native packers can be used to a good advantage.

Nomenclature and Conformation of Horses and Mules

Routine Stable Procedures:

Figure 1 Horse/Mule Nomenclature

Conformation. Conformation is a term used to describe what a good

Bad Conformation is marked by:

Basic First Aid for Horses and Mules

both of these stimulate tissue growth. Neither should ever be

General Health Problems. Animals need general preventive care at

Any serious wounds, e.g., broken leg, serious internal injuries,

Treating an Animals Wound. Here are some ways to treat a wound.

Laminitis published by Yehuda Avisar, DVM, in ANVIL Magazine.

Figure 2 Sketch of How

The treatment for chronic laminitis is:

Thrown Shoes. The most common horse or mule problem is thrown

Nomenclature of Tack and Pack Equipment

Figure 3 The Parts of the Decker Pack Saddle

Advantages of using Native Equipment.

Western Riding Saddle. The Western riding saddle is a comfortable

Figure 5 Sawbuck Pack Saddle

Figure 7 Western Riding Saddle

Figure 6 Pack Mule with Sawbuck Saddle

Figure 8 Parts of a Pack Saddle

Field Expedient Packing

Step 2 (Figure 12):

T Lay out the rope on a flat surface and tie as

T Knots 3 and 4 tie into existing knots on the noseband as shown in

Packing the Load

Figure 14 Step Three: Rope

You have a choice of knots to complete the

The object of making up loads and hanging them on a horse or mule is to

upalthough loads must still be balanced when some gear is removed

Mantee Materials. Most packers use seven by eight foot rectangles of

Figure 16 Mantee of Loads

Figure 17 Tying a Mantee

Figure 18 Tying a Mantee

Figure 19 Tying a Mantee

Figure 20 Finished Mantee

Suitable, typical military loads may include:

Line No. _ Figure/Table No. _