Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
.I.
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
69
72
137
74
7. Thermoforming Equipment
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Single-station thermoformer
80
Shuttle thermoformer
82
Rotary thennoforming equipment
82
Continuous in-line thermoformers
85
In-line thermoformer
97
Linear thermoformers
100
Pneumatic thermofpnners
102
Hydraulically operated thermoformers
Mechanically operated thermoformers
S k i packaging equipment
104
Blister packaging equipment
104
104
Snap packaging
Vacuum packaging
104
Packaging machinery
105
Control mechanisms
109
b ~f plastics
&tics
Regrind utili&on
133
157
155
Welding
186
Solvent bonding
186
Adhesive bonding
187
Riaigidizing thennoformed p&s
, 187
Bonding nwltipk parts
187
Foaming-in-place
1W
Fikr-raiq.h~eQstruct%ralslyipoxts
188
Finishing and decorating thennoformed parts
tr
Foreword rui
' I 8 &
1W
194
i P
Appendices
A E~emplarypropertis of thennoforming materials
205
B E ~ e m p wpraperties of film materials
209
C Trade nmes and materials manufacturers
D Conversion factors
225
201
--
.I:,
Foreword
ROBERT K.JORDAN
Director-Metalliding Institute
Director-Engineering Research Institute
Scientist in Residence
Gannon University
University Square
Erie, PA 16541
Introduction
?$
I!
represent only
part of all the
possibilities for
plastics items, but the total market is so large
T
that if only a fraction of it
to thermoforming, sizeable business
'
The formed sheet must be cooled to become rigid again, and, finally
excess material around the circumference must be trimmed off.
cooling and heating processes represent the most time-consuming ste
and must, therefore, be painstakingly arranged.
1200F Surface
y-
sheet, reflection losses, which normally account to no more than 4%, can
be ignored. Energy losses due to transparency in certain wavelength
regions, however, can be significant for v e v h i n films. From transparency in the visible region one cannot conclude whether the sheet will be
opaque or transparent at the frequency of maximum heat radiation. As
seen in the graphs of Figure 2.2 (pages 8 and 9), transparency increases
markedly as the thickness of the film decreases. Sheets of 118" thickness
will absorb practically all infrared radiation. On the other hand, thin films
of less than 5 mils will be inefficiently heated when irradiated in certain
infrared regions, e.g., fluorocarbon polymer films are transparent up to
7.5 microns. This is similarly true for thin polyolefin (polyethylene,
polypropylene) films. In these cases radiation passes through the film
and heats the surrounding chamber, which then indirectly heats the film
at a higher wavelength. But the rise in heater temperatureresults in higher
energy losses. On the other hand, a radiation in a less suitable frequency
be applied to advantage by letting the energy penetrate deeper
into the sheet material, thus avoiding scorching the sheet surface and
making it possible to irradiate at a higher wattage.
The relationship between heater surface temperature and heat energy
transfer can be estimated using the Stefan-Boltzmann relationship:
in OR (Rankine) equal to O
WAVELENGTH, MICRONS
higher wavelength range, 4 to 7 microns. This is important when herrnoforming thin sheets or films because each' @tStic materid &?sorbs
infrared radiation in distinct regions. Only absorbed radiation is utilized
for heating the plastic directly. The remainder will just b a t Up the even
enclosure and thus i d i m t v heat the sheet or will be lost to the outside.
The *onion of radiation that is reflected by the sheet is insignificant
and nearly independent of the wavelength and namrally independent of
sheet thickness. Unless one wishes to themofom a mplasti~
L
1-
+ 459.6
$1& emitted energy E when heater surface ternor 15WF (1960R)and the plastic surface
; I
sq ft - hr
sq in.
da
8
.'J"
12
Physics of &on
:
*
?
t
I
heating
~~
- -
----
--------
.!-
mw
.;,;j
RADI'ANT
HEATER
\
0
- ,
-
r~~~
-.
P""-=--
~ a ~ a d ii.e.,
n using
~ , wire mesh screens of various densities and
h-ported
on metal grates under or above the heaters), one can
&t&lish the most effective temperature profile. For long pro,runs it becomes more practical to obtain such zoning by usWad of screens-individually controlled heater banks, which
bpms-%me should keep in mind that the leading edge of the
R which leaves the oven first, loses more heat than the trailing
The heater edge with baffles to reduce heat losses (Figure 2.8).
properties of plastics
the oven for irregular time intervals until the forming equipment or
manpower is ready for continued processing. At higher and steadier
production rates, the oven temperature will probably be set higher, but
the sheets must be withdrawn of the oven according to an established
time schedule to prevent tearing or thermal degradation.
200 feet per minute are crucial to obtain temperature uniformity and
adequate heat transfer. Good thermal insulation of the oven walls and the
strategical position and size of entrance and exit doors increase energy
efficiency. A typical forced-circulation air oven is shown in Figure 2.10
and a practical means for hanging sheets on trolley tracks in Figure 2.11.
When sheets are heated horizontally to better utilize the heater space,
they are supported in trays. These should lined to protect the surface
of the plastic. A polytetrafluorocarbon-coatedglass fiber cloth lining is
ideal.
SECTlm THROUGH OVEN
&idadm
ahx:
.-
-1L
!I
0fR
o b and Haas
co,,
2 . u
SINGLE SIDED
43
Fig@@? 2.4). The flat plate heaters have an integral insulator at their
back side and should be arranged to occupy the whole surface of the
heats assembly. They are the ones that are most interchangeable
radiant panel heaters. The concave heaters radiate also to the
ersed in front of a
surface. They require a greater distance to the plastic sheet.
B e c m the heating wires are tightly imbedded in a highly emitting
white ceramic body, they are protected from oxidation and can
deliverup to 40 W/sq in. at surface temperatures up to 1400F.Their
heat-up time is approximately 5 minutes. Intricate heating patterns
can be established either by means of individual heater embedded
mputer program utilizing a scanning infrawith a coating providing a color indication
per heating operation are also available.
heaters (usually called calrod heaters)
ater construction due to their ruggedness,
life. They consist of nichrome wires or
into flat strips. Magnesium oxide, which is
r, serves as an electrical insulator to prevent
1sheath. Heat-up time is very long, and
heat output is only moderate, not easily controllable, and deteriorating with time. Their low efficiency is mainly based on the required
extended distances between heaters and the plastic.
minutes is required.
M i s c o n c e ~ t i dm
a ~ persist regarding an alleged drop in energy efficiency with radiant heat elements due to the fact that often heater times
=st be increasml with passage of time. The emitted energy of quam
kting denlen@ iWMins fairly constant. If less than the original heat
the plastfo ahat, it is usually due to the reflectors having accu*.ted
as ~rodlt~tion
progresses. On the other hand, metal-sheathed
and plate hea@t'$ anit less heat as the nichrome wire gradually
Bxidizes- The -, now with a smaller diameter, will conduct less
'wtricit~, a d , -m,
will uwand deliver lower wattage. A variable
compensate for this
life span, and the larger panel or plate heaters have the longest. The life
expectancy will drop somewhat with increasing temperature, but frequent and deep temperature cycling may also affect heater life, mainly
on account of movements caused by differences in the thermal expansion
of resistance elements, ceramic insulation, and metal sheathing. There-
.,
t
$;
F'4
i J ' ) li
27
areas where they escape can sometimes be spotted from the rising plume.
~tis advisabb to install at those points a very low-powered exhaust hood
s u f f c i F f@ s k b off the fumes without causing drafts.
~ombnded
sheet temperatures and the maximum
full-time utilization o
ers are provided with
for optimal heat utili
hanged-the obtained part
other detailed areas that the
30
Enav
Heater controls
'
&?
+
t e
.,.I&
,'
In general one can state that, in resistance heating, all electrical energy
is converted into heat. The efficiency with which this energy is conveyed
to the plastic to be heated is mitigated by the amount of heat conducted
or radiated to the machinery and mainly by convection of heated air.
