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Process Design in
Impression Die Forging
T. Altan and M. Shirgaokar, ERC/NSM, NSM Laboratory, Ohio State University
Functional requirements
Modify die/part
design
No
FEM program
for metal
forming
Database with
die/material
properties
Yes
Analyze die design for stresses,
shrinkage, and process conditions
Install dies,
select machine parameters,
start forming process
Fig. 1
A flow chart illustrating forging process design. CNC, computer numerical control; FEM, finite-element method
Upper die
Flash land
Flash
Lower die
External and internal draft angles
Flash
Gutter
Parting
line
Fig. 2
Rib
Web
Fillet
Land
Corner
Trim line
Data on
billet material
Ram velocity
Strain rate
Billet/forging
geometry
volume, thickness
Contact time
under pressure
Die temperature,
cooling
Temperature
distribution in
forging
Metal flow
Forging load
Forging energy
Variables in forging
Approximate range of
forging temperature, C (F)
400500 (750930)
250350 (480660)
600900 (11101650)
8501150 (15602100)
11001250 (20102280)
11001250 (20102280)
11001250 (20102280)
10001150 (18302100)
11001250 (20102280)
700950 (12901740)
10501180 (19202160)
11801250 (21602280)
9501150 (17402100)
10501350 (19202460)
11501350 (21002460)
10501200 (19202190)
12001300 (21902370)
Function
conditions and
coefficient
Interface,
lubrication
Fig. 3
Flow stress/
forgeability
(a)
Fig. 4
(b)
Comparison of typical design limits for ribweb-type structural forgings of (a) aluminum alloys and (b) nickel-base superalloys. All dimensions in
millimeters. Source: Ref 2
Fig. 5
t= fs=
m
s
3
(Eq 1)
175
0.2
0.4
1.18
150
0.8
1.0
137.5
Screw press
Vpi = 0.96 ft/s,
or 0.29 m/s
100
75
110
82.5
Drop hammer
Vpi = 21.1 ft/s,
or 6.4 m/s
50
25
0
192.5
165
1.58
125
0.6
Hydraulic press
Vpi = 0.33 ft/s,
or 0.1 m/s
10
U.S. tons
H0 H, in.
contact each other at the end of each working stroke of the forging press. This allows
very close control of the thickness tolerances, even if the flow stress and friction
conditions change during a production run.
Ram guiding, stiffness of the press frame,
and drive also contribute to tolerances that
can be achieved in forging.
55
27.5
15
20
25
Displacement, Ho H, mm
Fig. 6
Sub-group 101
102
Unilateral
subsidiary
elements
No
subsidiary
elements
l=w=h
Shape class 1,
compact shape
103
Rotational
subsidiary
elements
104
Unilateral
subsidiary
elements
Spherical and
cubical
Sub-group
Shape class 2,
No subsidiary
disc shape
Shape
elements
With
hub
group
21
211
l=w>h
Parts with
circular, square,
and similar
contours;
22
cross piece with
Disc
short arms;
shape
upset heads;
with
and
bilateral
long shapes
element
(flanges, valves,
etc.)
Shape class 3,
oblong shape
w
l
l>w>
With
rim
With rim
and hub
212
213
214
215
222
223
224
225
Sub-group
Shape
group
31
No
subsidiary
elements
311
Principal
shape
Parts with
element
pronounced
with
longit. axis
straight
length groups:
axis
1. Short parts 32
321
l < 3w
Longit.
axis of
2. Avg. length
princial
l = 3w to 8w
shape
element
3. Long parts
curved in
one plane
l = 8w to 16w
33
331
4. Very long parts
Long. axis
l > 16w
of princial
shape
Length group
element
numbers added
curved in
behind bar,
several
e.g., 334/2
planes
Fig. 7
With hub
and hole
Disc
shape
with
unilateral
element
Subsidiary
elements
parallel
to axis of
principal
shape
312
313
With two
With
or more
subsidiary
subsidiary
elements
elements
asymmetrical
of similar
to axis of
size
principal shape
314
315
322
323
324
325
332
333
334
335
With
open or
closed
fork
element
determine the flash dimensions. These dimensions are used to obtain little flash allowance and
to minimize the forging energy.
