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A sampling device
called a gas trap
removes gas from
drilling returns.
Ideally, the trap
should be capable
of extracting gas
from the drilling
fluid regardless of
the mud density,
viscosity, or gel strength. In practice, only 25%
to 75% of gas is removed.
The gas trap is located either in the possum
belly of the shale shaker or in a sluice box on
a diversion line. The trap must be clear of
cuttings, lost-circulation materials, congealed
mud and other solids at all times since reliable
HC logging needs a consistent flow rate. The
magnitude of carbide tracer responses is a
good indicator of the efficiency of the trap.
MUD SAMPLING
Mud samples are usually caught at the same
time as cuttings. Consistency of procedure,
cleanliness of containers and avoidance of gas
and oil evaporation are the key sampling
problems.
CUTTINGS SAMPLING
Cuttings are used to determine the
stratigraphic
interval, estimate reservoir
characteristics, and identify gas and oil
saturated intervals.
Special samples should be taken whenever
gas-in-mud levels increase and one lag
(estimated as pump stroke) after a drilling
break.
Rapid processing of samples for gas and oil
analysis is essential to avoid fluid loss by
evaporation.
GAS-IN-MUD
After removal of gas from drilling fluid or
cuttings, samples are processed through
instruments design to detect and analyze
hydrocarbon composition.
The typical instruments include:
catalytic combustion or hot-wire detectors
thermal conductivity detectors
flame ionization detectors
gas chromatographs
infrared analyzers
mass spectrometry
The first three instruments provide continuous
total gas analysis. Of these total gas
instruments, flame ionization detectors have
the best sensitivity.
OIL-IN-MUD
At low gas-oil ratios, gas-in-mud analysis may
not detect oil reservoirs. Friable reservoirs may
totally disaggregate and fail to provide any
composite chips to show oil staining.
In these circumstances, oil-in-mud analysis
may be the only basis for recognizing oil
saturation.
Oil can sometimes be seen in drilling fluid as a
colour sheen or as globules on the surface
after dilution with water. Examination of the
diluted mud sample under ultraviolet light may
also detect oil as a surface fluorescence.
Procedures are available to distill out the oil
fraction for liquid-liquid chromatography or
infrared analyzers.
GAS-IN-CUTTINGS
Fresh cuttings are routinely examined for gas
content. A measured weight of sample chips is
pulverized in a fixed amount of water.
The vapour above the pulverized slurry is
analyzed with at total gas detector. The
resulting readings are logged as cuttings gas
or microgas. Note is also made of any oil film
or globules on the surface of the slurry.
Significant amounts of gas-in-cuttings are
characteristic of gas saturation in low
permeability rocks.
OIL-IN-CUTTINGS
Procedures for detecting and evaluating oil-incuttings include:
hydrocarbon odour
description of oil staining
ultraviolet fluorescence
solvent cut test
acid (HCl) test
hot water immersion
pyrolysis chromatography
iridescence
HYDROCARBON ODOUR
Very small amounts of HC can be detected by
odour under favourable conditions. Because
odour can dissipate rapidly, immediate
evaluation is best. Sample descriptions should
record odour in fresh cuttings as "none",
"slight", "fair" or "good".
OIL STAINING
Oil-in-cuttings is indicated by a colouration
called staining. The colour and nature of the
stain depends on the nature of the oil.
Low-gravity oils tend to stain dark brown or
black. Light oils stains can be almost
colourless.
Samples are examined immediately after
recovery and while still wet. A binocular
microscope with standard illumination source
used in conjunction with standard colour
charts is recommended for consistency.
Distribution of the stain with respect to grains,
pores and fracture surfaces etc should be
recorded.
Description of oil staining is not well
standardized and comparisons are difficult but
some estimate of the percentage of stained
chips should be made.
FLUORESCENCE
Fluorescence has been used as a detection
method for crude oil since the earliest days of
mud logging. Fluorescence is the ability of a
substance to emit light after absorbing
electromagnetic energy from an external
source.
All crude oils fluoresce (because they contain
cyclic and polycyclic HCs or asphaltenes.
These compounds are most abundant in
aromatic crudes and least abundant in
paraffinic crudes. The intensity of fluorescence
depends
on
both
composition
and
concentration.
The colour of fluorescence can be used to
roughly estimate API gravity since the
fluorescence wavelength decreases as API
gravity increases.
ACID TEST
Stain in carbonates and calcareous sands can
be detected by immersing cuttings in dilute
(15%) HCl. Bubbles will float oil-stained chips,
unstained chips remain submerged.
HOT WATER TEST
Immersion of unwashed cuttings in hot (>75oC)
water may release oil to float as a film than can
be detected with ultraviolet light.
PYROLYSIS CHROMATOGRAPHY
Heating cuttings and passing the gases
through a chromatograph can detect low
concentrations of HC in low permeability rocks.