Unfortunately, these losses can range from 50 to 90%. The claims of
some heater manufacturers showing that their elements provide 96%
energy efficiency do not make allowance for such cited losses. Losses
occur mainly in the overall equipment and not in the heater elements.
The abounding information published in regard to energy e
energy cost, applicability, and cost of heaters for thermoforming
considered biased or pertain to special circumstances only. The
many thermoformer producers offer a choice of heaters confi
present, still no clear winner has emerged.
When thermoforming takes place on automatic machine
production scheduling requires a certain output, cycle times
constant. In such cases heater output, which can compensate for ch
in line voltage, sheet gauge variations or fluctuating heat losses, m
established. Two basic electrical controls have found applications.
In a less sophisticated open loop control mode the
heaters can be adjusted by an operator via percentage tim
maintain a constant output. For a closed loop control
necessary that the power-switching device either obtains
the heat-sensing thermocouple in the heater so that its tem
constant or, preferably, that an infrared sensor scans the
make sure it remains constant at the desired level wit
of an operator. In both cases simple mechanical contactors, merc
switches, solid-state relays, or silicone-controlled rectifiers are be
used as switching devices. Applicable controllers would be temperat
controllers and programmable controllers.
With the increasing spread of computer technology the possibil
for using infrared sensors for measuring film and she
have been expanded. The operator can not only display
tures on a computer screen and compare those valu
can also, by means of an operator interface, program tern
or set up the heating process. Apparatus manufacturers are respondi
to these needs by supplying heater banks with individual heat control a
monitoring indicators for each element, thus making it also easy to sp
burned-out heating elements.
For example, one thermoformer is keeping erocess d
by applying computer-integratedmanufacturing (CIM) methods. A
grammable controller (PLC 5 from Allen-Bradley Co.) is logging
data points each cycle. Most of them relate to temperatures, both for
heaters and the molds. Other data keep track of press moveme
in
kes and constancy of vacuum, always comparing act
1
!I ,I,?
Thermoforming Molds
Da
matter of fact, the low cost of molds and the short lead time
required for tooling up have led to this forming method being favored
over others in many applications.
.
Generally, only one side of a mold is required, which-depending on
+&& s ape of the formed part, thk desired appearance, and the process
wsed-may be a male, or positive mold for drape forming or a female,
. or negative mold for cavity forming. The determination of which one to
choose becomes more critical the deeper the part to be formed is. When
forming shallow, low-profile parts, the reduction in wall thickness is
minimal; therefore, the selection will depend more on appearance. If fine
.
mold details must be duplicated, then the side of the plastic sheet which
touches the mold surface should ultimately be the one that becomes
visible. Sometimes, a more rounded or smoother appearance is desirable,
Pr the sheet material may already have a pleasant textured surface that
Wuld be affected when it touches the mold. In these instances the side
.that does not touch the mold should eventually be the one that becomes
visible in the formed part. It must be realized that a closer dimensional
i
control will be obtainable at the mold surface side.
Ir
35
Common
Draw Ratio
Draw Ratio
Draw Ratio
Cube
Hemisphere
Cone (60")
Final material
AxB-CXD
A x B - C X D+E(2C+20)
43
~nthe c s e of a female mold the opposite occurs. The plastic sheet will
apart until it contacts all four vertical mold surfaces (Figure
be
3.71, resut~ngin extremely thin-walled comers. Again, the rounding of
edges will h e b to retain sheet thickness at tolerable values.
- in Figufe: 33, several other means for eliminating webbing are illus-
1
(
.;
1.
-
-.-8
--.-a
..
.,
-.-----.,,".'b
",""- -. --- ----'-- --- rexcessive flashing.
In thermoforming, however, circumstances are more complex. The
finite-element method, when applied to injection molded parts, allows a
modest grid density to be selected and still receive satisfactory information. The finite elements usually consist of triangular shapes to allow
better representation of curved edges. In deep thermoforming the most
desirable information must be searched in a highly stretched area that.
occupies only a small speck on the original sheet. Therefore, the analysis
must be conducted in several steps so that the system is not overloaded
with an unmanageable number of elements nor misses out on important
detailed information.
Condensing the model by neglecting the sheet thickness (the third
dimension) and by assuming membrane formulations is seen as an
acceptable simplification, ?cause bending forces are only encountered
at the sheet edges.
The viscoelastic behavior of all the thermoplastics used for thermoforming presents the greatest stumbling bl&k to obtaining an allencompassing solution. This process is carried out at elevated temperatures (250 to 750F) where the modulus of elasticity is approximate
10to 150psi, reflecting also the applied forming pressure and at
rates around 1 second. The forming predominately takes pl
biaxial (not necessarily equibiaxial) extension mode. Unfortunate1
physical data that could be inserted in such mathematical equa
have not been gathered on those polymers and are difficult to o
experimentally.
I
rn
49
8 will have to be a
symmel
imbalan
irregular ~4
transverce
of mold
can occur i-i
draft sides i
ing lugs i~
Molds
u
ais g e ~ s l hy
id omrt as possible.
Radii at ed
They not Ohr
improve the ?j
there can be mr'
formation on
of the part. R ~ $ I
and are mere 13
t
b pa% from t
b mold but also
mf chill m d a
325).Shaq c m w cao lead to web
so astry the
sf brittle failure
t
a
9 A
.
I J
Surface appeamcaa-
. ;,
I
F l p f16. Undi.drmt forming can prevent s t a c k . problems (courtesy of Marbach
mi L ~ ~ ~ - I Q G . , M
4516).
~ ~
I?-
appearance of large
3.16 %'bw
-FtB t%@ Lblld do& not odymaintab the distance
lids b~&*-s
g d f i t and tightness despite minor
l!Wwpm container and lid
GROOVE
~~
Figure 3.17. Mold details for raised characters. Small circles show air vent holes.
Aluminum moll
either prepared bj
t % ~ aluminum
~k
shal
m e s it necessary to ~ W I I W ~ E # J
ha water through the F-doI'ing,
e
t heat. For rapid forming
-Ids. This should t
~ulus,ano ml;
wS
datb+*uw+
B&kn
.~~~
paitem. initla
j
should be considered.
L-%
f'v
Air M
holes
COOLlfdCl DUCT
Mold plugs
1
can
wit
alti
ma,
is e
incj
fac~
8 7 1
<; t
nical F
-
Vacuum, Air
I
'
64
process.
Vacuum, Air P
Mechanical farming
mica1 B P ~ S
Compressed Air
Continuous CLamP
Plastic Sheet
Mold
"
Air Vent
Ywuun Ducts
43. EWafgedemstw&i@
v k of~a reprochetiondetail abtahedby pressure
Ctq?) and vwum fonmisg @tm8113).
'
L
Mechanical forming
from
distol
male
mold
candsctive r n d molds c
n n o d i . M y controlled
The qplir:&on of mold heat
~fsuch a hi
ie migh
nother possltal
losen, to alten
~olant.The wa
le importa
one realize
' ' :ne shou~a
Eibility c
engineeril exceeding the
pt at higher p
-one of the111c;i
:speed of heat
lply defined a
lse experience
~s I second coo11
e above example.
ning production ti
tion in running speed
served cooling
wmtctr to the expected
s, derived from ti
:t between metal
:dly reduced. Limitec
r crystalline n
?s that impede coolini
rime instances it may pay tu L
rming temperatures. s~lcl
Icooling time will all
more, on rollming cycle only one cooling cycle We
the help of m ~ l t Ilc;*
, ~ ~ ~
n described in Chanter'
'-
.,.,
&est ( 4 2 wide*numb
a mld temp-
of
"
'.
IV.
f.BLA
if;
L
. 4.