For round forgings, Eq 2 and 3 predict flash
dimensions that are a good compromise between
flash allowance and forging load (Ref 4):
1
t = [0.017 D] +
D+5
(Eq 2)
2 D
D1 +
2
+
(
)
H
R
D
30
w
=
t
(Eq 3)
One of the most important aspects of closeddie forging is the design of preforms or blockers
to achieve adequate metal distribution. The determination of the preform configuration is an
especially difficult task and an art by itself, requiring skills achieved only by years of extensive experience.
In preforming, round or round-cornered
square stock with constant cross section is deformed in such a manner that a desired volume
w/t ratio
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
0
in.
mm.
10.0
9.0
Flash thickness, t
0.31
8.0
7.0
0.24
2.0
1.0
4.0
3.0
0.08
0
0.1
0.5
1
2.2
10
22
50
110
100
220
kg
lb
Forging weight, Q
Fig. 8
6.0
5.0
0.16
In attempting to develop quantitative or objective engineering guidelines for preform design, a thorough understanding of metal flow is
essential. Metal flow during forging occurs in
two basic modes:
1.0
0.39
Variation in flash thickness (t) and width-thickness (w/t) ratio for carbon and alloy steel forgings of different
weights. Source: Ref 3
Fig. 9
Planes and direction of metal flow during forging of two simple shapes (left) and a complex shape (right). (a)
Planes of flow. (b) Finish-forged shape. (c) Directions of flow
Guidelines for Aluminum Parts. For ribweb-type aluminum alloy parts, the recommended preform dimensions fall into the ranges
given in Table 3. The preform is usually designed to have the same draft angles as the finish
part. However, when very deep cavities are present in the finisher die, larger draft angles are provided in the preform. A greater web thickness in
the preform is selected when the web area is relatively small and when the height of the adjoining ribs is very large. A comparison of the preform and the finished part is illustrated in Fig.
15.
Guidelines for Titanium Alloys. The guidelines for designing titanium alloy preforms (Table
4) are similar to those for aluminum alloys.
Preforming, blocking, and finish-forging operations for an example steel forging. Source:
Ref 5
Preform design guidelines differ from material to material. They are basically categorized
into the following three categories:
Upset stock
None
Preform
Trimmed
b
b
h
Finish
h=b
Fig. 12
E
The blocker and finish cross sections for various shapes. P, preform; E, end. Source: Ref 6
Flash
Blend-in radii (RF)
Fillet radii (RFF)
Fig. 11
Load-Stroke Curves. A typical load-versus-stroke curve for a closed-die forging operation indicates that loads are relatively low until
the more difficult details are partly filled and the
metal reaches the flash opening (Fig. 16, 17).
This stage corresponds to point P1 in Fig. 17.
For successful forging, two conditions must be
fulfilled when this point is reached (Ref 8):
Preform dimensions
No flash
RP @ RF + C or
HR/6 < RP < HR/4
RPF @ 1.2 RFF + 3.18 mm
(0.125 in.)
When HR is less than 10 mm
(0.4 in.), then C = 2
mm (0.08 in.)
When HR is between 10 mm and
25 mm (1. in.), then C = 3 mm
(0.12 in.)
When HR is between 25 mm and
50 mm (2 in.), then C = 4 mm
(0.16 in.)
When HR is greater than 50 mm,
then C = 5 mm (0.2 in.)
RP, blend-in radii of perform; RPF, fillet radii of preform; HR, cavity
depth; C, adjacent cavity depth. Source: Ref 7
h = 3b
Fig. 13
h = 2b
The extrusion of metal through the narrowing gap of the flash opening must be more
difficult than the filling of the more intricate
detail in the die.