IRIDESCENCE
Iridescence on wet cuttings without apparent
staining can indicate the presence of light oil
or condensate.
CUTTINGS TRANSPORT
Ideally, cuttings would be recovered in the
same order with the same composition as they
were cut. This does not happen because
particles travel at different velocities in the
annulus.
The spread of arrival times for material cut at
the same time is minimized by the use of high
density muds with the minimum gel strength
necessary to keep the cuttings in suspension.
Spread depends on particle size, shape and
density. The largest particles are usually from
borehole wall caving. The smallest particles
are likely to be the result of recirculation.
The location of the diversion line for sampling
cuttings can be used to eliminate large
particles from caving and avoid recirculated
fines.
CUTTINGS EXAMINATION
The AAPG Sample Examination Manual
provides a standard for cuttings description.
The manual lists the items to be recorded, a
set of standard abbreviations and a
recommended order in which items should
appear.
The more important items in the AAPG
recommended order are:
LOGGED ITEMS
Rock Type
Color
Hardness
Grain Size
Sorting
Cementation/Matrix
Porosity
Stain
Fluorescence
Cut
Cut Fluorescence
EXAMPLES
SS
SLTST
LS
LT GRY-BUFF
GRY-BRN
LT BRN
FM
V FRI
SFT
MED GR
F GR
C GR
PR SRTD
W SRTRD
MOD SRTD
NO CMT
SIL CMT
CALC CMT
NO VIS POR
FR POR
OIL STN
DK OIL STN
LT OIL STN
YEL-BRN FLOR
YEL FLOR
DK STRAW CUT
SIGNIFICANCE OF SHOWS
The significance of an oil or gas show depends
on a large number of factors including:
Formation oil and gas content
interval porosity, interval saturation, hole diameter
Flushing
overbalance, mud filtrate mobility, formation permeability,
drill bit design (jets), drilling rate
Mud volume
circulation rate, drilling rate
KELLY CUT
After a trip and sometimes after a connection,
the drillstring may not be full of mud and a
slug of air is pumped around the circulation
system.
The air is compressed as it moves downhole
and produces a slug on aerated mud in the
annulus. The aerated mud scavenges gas and
results in an increase in the total gas recorded
at surface.
10
20
30
TOTAL GAS
T
I
M
E
40
50
60
MUD WEIGHT
KELLY CUT
TRIP GAS
CIRCULATION STARTED
70
increase in gas-in-mud
lack of oil stain in cuttings
little or no fluorescence
absence of oil-in-mud
high methane ratios C1:C2, C1:C3, .....
good penetration rate
visible porosity
MUD CAKE
The build-up of mud
solids on the borehole
face
in
permeable
formations is called mud
cake. This limits further
invasion of drilling fluids
into the reservoir.
BOREHOLE GEOMETRY
Rotary drilling creates a
cavity when mud replaces
the broken
formation.
Borehole size and shape
is measured with a caliper
tool. Tools may have from
one to four arms. Each
device measures different
properties.
1- or 2-armed devices
measure the longest axis
of the hole. 3-armed tools
measure some average
diameter. 4-armed calipers record the long-axis
and a short-axis at right
angles. Caliper devices
used with other wireline
tools when their response
depends
on
borehole
geometry.
TEMPERATURE DISTURBANCE
Drilling fluids are normally warmer than
shallow formations and cooler than deep
formations giving rise to temperature
disturbances around the hole.
This may effect some wireline logs where the
region sensed is close to the hole (e.g. microresistivity).
Bottom hole temperatures change with time
and when drilling circulation is stopped they
return to their natural equilibrium levels.
Temperature logs in wells are mainly used for:
determination of geothermal gradients
location of fluid inflows
location of artificially fractured zones
location of casing leaks
location of primary cement tops
STRESS DISTURBANCE
Vertical stresses are readily estimated from
depth and specific weight:
v = .h
Horizontal stresses are generally unknown but
can be deduced from well-wall damage in
deep wells called breakouts.
The elastic stresses
around
a
circular
opening
in
an
axisymmetric
stress
field
are
readily
calculated.
In weak materials, the
material around the
well may collapse
producing a "plastic"
annulus where the
stresses are reduced.
WELLBORE STABILITY
The borehole wall must support the loads from
both the in-situ stresses and the pressure of
the wellbore fluids. Failure can enlarge,
reduce, fracture or collapse the hole.
Fracing (hydrofracture)
occurs when the mud
weight exceeds the
effective
tangential
stress by an amount
equal to the tensile
strength of the rock.
Brittle elastic failure of the rock at the
circumference of the hole occurs if the stress
exceeds the compressive strength. This kind of
failure is called a borehole breakout.
Plastic yield or collapse may occur in weak
materials such as shales and unconsolidated
sands resulting in squeezing or caving.
Control of mud weight can prevent wellbore
failure.