II
75
76
Trimming of T
Tookfor trimming
w Parts
77
E
&!m
4
@!
se theythe
do not generate many dust particles. However,
popularity that routers and saws have gained.
E O ~ $&ed
b f \ ~ e ~ ~ l o s i c sother
m d s h e e ~ v e very
n thick
.
&*
--
F to prevent
I
,
-s-on
Thermoforming Equipment
wand
g
:
--
MD 48612).
Shuttle thermoformer
Therrnoforming Equipment
87
cools in mold B.
ennoformers have an intermittent film-feed me&to the next position after completion of the forming
of drive systems are employed to obtain smooth
Figure7.8. Horizontal shuttle mold machine.Sheettravels vertically downward. Molds
shuttle left to right. Forming station ;emaim s W i 0 n (w-Y
~
of F%-Js&~
& Equipment, h.
1978).
,
ntinuaus thermoformers are depicted in the followFor thin films, efficient cooling can take place while the plastic
remains on the mold. In other cases, after adequate rigidity is attained to
allow removal of the part from the mold, final cooling is canied out down
line by forced air convection.
The output of formed parts can be nearly doubled when two cooling
cycles in a row are utilized. This may iy especially necessary when
working with materials of low thermal diffisivity, such as polY~ro~~lene.
m e previously mentioned shuttle-mold principle has, therefore, been
applied alm to continuous thennoformers by utilizing horizontally or
vertically reciprocating mold pairs. As shown in Figures 7.8 and 7.9, the
heated sheet travels v e ~ c a l l ydownward (Zdirection), whereas the two
Therrnoforming Equipment
Heating elements
Calrod Standard. Ceramic and quartz optional.
PID Heat control (optional)
PID Heat individually controls up to 48 thermocouples and 84
heat zones. Heaters can be assigned to different thermocouples to
match the heat zone layout to the product. Tunnel length and width
can also be adjusted by turning off heaters as part of the product
recipe. All parameters are part of the product recipe, stored on hard
disk for fast access. MP 11's optional video control shows configuration of the tunnel, all temperature setpoints, and all actual tem-
'
Themdts&w Equipment
Thermoforming Equipment
'
104
Themofarming Equipment
105
SP~P
Prsokagina:
Heal~ng
Stallon
Web feed
sysiem
Package
separallon
Load~ngslatton
Figure 7.28. Small thermoform packaging machine (courtesy of Paul Kiefel GmbH
Thermoformmaschinen, D-83395 Freilassing, Germany).
VACUUM,
h' *re
Themoforrning Equipment
~icro~rocc@ors
and the-now at low cost available-personal computers have the advantage that they can be programmed to automatically
and continually readjust certain processing conditions to correct for
inevitable aberrations, such as gauge thickness, heater output, and other
variations, detectable by sensors attached to the machine.
F;
ALL THERMOPLASTIC
load-bearing ~ q w i t y To
. understand these relationships it becomes
h o w how temperature changes affect the physical propernecessary
to
. plastia. We are too much accustomedto assume that our everyday
materials, suph tiis wood, concrete, glass, metals, and textiles, remain
unchanged b&ween 0 and 200F.
i.
I
I
112
113
Specific hear
There ;
of differe
116
Heat offusion
117
Thermal conductivity
There are also differences among plastics in regard to heat conductivity. These values are listed as Btueftlsq ft.hr."F-the num
which are conducted through each square foot in 1hour if the
difference is 1F and the thickness of the piece is 1 foot. Th
values between plastics and metals is apparent. Espec
sheets are being formed, the low~onductivityof plastics
heat energy transfer. With excessive heat inputs the plastic su
blister or start to scorch,even though the center region has not Y
its softening stage. That is why sandwich heaters are recommen
why a brief delay between the heat and forming cycle may
for letting the heat soak into the center of the sheet. ~ccordingto
observations heating times can be reduced for heavy-gauge sheets w
shorter wave radiation (visible light), which peneQtes deeper into
sheet, is being employed.
Thermal expansion
118
Water absorption
shrinkage to final dimensions will take days, because the rate ofrecvstallization decreases as the temperature drops. Rigid plastics will stop
crystallizing once cooled below a certain temperature. Proper design of
the mold-cooling system can ensure uniform cooling, thereby forestalling warpage in formed parts.
Thermal Wfbdvity
The use of the material constant, thennd diffusivity, would be ideal
for establishing cooling times for thermofonned p m because the time
required for cooling the heated and formed plastic sheet is propaioaal
to the second power of the material thickness and inversely proportional
to its thermal diffusivity. Furthermore, tbermal diffusivity is clearly
defined by its relationship to other establishable constants:
Thermal conductivity
x Specific heat However, a problem arises when one considers that all three materid
constants are not constant over the whole temperature range encountered
in thermoforming. In addition, the latent heat of fusion becomes absorbed
into the thermal diffusivity too. Therefore, published values for thermal
diffusivity vary widely, depending on the temperature limits selected fm
their determination.
Thermal stability
119
water absorption
~h~rmoformable
plastics vary greatly in their capacity to absorb water.
some plastics, such as the polyolefins, absorb almost no water, whereas
and nylons may absorb it assiduously. Although no problems
based on water absorption may appear under normal conditions-on
occasion unpredictably-it can intermpt production. Therefore, it is
important to understand this phenomenon. Freshly extruded film and
sheet tend to be completely dry. Even if a sheet were submerged in water
period of time, the material would still be practically bone
absorbed just at the surface will rapidly dry off during heating
e-absorbed water will only slowly permeate
sheet. Although listed water absorpafter 24 hours of submersion at room
ay occur only after weeks or months.
Depending on the relative humidity of the ambient air, the water
content of a sheet-if stored detached freely-will vary significantly.
Fortunately, several months of high humidity are required for moisture
@penetratetightly stacked sheets or rolled film. Problems may arise only
a weekend or other lengthy producwhen warm moist air enters the cool
The slow rate of water permeation represents also the cause of diffid t i e s during thennoforming. Although the moisture in thin films or on
@B surface of sheets will rapidly escape during heating, the absorbed
s stays trapped and vaporizes inside
ue haze or bubbles of various sizes. The result
ill appear to be hazy or foamy and display a
ing with the thickness of the sheet, a drying time of one to several
in an air convection oven at a temperature below the heat distortion
eets must be dried, individually supported,
ly, for many processors this is not worth
st discarded. Probably it would be more
pped in paper only) for a period twice
high humidity (months or years) in a
d dry, heated room. If only a few pieces
and no ovens are available, drying can be accomplished in
ofoming equipment by the use of several repeated very brief
ycles. It is always advisable to keep rolls and sheet stacks of
120
121
ot-
known pc
tionally tl
sionally s
that are b
vroducts r
exposures 911 t
ing mass.
By exchant
Iments ;
rial will crystallize into a completely white appearethylene glycol with butylene glycol the chain
~ ~ rof this
i composition
~ s
are semicrystalline
NUCLEATED PET
A:
,
~ m r #A
e
fallizationP
a sheet.
On the
125
There are two reasons for the thermoformer to become familiar with
the various processes employed by manufacturers of film and sheet
materials. First, different processes may require variations in formulation, such as stabilizers and lubricants, and they usually demand polymers of different molecular weight and melt viscosity. Second, the
suitability for thermoforming of materials from different manufacturers
may vary. Changes in thermoforming processing must invariably be
made when using film or sheet of different origin, even though the basic
plastic material remains the same. These differences are primarily caused
by variations in melt viscosity and frozen-in stresses. Stresses released
during the thermoforming process may also have an effect on shrinkage
or warpage of formed parts.