As the dies continue to close, the load increases sharply to point P2 (Fig. 17), the stage at
which the cavity is filled completely. Ideally, at
this point, the cavity pressure provided by the
flash geometry is just sufficient to fill the entire
cavity, and the forging is completed. However,
wF
RPF
DF
RFF
RP
Table 3
alloys
Table 4
alloys
tP @ (11.5) * tF
RPF @ (1.22) * RFF
RPC @ (1.22) * RFC
aP @ aF + (25)
wP @ wF -0.8 mm (1/32 in.)
tP @ (152.2) * tF
RPF @ (33) * RFF
RPC @ (2) * RFC
aP @ aF + (35)
wP @ wF -1.6 to 3.2 mm
(1/16 to 1/8 in.)
wF
tP, thickness of preform; RPF, fillet radii of preform; RPC, corner radii of
preform; aP, draft angle of preform; wP, width of preform rib. Source Ref
7
RFC
Forging stroke
Fig. 17
180
228.0
160
140
120
170.1
114.0
100
80
60
57.0
40
28.5
20
0
RPC
wP
P1
Forging
complete
tP, web thickness of preform; RPF, fillet radii of preform; RPC, corner
radii of preform; aP, draft angle of preform; wP, width of preform rib.
Source: Ref 7
Dies contact
workpiece
kg/mm2
Ref 7
Flash begins
to form
(a) Preform. (b) Finish shape. RPF, fillet radius of preform; RP, blend-in radius of preform; DF, height of forging; RFF, finish-forging radius; wF, width of forging; HR, depth of cavity; RF blend-in radii of forging. Source:
P2
Forging energy
(b)
Fig. 14
RF
HR
(a)
P3
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 mm
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 in.
Average height of forging Ha
RPF
Fig. 18
Preform
Finish
RPC
tP
tF
Fig. 15
Fig. 16
Simplified Slab Method to Estimate Forging Load. The slab method has been used successfully for predicting forging loads and
stresses with acceptable engineering accuracy.
For this purpose, a forging is divided into various plane-strain and axisymmetric sections, and
then, simplified equations are used to predict the
average pressure and load for each section before all these load components are added together. This method, used in the practical prediction of forging loads, is shown in Fig. 19 (Ref
8). In this analysis, it is assumed that the cavity
has a rectangular shape and the flash geometry
illustrated in Fig. 19. In actual practice, where
(Eq 4)
Because of rapid chilling and a high deformation rate, the flow stress in the flash region is
considered to be different from the flow stress in
the cavity. Hence, two different flow stresses are
Flow
stress
e
Die
motion
Metal flow
w
H
t
m R R - r
+ 1 + 2
3 t
2
m s c r s ea
+ 2 pr 2
+
2
3 3 H
(Eq 5)
2
w
s0 f 1 + m
t
3
Ptp =
mw
L m
2
ws 0 f 2 +
+ s ep +
sc L
2
t
H
3
3
(Eq 6)
(Eq 7)
(b)
(a)
E
C
A B
F
G
(c)
Fig. 20
(d)
Investigation of defects in ring gear forging using finite-element modeling. (a) Busting dies. (b) Blocker dies.
(c) Finisher dies. (d) Deformed mesh showing lap formation. Source: Ref 10
A
C
Fig. 21
Modified blocker design (broken lines) positioned in the open finisher dies (solid lines).
Source: Ref 10
(a)
life in the hot extrusion of the automotive component shown in Fig. 23 (Ref 11). The resulting
stresses in this process are a combination of the
purely mechanical stresses due to forging and the
thermomechanical stresses as a result of thermal
cycling of the punch surface due to the alternating
hot forging and waiting periods. The stresses due
to thermal cycling were found to comprise approximately 75% of the total stress field. This cycling causes tool damage known as heat checking.
Originally, the punch had to be changed approximately every 500 cycles, due to cracking as a result of thermal cycling (Fig. 24). It is a commonly
known fact that geometry changes are not the best
way to reduce the stress level with regard to thermal stresses. From this study, it was determined
that increased tool life could be achieved by modifying the hot forging process parameters, such as
billet temperature and the forging rate.