Most available sheet materials are produced by the screw extrusion
process, which employs medium to high molecular weight polymers that
should be subject to minimal heat stress. Because pull-down is required
to maintain a constant thickness, the produced sheets contain a certain
degree of stretch (approximately 10%). This will become noticeable when
the sheet is being heated prior to thermoforming. The sheet will tend to
shrink in the machine direction (approximately 5 to 15%) but possibly
expand somewhat (0 to 5%) and thus sag in the cross direction. The degree
of stretch can easily be determined by placing a square piece of it on a
silicone or polytetrafluoroethylene-coatedmetal sheet for 15 minutes in
an oven at a temperature approaching the forming temperature.
Thinner films are usually produced by the chill roll casting process in
which the polymer is heated to a higher temperature, but less strain is
incorporated in the film due to the short distance between die and chill
roll.
Polyethylene film and'some olefin copolymers are produced in large
volume by the blown film extrusion process. The melt is extruded
through an annular die and blown up into a very large-diameter bubble.
The film is then collapsed, folded or slit, and wound up in rolls. Because
the polymer is stretched in the longitudinal and transverse direction, the
obtained film has good mechanical properties. These products, however,
differ considerably among various suppliers.
Vinyl sheets, a few polyethylene, high acrylonit~le,and acryl0nitrilebutadiene-styrene polymer sheets have also been produced by a dendering process. This process requires a considerably higher ca~ifal
investment and is, therefore, restricted to very high-volume usages'
Usually, even higher molecular weight resins are used. The compounded
material is first homogenized in high-intensity mixers, planetary ge?
extruders, or on tv~o-rollmills and then the sheet formed in the llp
129
(2) Parts are subject to ultraviolet radiation on the outside, but a lower
cost material suffices to provide mechanical strength. Three outstanding examples in this area are: (a) the acrylic multipolymer film
(see Korad in Appendix C) laminated to acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) or other sheets; (b) coextruded sheets consisting of
acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylateon the outside over (high impact)
ABS; and (c) polyvinyl fluoride film (see Tedlar in Appendix C)
bonded to ABS or other thermoplastic sheets.
determined by the quality of the outside layers of a sheet. Inferiorquality center layers may have negligible detrimental effects, as long
as good bonds between the layers can be ascertained.
(4) No material that could provide all the properties required for the
particular application is available. In food packag~ng,where lowoxygen permeability, low-moisturepermeability, and heat sealability
must be provided, coextruded films have gained wide usage. These
barrier materials.
Mechanical properties
Material economics
veral y-,
long-term performance data should not be overlooked. For
materials, graphs can be found which relate to and sometimes
lohg-term performance. This kind of behavior cannot be expressed in simple numerical values, as the other above-mentioned properties. consequently, even for the expert, it is difficult to apply valid data
for comparisons. The three primary factors should be briefly cited:
(1) Creep, the slow deformation occurring when plastic parts are subjected to a constant force at a certain temperature. This can change
the shape of the part in time.
(2) Fatigue, sudden failure in a part subjected to long periods of cyclic
loading or vibrations.
) Aging, the slow degradation of properties due to the influence of
environmental factors (temperature, chemicals, radiation) acting on
the part material. Exposure to strange environments combined with
external loading may cause sudden failure, which is more related to
ntal stress cracking.
132
Regrind utilization
133
This formula is based on the fact that when materials are replaced,
dimensional variations are, at first, not a factor. However, because the
replacement material may result in differing properties, additional aspects can affect the actual part cost. Two of these should be elaborated:
(1) Rigidity: Most parts used for any structural application (including
packaging) are designed for certain minimum rigidity values at the
highest temperature of use andlor a minimum resistance to impact.
Therefore, if the replacement material is superior in these respects,
reductions in wall thickness should be considered concurrently.
(2) Processing: Shear resistance and heat stability (among other properties) will greatly influence extruder output and the reprocessability
of trim regrind. The latter is especially important for many thermoforming processes. Again, if the replacement materiJ ensures either
higher outputs or higher yields, savings in processing could be
realized.
Sheet weight:
lb
= Length, in.
sheet
0.1923
P*
are made on a roll-fed, thin-film machine or heavyEhmmd~smer.This necessitates, unless just,a few pieces are
134
~hermoforming
Materials'
Chemical Descriptions
I:;
Acrylics
cs
man that they consist only of carbon and hydrogen atoms and do not
n-.
Therrnoforming M&tia$'
Chemical Descriptions
Stymrre polymers
139
olefin monomers have
that can generate poly-
Thermoforrning hbt&&'
141
Chemical Descriptions
lities. B ~ l wwell
q
\ '
ies
zlati
I acc
rhez
Ling
3po
eve
C01
me
it bi
%C
mt
L ~ S I
@Y I
On
Transparent materials
available
coT. and
Fiber-reinforcedthermoplastics
$listed in Appendix C.
Translucent Plastics
ui
Acrylic
Cellulose acetatet .
Cellulose propionate
Cellulose acetate ktyrate
Ethylene-vinyl aleb@kcopolymer
Polymethylpentem
Ionomer
Polystyrene
Styrene-butadiene copolymer
Styrene-acryloniuile copolymer
Polyvinyl chloride
Nnylidene chloride &polymer
Polycarbonate
1
Polyethylene tgr=phthalag
Polysulfone ,
Pol~ar~lsulfone
Polyethylene
Polypropylene
Polyallomer
High-impact polystyrene
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
terpolymer
Polyvinylidene fluoride
Polyamide
Fluorinated ethylene propylene
copolymer
Polyethylene terephthalate
Pdybutylene terephthalate
Polyarylketone
Fm
Barrier materials
147
will also appear clear. This can be achieved through the addition of
microcrystalline nucleating agents.
Barrier materials
Barrier materials
149
L-vl'm~i~t~lc
ue goods the
.cal Co. ca
ng film. The same
is utiliz
The specia
f scaven mi
lr vacul
sed cor
a product of u
Amoco Chemicals (Chicago, L)unaer
.- ..ater-containing content requires a steal., mLb,,,
150
Therm~formin~
Materials' Chemical Descriptions
(1) High-density polyethylene inside low-density polyethylene to increase stiffness and reduce loss of moisture
(2) Acrylonitrile copolymers inside polypropylene to produce gas b
rier properties
(3) Ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymers inside nylon or polypropyle
to obtain gas and aroma barrier properties
(4) Vinylidene chloride copolymers inside high-impact polystyrene
polyolefins to obtain gas and moisture barrier properties
(5) Nylon within lowdensity polyethylene to obtain gas and moistu
barrier properties.
As some of the distinct packaging structuresjust two examples sho
be cited:
(1) For blister packaging of pharmaceuticals 2fluomethylene, 2-mil low-density polyethylene,
vinyl chloride laminate, each bonded with a thin adhesivelay
recommended.
(2) An old competitive material, the regenerated cellulose film
phane, coated on both sides with nitrocellulose lacquer (the
synthetic multilayered packaging film) should be mentioned as
first moisture-resistant, gas-, and aroma-barri(;r film.
The structuring of barrier films has been enlarged by increasi
number of layers to five and seven. The development
for packaging applications is still progressing, an
market domination-partly initiated due to customer
already taken place during the last 10
names (old and new) are listed alvhabeti
Barrier materials
Barer
Byne.