Finite-element modeling simulation and experimental work were used to conduct a parametric study to determine the optimal process
parameters to achieve higher life expectancy of
the tools. This combined numerical and experimental approach can be summarized as:
(b)
(c)
Fig. 22
10
Fig. 23
Fig. 24
Fig. 25
Fig. 26
Forging sequence of the aircraft wheel. Courtesy of Weber Metals Inc. Source: Ref 13
The current chapter is devoted to impressiondie forging, which is essentially a hot forging
process with flash, where the workpiece material is at a higher temperature than the dies. The
dies are designed to provide for flash that ensures proper filling of the die cavity and the flow
of excess material outside the die cavity.
However, it is appropriate to discuss, very
briefly, cold and warm forging processes that
use die designs without flash.
Cold forging is a process wherein metal at
room temperature is forced to flow plastically
under compressive force into a variety of shapes.
These shapes are usually axisymmetric, with relatively small, nonsymmetrical features, and they
generally do not generate flash. The terms cold
forging and cold extrusion are often used interchangeably and refer to well-known forming operations, such as extrusion, upsetting or heading,
coining, ironing, and swaging. Through a combination of these techniques (Fig. 29), a very
large number of parts can be produced.
Due to the limitations with regard to load on
the tooling and the formability of certain materials at room temperature, the extrusion process is
also carried out above room temperatures and
below hot forging temperatures. This process is
classified as warm extrusion. For low-carbon
steel, warm extrusion is carried out between 400
and 800 C (750 and 1475 F. The tooling used
for this process is similar to that used for cold
extrusion. Because the flow stress of steel is
lower at higher temperatures, larger reduction in
area is achievable, allowing a subsequent reduction in the number of stages required to manufacture a part. There is also a possibility for
using combined cold and warm extrusion.
Cold and warm forging are extremely important
and economical processes, especially for producing round or nearly round parts in large quantities.
Some of the advantages of these processes are:
Fig. 27
Sections taken along the fitting to check for die filling at the blocker stage. Source: Ref 13
was achieved, and it was this stage of the simulation, that was used to determine the stresses in
the dies. In order to reduce computational time,
the dies were kept rigid throughout the simulation. At the last step, they were changed to elastic, and the stresses from the workpiece were interpolated onto the dies. The results obtained
from the die stress analysis simulations were the
effective stress, the maximum principal stress,
and the temperature distribution. Using these results, an effective die design was established.
The most common extrusion processes encountered are forward rod and backward cup extrusion
(Fig. 29). Several combinations of extrusion
processes are possible, and other operations, such
as upsetting, heading, coining, embossing, and
ironing, can be used in conjunction with extrusion.
Figure 30 gives an overview of the production sequence for cold forging of a gear blank. The operations consist of combined forward rod and backward cup extrusion followed by the simultaneous
upsetting and coining of the shoulder.
The main advantages of the cold extrusion
process are the large material savings compared
with processes such as machining and other metal-
Die
cavity
Flash
Flash
cavity
Bottom die
Fig. 28
Section A-A of the fitting seen in Fig. 27 after the first blocker operation. Source: Ref 13
Fig. 29
Example of a component produced using forward rod and backward extrusion. Source: Ref 15
Fig. 29
Common cold extrusion processes. (a) Forward rod extrusion. (b) Forward cup extrusion. (c) Backward cup
extrusion. (d) Combined forward rod and backward cup extrusion. (e) Combined forward and backward cup
extrusion. P, punch; W, workpiece; C, container; E, ejector. Source: Ref 14
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Practices, Reinhold, 1968.
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in Closed-Die Forging, Ph.D. dissertation,
Technical University of Hannover, 1969
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Hanser Verlag, 1971 (in German)
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Forming Fundamentals and Applications,
American Society for Metals, 1983
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775779 (in German)
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