Lama
-Camm
Modic
MXDt
Mylar
Polyvinylidene-fluoride-based
(PVDF) tie-layer resin for nylon
12 to PVDF
Acrylonitrile-methylacrylate
copolymer, rubber modified
Coextrudable ethylene
copolymer tie-layer for
multilayer barrier structures
Coextrudable tie-layer
material for Barex
Ethylene-vinyl alcohol (60 to 75
molQ) copolymer
Co. Biaxially oriented, high
barrier polyvinyl alcohol film
onal Urethane prepolymer adhesive
Ethylene-vinyl alcohol
copolymer, laminated within
nylon or.polyolefin films
Coextrudable grafted polyolefin
tie-layer material
Aromatic polyamide highbarrier resin
Polyvinylidene chloride coated
(both sides) on polyethylene
terephthalate film
Coextrudable ethylene copolymer
tie-layer for multilayer barrier
structures
Vinylidene chloride-vinyl
chloride copolymer film
solvent-sofubleainylidene chloride
copolymer for high-barrier coatings
Amorphous nylon resin
(hexamethylene diamine and
iso/&rephthalicacid polymer)
sladitive for ethylene-vinyl
dcohol copolymer for
152
153
Selar RB
DuPont Films
SIS
Shell Chemical
Soarnol D Morton
International
Aristech Chemical
Unite
its effectiveness
environment and
108-10'2
103-lo8
Thermoforrning M&#V
Chemical Descriptions
\
b gmund, Wfi4 an
~ ~ m a d g a $ e h a v e b owt of t
md appjicationof v&ws them
under expenditureof
c d processes into a useful pxv&&,
No problems &~ulQexist with IQ
tmse ~f f w o y generated was
such as sheet and film edge trims p m ' f h t d in-rbe extrusion paces
hag a the mgrttld is
01~831
and well mixed in a constant propo
W-the M n material. U the dormer has to c o b t the
con-
ch
+as t&
biomass dais,
intcr~tht2mtfiment
he chap
Thermodoming
Chemical Descriptions
157
To+~#pkrsrics
case of fire.
to viobnt o M u n e o n s in
ExtraMy f l m a b 1 pla&.cs,
~
m h as nirocellulm, have Iwg been
m h d . Makwn plastics am about gn a pas with the above-mentioned
other circum~tances,
q d c 9natural materials. Hawever, dm to
&,
afpbtics
&becoming
a involved m fires seems to be higher.
tias am mw available cornwith flame
rewant i u e i m k l3eawe t b m contribute
r s a n e proprties, and make processing more
,
etiffkwlt, they @re4 only when necemary.
n m k d Wmtw qrts for the detmnkatjesn of flammability '
hm multipiied tial ally during the l a dec&.
Wl, they cannot
dnpkmte di the possible fim d m .This becomes cbar to all those
who want to start a f
hwithot&reso&@
to gasdim. For the beginning,
the fuel must be available in a s u f f i c thin
~ form (pslper, film, or small
sticks) to raise its tempemre beyad i@bmuddwampdtion point.
bular
e hi
_ _ . A *
..
th r h&& -tat
of hydrogen atoms exhibit hig
ikmM with a low content. T k w two extremes
side and t
h W y arom
m
now
available, should be employed
."-#
- - widely
contact can be anticipated.
More worrisome
the themud
nave illso D
ng conditions.
nn a cormive acid.
'&%the padaging field by improper
'!_',.,
'..
,.
,*
ihermc
I;C&e
ilthrming
~ m eshapes
d
can be obtained without @euse of a mold.
the uniformly heated sheet is sealed to a plenum
vacuum atd
box or table). If either vacuum
chamber, the pressure difference will
outward. To repeatedly obtain the same
ssure must be controlled for each piece
Figure 10.1 depicts
Ive that regulates the
of thce perimeter can
102ciepicts one part
I wi* a W-dimen-.
Dptical
.
:--7
ihi
Cavityforming
0.20
THINNEST
TOGGLE CLAMP
CLAMPING RING
,
PHOTO TUBE UNIT
VACUUM BOX
Figure 10.1. Free forming with vacuum (courtesy of Rohm and Haas Co., Philadelphia,
PA 19105).
Figure 10.2.
&ape forming: (a) male mold with heated sheet, (b) and (c) vacuum
zlfter frame was lowered, (d) drape formed part still on mold.
Figure 10.4. Cavity forming: (a) female mold with heated sheet, (b) and (c) vacuum
applied to mold, (d) cavity formed part.
cavity, Otherwise, the process is ideal for fabricating parts wlUl a sturay
frame, because the wall thickness at the frame or edges will remain
close
_ _ ._
pans
i:, p a to the original sheet thickness. The thinning of ccDntoureu
,lLticularly noticeable on sharp inside comers, which, therefore, snoula uc
_^_
iapp"Gu[W
C
1
A -
I I ~ - - ~
mities
Y
are to be uspd for cavity forming, no special provisions
!A a
165
Bilkw drapefoming
Themoforrning Processes
kshould neither mark nor cool the heated sheet during contact.
If ory& wants to use a male mold for producing the same part, a
alanced distribution of the material can be obtained by utilizing anb r modification supplementary to that used in plug-assist forming.
rf these processes is called billow drape forming or reverse draw
ng ( s e e - ~ i ~ u r10.8)
e and the other process i; termed vacuum
snap-b@ fmming.
f i e b t e d sheet is first sealed to the plenum chamber and a bubble is
Figure 10.7. Plug-assist forming with cavity mold: (a) heated sheet inserted between
mold and plug, (b) details of mold showing efficient air removal through slots and
grooves, (c) mold raised and plug inserted, (d) vacuum applied to mold and part formed.
Plug-assist forming
166
Themadwming Processes
extended outside the box by air pressure. This will stretch the sheet,
resulting in a spherical shape thinnest at the apex. When the male mold
is lowered, it will first contact the thinnest part of the sheet at the apex
of the bubble. On further closing, some of the air must be vented, as the
bubble decreases in size and eventually reverses itself completely. The
final forming of the article is again done by a vacuum drawn through the
male mold.
Snap-back f
o
m
Twin-SRastfoming
169
air cushion fisl front of this plug. The billow will be reversed in a folding
or rolling &mr while the plug is l o w d pgure 10.1Ofb)], After the
plug reaches its frnal position, located at a set distance from the female
mold, a vacuum is applied to the female mold, and the forming and
cooling of the article are completed.
Trapped sheet pressure forming
Another thermoforming process that has captured a very wide application is the trapped sheet pressure forming process. It is the method of
choice for thin, biaxially oriented materials, such as polystyrene or the
polyolefins. If highly oriented sheets are clamped only in frames and
heated, the liberated retractile forces may easily lead to excessive thinning or rupture of the sheet in certain areas. In the trapped sheet pressure
forming process (Figure 10.1I), the sheet is primarily held by vacuum
to a porous heater plate heating the thin sheet rapidly and uniformly. The
edges of the sheet are restrained to the female mold. The sufficiently
heated sheet is rapidly depressed into the cold mold when the vacuum is
switched to air pressure. By using an elastic seal and equipping the molds
with steel knives, trimming can be accomplished through a brief additional exertion of pressure. This process represents the fastest thennoforming method.
n
Twin-sheet forming
For twin-sheet forming two sheets of plastic must be heated. They are
then inserted together between an upper and lower female mold half,
illustrated in Figure 10.12. The pressure of the closing molds will weld
at the circumference the two sheets together An opening or hollow
;tllows air to enter. Forming can be done either with compresscd
'1
Figure 1U.1
uressure fon
POssibi
low we
the rnt
Qateri;
k con;
components.
The processes described up to this point utilize a vacuum or an air
pressure limited to practically 14 psi. Although these pressures suffice
to shape a heat-softened plastic sheet or film into rough contours, they
cannot force the plastic into distinct engravings and low- or high-relief
designs of a mold. However, many of these outlined forming methods
can accomplish that if the relatively feeble vacuum force becomes
Mechanical thermoforming
'OC-
that
the
aofa
'
1
,-
174
.'
HED-~~IOLD
FORMING
s it possible to maintain
local mismatch between
rocess for making egg
tics are formed, it is
mmodate the thickest
yield laterally within
SUP FORMING
,+&.,
thermoforming processes
Adjusting ~RWBA'
parametens
pn a new w h i n e , an
'a
a&e'Ule rckguired
LEXAN
a?z=G?ZL
n*ssr*..
%
$87
m
1
----me
,
,
,
sheet and film
THERMOFORMING TROUBLESHOOTER
1
I
well WOEthe satisfactory material runs out. Under no circumstances s h h d the old material be ueuscd to the last sheet. It is only possible
troubles on vwiations in material if samples from
material can be submitted to a laboratory. One
t of always retaining at least a dozen sheets of the
se can either be used--in case of trouble with the new
hine settings are all right or otherwise
tests conducted side by side with both
old and new rxWxial will show differences in:
(1) M a t e r k ~ e n s i o n s sheet
,
gauge uniformity
(2) Surface i ~ r f e c t i o n s
(3) Degree of;a$entation (affecting shrinkage and distortions)
After ascertain* that the above conditions are praperly m& it is best
to follow the m a t w ~upplier'smcommendations. Invariably, they will
stress in their brq#a&i which conditions are of importance and which
must be followed.'%n praxss contiitionsare altered, it is wise to keep
record of it. In a shoae+@, one am compile one's own troubleshooting
guide, which will l e d @?avery high percentage af c o m t assessments
~bablythe
iagthfd
wall thicE
ng, and pn
tions, all t
:ss must bt
:t may unl
d may turn
I The desig
?art's applicati
the overall de5
of environmer
~ermoformed1
rials were rank
to everyday envir
Such a listing \
noplastics, (b) pl
er), (c) thermoset
define the envin
:e, since those conaltlons
kart's use, e.g., durinv tr
itions, rough handling
lanical stresses form
"" Or pressures, flexing, impacting, ana vibratio
cs are quite sensitive toward changes in tempb,,,,,,
8s aggressive chemicals. Combinations of these influc
their application or at least require the selection of a higl
nore costly grade. Low-temperature exposure endangers brittlei excessive dimensional shrinkage and high temperatures, pos183
I
184
D-
Considerations
Assembly d bonding
185
LLi
,',.
'
,-.
'
.--
'9 . .
, ,
.'
..
The
orby t
and Ei
Iimita
ing mi
washers ?
sheet can
Probed ta I
within tolg
additic
Design Considemtions
i : .
; ,it2,'4
fixtures must be provided for rolling out the air bubbles and maintaining
the desired shape while the resin cures under exothermic conditions.
Such fixtures may be constructed from wood or reinforced polyester
resin without the need for labodans smoothing of the outer surfaces. A
thermoplastic sheet that is compatible with the unsaturated polyester
resin must be selected. The contact surface might have to be cleaned,
roughened, or coated with an interlayer to ensure a lasting bond and
@ extended use of such parts. Figure 11.?
b @&process.
rermoformed container which has provisions For properly stacking and
of Portage Industries Corp., Portage. WI 53901).
I b ,
E:
k
1 .
rL.
?'
194
195
VAJ. b this s a a ~ h s s
(Newport
ab lowe tempem-
197
to^,
materials mu& be free of surface irregularities, and lubrication is essential. The elastic spring-back is considerably larger t h that experienced
with metals. 'Iherefore, in many cases the extent of forming with plastics
must be exaggerated. Sometimes, excessive frozen-in stresses will have,
to be relieved by solvent vapor treatment or by annealing.
Packaging contahar
of dif-
Al
deve
~ m w t d m b e ~ w ~ ~ ~ c i a
Prm
pild
and
conti
chapter.
halv~
by P
P W
gy
200
0.55
O M
354CI
I80
O,M,O
OIIC1,S
1QP-180 2-3
14543B
1-
0.4
1-7
AW.8
1151QO
ll!s-@s
445
285
081P
10-15
2-7
D,tP
11-17
ll-IT
1-2
0.12
116(~p$)P10-240
189 pi) -280
182-140 3 3 4 5
1
s
4454%
l7waE
?7%2LX
%@-&XI
pwm,mu
~ptjefkwimide,PES
pd@hemIm,Pm
M H - &
PEEK ~ B ,
'
I .OB
4.3
1.3
1.2
1
1-54
IS4
7.3
6.7
6.7
1.7
1.5
1.2
12
1522
~0.01
<0.01
0.01
0.92-0.93 0.50
0.950.96 0.45
0.904)91 0.35
9-11
0.014.1
0.92-0.94 0.70
2.5
4-3
1.05
1.06
1.08
1.02-1.08
0.44
0.46
0.86
0.W
1.6
1.7
3.3
3.4
1.50
1.3
2.15
0.35
1.9
10.05
76
1.27
1.F1.4
0.98
0.60
4.5
2.5
0.34
,4
0.05-0.15
5-10
0.01-0.03
0.05
0.11-0.19
3-7
0.24.4
5-10
4-14
0.01
0.1M.7
6.5
IWgW8~On
hl* @m3tramrni&oll
1-3
1.15
0.1-0.2
1.50 5.8
1.80 7.0
4.40 1$,8
136
/.
t.
-Msterlal
cedlulm ffltns
1. Wlulose m e fCA)
2. Cslluloseacete~~t~(CAB)5-9
3. R e g e n e r ~ ~ , o o a t & 8-18
50-100
15-40
4Q-70
2040
w4
8. IOnOmer
Halogen atam oantainingRlms
S. w
l chl019de.rigld Ipn=]
10.Poryvinyichloride, plestidzed
1 1. Pdy&i fluaide
12. Fluethybnepropyene
(m
7-10
24
8-11
80-100
110610
tE-575
N.A
5-10
2-15
1O!X3OQ
XI200
BQMX)
180
2000-2500
210
300400
S100
5W1000
15-20
20-750
3.2
10-20
1040
' 0.25
30-60
75-3000
2-5
11.1
3-1 5
957
140-160
135-150
140
150
300350
3060
500
0.5
215
50
900-1400
50-200
25-100
0
3
300
11
13. ~ t ~ i f l w x ~ e n e
5-10 56150 23-33 33o-wl
2.5-40
14. EtIqiemio h M f l u m aap.IEmE)
1
150-250 35-40 3!5o-mu ~ 1 3 0 0
BlPudrrffyor21#rfedmms
15. W V W COPP)
7-24. 30308
1600-1500
5-10 '
16.
6-12
3-30 13-35 27Mjoo
5-26
17.Pdyme(hylmethaaylete,(PMMA) 8-12
5-20
340388
18. F!oly(&ylet?a tmphthalate)
m(m)
PPrn
(PJdC)
21. F'dymlfde (nylon 6)
Other Important films
22. Qpolye~W(PETG)
23. l'dymbxprts (PC)
'
8-16
70350
7-20
2Q-40
3o-iXl
8.6
400
9
&lo6
35-43
8-14 25Q44 1313
1
1
f
j
Q
1
m
1GfN-llm
(2min)
Man-
Pmw
p%mmkm-anlalw
Carp.
O p q a supam&Sembpkdline
--
AmoooChemicafs
wcmltcal
&&,lfl
&&I.Inc.
auyWhermapl,laminate
~~
248F
wcm==mm-~@
HlgWieatpdywtmate
Co-CXt~resSn
~~r&n
PoIy&&dme
-mY=w,
~
p
Q
E
y
m
-
&
p=miWi
r aw
a l3w
r ksam
B & % f i b ~ r r r z l t h l ~ .~ ~ 31PF
M
Glass fiber mat rdnf, ameKph.enginwing ptastic shad
2WwF
5 P Chemicals lnc.
(Food) packaging
Dow Chemical
Bayer Corp.
Shdl Chemical
DuPont Co.
DuPont CoriEvl Products
Shell Chemical
BP Chemicals
GE Plastics
GE Plastics
TW
name
Polymer Cop.
Solutia
Alucobond Technologies
Schulman
Soivay Polymers
Solvay Polymers
Xcona Corp.
Garland Mfg.
GE Plastics
Geon Co.
Polytdrafluoroethylenebased composition
Extruded polystyrenefoam board
(Foamed) p o l y c a r u
lonomer resins - --- '
Mihg
fn;gneered palypropyiemmiin
r-,
nylether copolymer
Use up to 450F
4 .
*m USA
**.
M.k W r C e s
Ph1Ci Chemiml
eb
-.
rr
~a RL
I
l2lPotlt Films
DuPont Films
Segm&Co.
~ m o c ol'dcmmm rod.
Amoco PerformanceProd.
Mitsubighi Gas
Tredegar Film Products
M t d l North America
EastmanChemical
DuPont Fjlw
DuPont F&IS
Durn-
~otyetttylene'terephthalk&film resin
I
High density polyethylenermhn,
m e n e resin
Polyethyleneterephthalate film
Myethylene tefephthalate film msh
Porws, machinable Mocks (4-powderfined epaxy)
P ~ y s u t f o n e / a c r y i o n i t r iday
t~~~
Pdysulfone/polyeth~eneterephthalate alloy
PdydeAn, anhydride grafted
Cornpms&n-raw monodir. oriented HDPE film
Pdypropgtew
Extra-kw densitv oolvethvliene resin
Pdyethyleneterephthaktefilm
P~~
twphthalate film
\finyiidene chloride copolymer coated PET film
Polyethyleneterephthalate film
m-XvlYlene diamine-adoic acid nvlon resin
Moldable potyeathylenefoam
Modified polyphengened d e
PdyphmyteneoAe/nylon alloy
AqiofWte-bu-e-Wene
terpdyrner
P c W m w resin
~th;jen&metha~ic
add cqxdyrnea resin
Ccexhuded polyolefin-poiyamide film
129F
(Food) packagingfilm
Ifaod) p a ~ Q n film
g
Mdd material
~[M"F
ckftmwmdm
MaicJatraMam
Rlm regin
(Food) W n Q
Weat shrink film
High M a r film
OvanaMe lidding
High barrier (co)extrusionresin
.Pulse
..
%f
ri
'irWF
PYrope1
QLF
Quadrax
Quarite
Questra
Radel A
Radel R
Regaltech
Repete
Resmite
Retain
Rexene
Reynolon
Rilsan
Rovel
RoyaEex
Rynite
Rytm
Saranex
Selar PA
Selar PT,
Selar RB:
-- -
Manufacturer
Chemical identikation
Mobil Chemical
Ferro Corp.
Toyo Seikan
AlltedSignal
Elf Atochem North America
Dow Plastics
Dow Plastics
Klockner Pentaplast
Klockner Pentaplast
Klockner Pentaplast
Klockner Pentaplast
ICI Acrylics
Shell Chemical
Millennium Petrochemicals
Millennium Petrochemicals
AtoHaas
Goo4/ear
Polycast Technology
Schulman
Plastic Suppliers
Schulman
Schulman
Dow Chemical
Dow Chemical
Montell North America
Dow Chemical
185F
Heat seal or tie-layer
Albany International
Dow C h e d d
Am~mPerformanceProd..
&num PerformanceProd.
0'8uiliian
Shd Chemical
Bordm Packaging
DOWChemical
Rexene Products
Ids Metals
f Atochem
Uniroyal Technoloav
-. CWD.
~lnir& Technology Corp.
Uniroyal Technology Corp.
DuPont Engg. Polymers
Phillips Chemical
Advanced Elastomer
Dow Plastics
Dow Plastics
DuPont Padcaging
DuPont Packaging
DuPont Packaging
Food packaging
up to 275F (66 psi)
(Food) packaging
275F (66 psi)
210F
Canoes
225F
174F or 156F (66 psi)
444F
W F
High barrier food packaging
Food packaging
Improved coext., high barrier layer
Clear mondayer, high temp. barrier
High barrier concentrate for packag.
(continued)
-- - --
-,-
d:.e:e
GER&K:S::
FlmO-Gl&
'
DuPont Padaging
Emerson & Cuming
'-
e-
Nylon-416 resin
PdycarbonatefABSor polyester alloys
Bastform modified meme mabicanhydrideresin
Static dissipativepolyester
Extruded
foam
Clear s ~ b u t a c l i ~ block
n e copolymer
d-@h-irllpact] p d ~ m e
Polyvinyl &Mde/.ABS allay sheet
I J o l r p h ~ sulfide
e
oompounds
fanomerfilm
~ y l l e n e - m a t add
h ~ salt copotymer,i mresin
Glass sphere syntactic faam
Polyvinyl fluoride film, noworiented
~etrafluoroethylene
'..
Tetrafluwoethylene-hemfluoropropylene copolymer
PerRuoroalkoxy-fluorocivboncopolymer resin
Ethylene-tetraftuoroethylene c o p o m r resin
C
-.
-sing
(1820F),203F
High performancefilm
High performancefilm
---
(Food) packaging
(Food3 pac@wg
535F tooling
-7 -*Food packaging 21z24_3*?
L+-
Packaging .
-=sn-
345F
375-408"F
160F
.-. (continued)
(800)352-7866
W. ~ a ~ m~erttan:
7 . m 42025
. 3 W&hcd Hwse Rd., New Castie, DE 19720
, W E . RaneldphDr., Chicago, IL 60601-7125
46lX W i n n i s Ferry Rd., Apharetta, GA 30202-3914
3801 West Chester Pike,Newtown Square, PA 19073-2387
7350.EmpireDr.,Florence, KY 41042
Independence Mall West, Philadelphia, PA 19105
44 Whippany Rd., Morristown, NJ 07962
925Washburn Switch Road, Shelby, NC 28150
1983 Marcus Ave., Lake Success. NY 11042
3000 CMtinential Dr.North, Mwnt Olive, NJ 07828-9909
100 Bayer Rd., Pittsburgh, PA 15205-9741
9911 Brecksville Rd., Cleveland, OH 44141-3247
4020 Pike Lane, Concord, CA 94520-1297
One Clark St., North Andover, MA 01845
4440 WarrensvilleCtr. Rd., Cleveland, OH 44128
250 Wilaest, Suite 300, Houston, TX 77042
1 185 Ave. of the Americas, New York, NY 10036
101 Railroad Ave., Ridgefield, NJ 07667
PO. Box 5055, Rodcaway, NJ 07866
2040 Dow Center, Midland, MI 48674
2267 West Mill RCf., Evansville, IN 47732-3333
950Stephenson Highway, Troy, MI 48007-7013
Barley Mill Plaza, Wilrrdngton, DE 19880
Chestnut Run, Wilrnington. DE 19805
(506)339-7300
(800)821-9292
(800)626-3366
(800)488-7608
(800)621-4590
(800)621-4557
(610)359-5642
(800)354-9858
(215)785-8290
(800)221-0553
(810)351-8000
w')
(800) a73746
(800)622-6004
(800)331-1 144
(510)680-0B1
(508)686-9591
(800)272-4367
(713)954-4855
(212)3024500
(201)941-2900
(800)631 -5384
(800) 441-4369
(800)438-7225
(810)583-8000
(302)992-2072
(800)441-0575
(continued)
I W Wdw M.,
WIndwst~,
VA 22801
krsion factors
L
Allen-Bladley Co., 32
AlliedSignal Inc., 141, C210, C211, C214,
(216,221
126. T151,217
ethylemterephthdmc o p o ~T2,9.124,
Amosorb, 149, C210
Anmdhg, 77,173,187.1'90
Apec. 'a
10
Appeel, ' a 10
A@, (210
ARCXI ChemicalCo.. (3212,221
233
B m r g w PO~~BES,
Inc.. C211.221
JhBx, Tt51,621l
sable) poly&qba~
151,f311. 2,152(221%
.
112,138,194 'I292
DuPQot~~T151,IC210,C211,C213.
W 5 , C217, =I%, 222
DnPmt Todlar,C218.222
DWMBB,a 1 2
Dycz12
W l ~ y(212
,
l3wBpak a 1 2
I3&mkdo=#
Bya&Tt6l. OX1
ffusivity.see permeability
Dlmnsional t o l m , 30,35,48,66, 117
C214-217.221
Draft in the mold, 52, TI 80, 185
235
Index
Pnamed prodactg
p
a
l
m
,a
1
3
,103,105,124,130,146
Wogen lamps, 24
Rampshire Chemical Corp., (212,222
~ w dT16,54,60,70
,
mPE,see highdensity polyethylene
Head, see ako thermal
~eddeflectiontemperature, T28,ll2, T202
34.128
Rmhmd C213
Impax, (214
Implex, C214
Inhmd heaters, l o , % , 79
Infrand senSors, 27.30.32
Iqjedhn molding, 50,53,66,114,118, 172,198
Inlie themoformer, 95.98
Insehr, 186
Insufficient draw, TI80
Ionomer resin, 139,145, T206,a l l , C213
Irwin Research & Development, Inc, 89-91,M
lnvin International. 100, 102
Izod impact strength, T202
K-resin, C214
Kadel, C214
Kaladar, C214
KamaCorp.. C214.222
Kapton. C214
Keldax, C214
Kiefel, GmbH, 15.7475,lOO. 105.106
Kleerdex, Co.. (214.222
Klockner Pentaplast, C216.222
Korad, 130, C214
K r a e m & Grebe GmbH,107,108.109
Kraton, C214
Krystaltite, C214
Kydex, C214
Kyner, C214
Lamal, T151, C214
Lamicon. T151, C214
Laminar blend barrier plastic, T151, C217
Laminations, 129, 149
hmisan, C214
Landfills, 155
Laser beam cutting. 74.77
R u h Co., (31%222
~~~Q
chpk4I Tfr6
Lexan, C214
&a-
Qtiddet
RIW, 65,312
faElnin& 43
Ckh&d, C213
cMlbmd. C213
me&
I
-1
a14
L I K ~a~1, 4
l.a&mx,
&4e&dmm=qing
149
M M 3dliw 56
Idman,a
1
4
Mold w
36-59
Mdx3t@l&M&%
,3S.W,%2,4&,@+~%,&69,
got*
~213,
&Ad tempmb~,
RB, 48,7fF, 71
M W m &vmssm,53
M&-,49,71
.
M 4 3 t w f m 1%
~ - a 1 5
Mmauto, Crr., 213, CZ20,223
Moct08 &
1
kc., Tk51, T152, (210,
Ca14, m18, C220,223
M-,
T151, a 1 5
s *'
I.
-*
,.' ' : .
-1
N y l q T9,EB, 1 12.115,
142,145, T l l , C
3
l
-. .
am,
ai%
22%
149,Tl51,
mtli ~ c a l s CZ1Q
, (21,
Mitad M%kc.,
C214,222
Mo&ii(2I-amkd aJCe,,
a 1 1 , a16,m.
Pol~~benylene
ether (oxide), T29, 140,142,
m,C215
Pol~phenylenesulfidede.
115,143,144, ~ 2 0 2 ,
C213, C217,
--
Polyphthalamide, C210
Polypropylene, 7, T9,15, 18.2 1, T28.49.60,
71,86.114,122,137, 139,144,145,
T148,150,194.196,T202, T206,
C210, (212, (213. C215-220
Polystyrene, T9,T16, T28,98, 114, 115, 116,
121,122,139,140,145, T148.168,
~202.~~06,
(3210, ~ 2 1 4a, 1 8
Polysulfone, 21, T29.143, 145, T202, C215,
C217, C219
PolyeetraRuomarbon-coating,18
Bolyt~uoroethylene,T16,60, C211, C213,
C218
Polytrlmethyleneterephthalate ester, C211
Polyunthane compounds, C216, C219
Polyvinyl alcohol, T148.150, T151, TI52
Polyvinyl chloride, 4, T8, T29,49,67,76,
114,115, 117. 127. 134,138,140,145,
Tl48,155,156,199, T202.TU)6,
C213, C216, C217, a 2 0
Polyvinyl chloride alloy, (212-214, C218
Polyvinyl chloride film and sheet, 128, C214,
(217-220
Polyvinyl fluoride. 127.130, C218
Polyvinylacetateemulsion, C212
Polyvinylidenechloride, 127,141, 145. T148,
150, ~151,194,
~ 2 0 6~, 2 1 2~, 2 1 5 ,
C217
Polyvinylidew fluoride, 141,145, T151,
C210, C213. C214, a 1 8
Porous melal molds. 56, C215
Portage Industries Corp., 191
Post-consumer generated waste, 154
PP,see polypropyleae
F%&e&m, 138
Preprinted films, 190
Press polishing, 129
Presswe forming, 50,60,65,85,171,198
Restretching, 37,59.64.164
Prevail, (3216
Primacor, C216
Printing. 190
Pro-Fax. C216
Propagation tear strength of films, TU)6
PS, see polystyrene
Pulse, C216
Punch-anddie trimming,75
PVC, see polyvinyl chloride
Pyropel. C217
QLF, 149. C217
Quarite, C2 17
Quartz, T 16
Quartz-like film, 149,C217
QuesTech Packaging Inc., 195
Questra, 122, C217
Quick change locks, 45
polymetg, 1 1 1 , 1 1 4 , 1 1 7 : ~ ~ ~
Radel, C217
Radiation heating, 3,5, 12,24,25
Radiation pyrometry, 27
Radio hquency interference, 153
Recycling, regrinding of plastics, 73,97, 130,
132,133,134,152-154
Reflection losses. 7
Regaltech, C217
Regenerated cellulose, see cellophane
Repete- C217
Resinite. C217
Retain, C217
Reverse draw forming, 165
Revem draw with plug-assist forming, 167
Rexene Products Co., (217,223
Reynolds Metals Co., C217,223
Reynolon, C217
Ridge forming, 173
Rigidity. 59, 112, 113, 115, 122,130,132,
137,139,194
Rigidizing, 187
Riian, C217
Riveting, 186
Roll-kd themformer, 26,
Rotomoldmg. 114, 199
Rovel. C217
Royalex, (217
Royalite, C217
Royalstat, C217
Rubber diaphragm or pad forming. 175
Rubbery state of plastics, 46.11 1, 112
Rynite. C217
Ryton. C217
Plastics, h.(213,
, C214, CW2,
Sm-1
llldwvw c ~ @ y ~ e r140
,
Skymfeam, C218
Stp011~4,
218
Styroo, a 1 8
Otllluac, C218
a18
Sw-Piex, (218
Surfkc appemnce, tilitem, d d , textsRe.
18.27.35, a,
57.66, 119,120, 129,
T180, Tl11.190.197
SwWe mi&&, see ~ M o ap lm p t b
Surge taak, 58,62,64,109
S&p, C218
SynWactic plawics, 122,138,139, (317
Syn@, C218
Synauic foam, T16,60,165, (218
T-PoraEad 5.0,46
TgrIkl2.2,47
' h r slnmgfb of films, initial and papgation,
Testing
at highesr use temper
pdymecs, 140,141,a l l , a 1 3 ,
41,43.48.53,64,163, TI80
X-TC, C220
Xemoy,
plyethylem
16, IS, lg.& 4%ll6,117, ULRPE, m~uftsrdow-densiq.
e&Wmt of-
XT Polymer, C220
Xydar,
U l ~C219
,
UbW,a19
55,125
T b n m s W d y amtmIId &iikcsl 70
T
B
c
m C219
W&nwvarietions, 3,12,30,39,41,4,51,
T ~ ~ x mat&&,
o W
Ul-w-deesity
plyethylem, 137
hlla4m19
Uln=m,C2U)
Ulmbne, &U)
.
lrcsaatap., a i s , a*,
223
T~~.I~SIBS%T~
C2.k
S0I,,C211, (2216
~ ~ ~ 6 5 . a , M 3
m,a 1 9
Mon, C219